Air Pollution

Atmosphere
Troposphere - 0-11 Km
 70% mass of atmosphere
 Air is uniform and homogeneous due to constant circulation of air
masses in this region
 Turbulent layer
 Temp. falls with increasing altitude
 Tropopause – The boundary where change in temperature occurs is
called tropopause

Stratosphere - 11- 50 Km
 QIESCENT LAYER-Inactive and Quiet
 Temperature increases with increase in altitude
 Ozone in this layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation and raises temperature
 It acts as a protective shield for life from injurious effects of
ultraviolet rays

Mesosphere - 50- 85 Km
 Temperature falls with increasing altitude

Thermosphere - 85- 500 Km

 Temperature rises with increase in altitude
 Gases (oxygen and nitric oxide ) split into atoms and undergo
ionization
Air Pollution and Biosphere
 Atmospheric pollutants are mainly present in the
troposphere and lower stratosphere
 0-100 m – Highly polluted. Pollutants are partly absorbed be
vegetation, water surface and buildings
 100-2000m – Lesser pollutants. Turbulent air currents,
drizzle, rain and fog divert and dilute the concentration of
pollutants
 2000-10000m – This layer extends to the top of the
stratosphere. Water vapor and clouds dissolve some
pollutants and bring them back to the earth as rain
Air Pollution and Biosphere
 In the Stratosphere, because of slow mixing in the
stratosphere , the residence time of molecule in this region is
long
 If pollutant can reach or are injected into the stratosphere,
they pose long term global hazards
 Pollutants from volcanic eruptions, nuclear explosions and
photochemical reactions stay in the stratosphere for a long
time
 Large quantity of particulate from smoke from fossil fuels
increases atmospheric turbidity and reduces visibility
Air pollution
 Air pollution is defined as the addition of undesirable material into
the atmosphere either due to natural phenomena or due to human
activity on the earth which adversely affects quality of the air and
hence affects the life on the earth
Sources of Air Pollution
a) Natural Sources
 Volcanic eruption emitting poisonous gases like CO, H2S,
SO2
 Forest fires
 Vegetation decay
 Pollen grains of flowers
Volcanic eruption
emitting poisonous
gases like CO, H2S,
SO2
Forest fires
 Anthropogenic or man made sources
 Burning of fossil fuels
 e.g. Coal, petroleum
 Poisonous gases – CO, CO2, SO2 , oxides of nitrogen
 Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are highly soluble in water
 Form sulphuric acid and nitric acid (acid rain)
 Responsible for destruction of ecosystem
 Vehicular discharges
 75% of air pollution in urban area
is caused by automobile emissions
 Pollution from exhaust gases
 Tetraethyl lead in gasoline as anti
knocking agent
 CO (77%), oxides of nitrogen
(8.4%), hydrocarbons (14 %)and
leaded gas along with particulate
of lead is emitted due to
incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons
 Population explosion
 Emission of greenhouse gases and global
warming
 Rise in sea level
 Destruction and loss of forest cover and
wildlife
 Rapid Industrialization
 Chemical industry, paper and pulp mills,
petroleum refineries etc
 Pollutant- CO, CO2, NO, NO2 , SO2 , H2S
 Agricultural activities
 Insecticides & pesticides used in agriculture pollute air through
air current
 Air -hazardous both to human and animals
 Modern warfare
 Nuclear weapons, Nuclear reactors, nuclear explosion
 Emit radioactive radiations causing extensive air pollution
Types of Air Pollutants
 Primary air pollutants - Materials that when
released pose health risks in their unmodified forms
or those emitted directly from identifiable sources.
 Secondary air pollutants- Primary
pollutants interact with one another, sunlight, or
natural gases to produce new, harmful compounds
Primary Air Pollutants
 Five major materials released directly into the atmosphere in
unmodified forms.
 Oxides of Carbon
 Sulfur dioxide
 Nitrogen oxides
 Hydrocarbons
 Particulate matter
 Oxides of Carbon
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Description: Colorless, odorless gas that is poisonous to air-breathing animals;

(2 C + O2 2 CO)
 forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels e.g. from forests, volcanoes
 Anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and Oxidation of methane in swamps and humid tropics

Major human sources: Cigarette smoking (p. 409), incomplete

 burning of fossil fuels. About 80% (95% in cities)comes from motor vehicle exhaust.

Health effects:
 Reacts with hemoglobin in red blood cells and reduces the ability of blood to bring oxygen to body cells
and tissues. This impairs perception and thinking; slows reflexes; causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness,
and nausea;
 can trigger heart attacks and angina;
 damages the development of fetuses and young children
 aggravates chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and anemia
 At high levels it causes collapse, coma, irreversible brain cell damage, and death
Oxides of Carbon – Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Produced by burning of organic material (coal, gas, wood,
trash, etc.)
 Used by plants for photosynthesis
 No direct effect on health but above 10%, causes global
warming, acid rain and Greenhouse effect.
Nitrogen Oxides
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2)

Description: Reddish-brown irritating gas that gives photochemical smog its brownish color; in the
atmosphere can be converted to nitric acid (HNO3), a major component of acid deposition.

Major human sources: Fossil fuel burning in motor vehicles (49%) and power and industrial plants (49%).

Health effects: Lung irritation and damage; aggravates asthma and chronic bronchitis; increases
susceptibility to respiratory infections such as the flu and common colds (especially in young children
and older adults).

Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of HNO3 can damage trees, soils, and aquatic life
in lakes.

Property damage: HNO3 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings, statues, and monuments;
NO2 can damage fabrics.
 Hydrocarbons
Description: organic compounds with hydrogen, carbon. Contribute to smog. Emitted from eucalyptus,
cottonweed, oak, spruce trees as isoprene.

Major human sources: From incomplete burning or evaporated from fuel supplies in automobiles.
Production of coke and smoldering of refuse piles near coal mines

Health effects:
 High concentrations (500-1000 ppm) are carcinogenic, hence harmful for the lungs
 Inhalation of benzene and toluene causes irritation of mucous membrane
 Inhalation of hydrocarbon vapor increase secretion of mucous thus blocking the respiratory tract which
puts pressure of the trachea and bursting of alveoli membrane might occur
 Combine with nitrogen oxides ad produce photochemical smog that causes eye, nose and throat
irritation

Environmental effects:Yellowing of leaves in plants that are exposed to high levels of hydrocarbon
 Sulfur Dioxide
SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO2)

Description: Colorless, irritating; forms mostly from the combustion of sulfur containing fossil fuels such as
coal and oil (S + O2 SO2); in the atmosphere
 can be converted to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a major component of acid deposition.

Major human sources: Coal burning in power plants (88%) and industrial processes (10%).

Health effects: Breathing problems for healthy people; restriction of airways in people with asthma; chronic
exposure can cause a permanent condition similar to bronchitis. According to the WHO, at least 625
million people are exposed to unsafe levels of sulfur dioxide from fossil fuel burning.

Environmental effects: Reduces visibility; acid deposition of H2SO4 can damage trees, soils, and aquatic life in
lakes.

Property damage: SO2 and H2SO4 can corrode metals and eat away stone on buildings, statues, and
monuments; SO2 can damage paint, paper, and leather.
 Particular Matter
 Organic Particular Matter – Natural
particulate matter present in aerosol e.g.
particulates originating from volcanoes,
dust storms, forest, grassland fires &
living vegetation.
 Inorganic particulate matter – Metal
oxides formed during burning of fossil
fuels, industrial processes, vehicular
exhaust & acid rain.
 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER (SPM)
PM10- Suspended particulate matter of less than 10 micron size is called Respirable Suspended Particulate
Matter (RSPM).
PM2.5 - Suspended particulate matter of less than 2.5 micron size

Description: Variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) small and light enough to remain suspended in
atmosphere for short periods (large particles) to long periods
(small particles; Figure 20-6, p. 441); cause smoke, dust, and haze.

Major human sources: Burning coal in power and industrial plants (40%), burning diesel and other fuels in
vehicles (17%), agriculture (plowing, burning off fields), unpaved roads, construction.

Health effects: RSPM causes nose and throat irritation, lung damage, and bronchitis; aggravates bronchitis and
asthma; shortens life; toxic particulates (such as lead, cadmium, PCBs, and dioxins) can cause mutations,
reproductive problems, cancer.
PM2.5 penetrate deep into lungs and damage lung tissues. Can cause Black lung disease, silicosis.

Environmental effects:
 Reduces visibility by scattering solar radiation;
 Acts as condensation nuclei for formation of clouds, rain, and snow.
 acid deposition of H2SO4 droplets can damage trees by blocking stomata and hindering respiration, soils, and
aquatic life in lakes.
 Toxic substances get deposited on soil and render it unproductive

Property damage: Corrodes metal; soils and discolors buildings, clothes, fabrics, and paints.
 RSPM levels in India are found to exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in many states.
Secondary Pollutants
 Ozone
 PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate)
 Photochemical smog
 Aerosols and mists (H2SO4)
 Ozone
 Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas composed of
three oxygen atoms.
 It is both a natural and a man-made product that
occurs in the stratosphere and the troposphere.
 Tropospheric ozone – what we breathe -- is
formed primarily from photochemical reactions
between two major classes of air pollutants,
volatile organic compounds (VOC) and
nitrogen oxides (NOX).
 Ozone in the lower atmosphere is an air
pollutant with harmful effects on the
respiratory systems of animals and will burn
sensitive plants
 ozone layer in the upper atmosphere is
beneficial, preventing potentially
damaging electromagnetic radiation from
reaching the Earth's surface.
 PAN (Peroxy Acetyl nitrate)
 Smog is caused by the interaction of some hydrocarbons and oxidants under
the influence of sunlight giving rise to dangerous PAN.
 Powerful respiratory and eye irritants present in photochemical smog.
Irritate nose, throat and cause respiratory distress
 Particulates deposit on plant leaves and block their stomata which inhibits
photosynthesis and respiration. This results in reduced crop yield and
retarded growth
 Photochemical smog
 Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants which includes particulates,
nitrogen oxides, ozone, aldehydes, peroxyethanoyl nitrate (PAN), unreacted
hydrocarbons, etc. The smog often has a brown haze due to the presence of
nitrogen dioxide. It causes painful eyes.
 Aerosols and mists (H2SO4)
 Aerosols and mists are very fine liquid droplets that cannot be effectively
removed using traditional packed scrubbers. These droplets can be formed
from gas phase hydrolysis of halogenated acids (HCl, HF, HBr), metal halides,
organohalides, sulfur trioxide (SO3), and phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5).
Meteorology & Air Pollution
Meteorology is the science of weather or study of the atmosphere.
Meteorological parameters can directly or indirectly affect air pollution:
 Primary meteorological parameters –Wind
 Secondary meteorological parameters – Solar radiation, precipitation, humidity
1. Geography
i. Equator is warmer than the poles, hence the winds blow fro equator towards the poles taking with it
the pollutants in the air.
ii. Lands heats up faster than water in the daytime. Air becomes light and rises and the cool air from sea
blows inland. However, at night land and air above it cools faster than the sea and hence the air blows
towards the sea carrying the pollutants with it.

2. Climate
Pattern of weather variation over a span of time
i. Depends on evaporation of water mass
ii. Reflection of solar radiation
iii. Heat storing capacity
iv. Topography of the area
v. Densely populated urban areas trap more pollutants than rural areas,
which form a micro-climatic region. This is due to excessive heat release,
automobile exhaust, industry emissions and concrete jungles.
 Meteorology & Air Pollution
3. Weather - The state of the atmosphere at a given time and place, with respect to
variables such as temperature, moisture, wind velocity, and barometric pressure
i. During the day air on the surface of the earth is heated by the sun. The hot air carrying
the pollutants rises up and the cool air settles down resulting in vertical mixing.
ii. Inversion - A temperature inversion is a thin layer of the atmosphere where the
decrease in temperature with height is much less than normal (or in extreme cases, the
temperature increases with height).
iii. The usual way an inversion forms is by cooling of the surface air overnight during the
winter season, when nights are long and solar heat is lessened by the angle of the sun's
rays through the atmosphere.
iv. An inversion, also called a "stable" air layer, acts like a lid, keeping normal convective
overturning of the atmosphere from penetrating through the inversion. This can cause
several weather-related effects. One is the trapping of pollutants below the inversion,
allowing them to build up forming smog.

4. Wind – Temperature gradient between equator and the poles results in winds.
Winds disperse and dilute gases and particulate matter mainly from point sources
like chimneys.
i. Wind is the natural horizontal motion of the atmosphere. It occurs when warm air rises,
and cool air comes in to take its place. Differences in pressure cause air to move from
high pressure areas to low pressure areas, resulting in wind.
ii. Wind is caused by differences in pressure in the atmosphere. The pressure is the weight
of the atmosphere at a given point. The height and temperature of a column of air
determines the atmospheric weight.
iii. Wind speed can greatly affect the pollutant concentration in a local area. The higher the
wind speed, the lower the pollutant concentration.
Air Quality
Methods for measuring ambient air quality
 Stock emissions – When samples of air are measured on the
spot
 Ambient air quality – Depends on climatic conditions like
velocity and wind direction. A large volume of sample is
required.
 The Central Pollution Control Board has fixed the standard for
ambient air quality in India under the Act of 1981 which has
been revised in 1994.
 This specifies the maximum amount of a particular pollutant
permitted in the air around us.
 Air Quality
Ambient Air quality standards in India, 1994 (concentration is µg/m3 )
Pollutant Time Weighted Concentration in ambient air
average
Industrial Residential, Sensitive
Area Rural & other areas
Area
Dioxide (SO2) Annual Average* 80 60 15
24 hours** 120 80 30
Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2 Annual Average* 80 60 15
24 hours** 120 80 30
Suspended Particulate Matter Annual Average* 360 140 70
(SPM)
24 hours** 500 200 100
Respirable Particulate matter Annual Average* 120 60 50
(size less than 10 um)(RPM)
24 hours** 150 100 75
Lead (Pb) Annual Average* 1.0 0.75 0.50
24 hours** 1.5 1.00 0.75
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8 hours** 5.0 2.0 1.0
1 hour 10.0 4.0 2.0
Air Quality Control Technique
For suspended particulate matter
1. Settling chambers - Devices for collecting dust particles
bigger than 100 mm
2. Cyclones/Multiclones – Uses the principle of dust
separation by centrifugal force. Particles up to 10 microns
are thrown at the periphery and clean air escapes from the
center
3. Electrostatic precipitators – Uses the principle of
charging dust by high voltage current to separate them out.
ESP is simple, cost effective and is widely used in thermal
power plants and industries
4. Filters – The dust laden air is passes through filter bags. It
needs periodic cleaning
5. Scrubbers – Use a liquid stream to remove solid particles
from gaseous pollutants and particulate matter. Appropriate
liquid brings pollutants from gaseous phase to liquid or
solid phase. The liquid has to be treated before disposal.
Scrubbing requires large quantities of water and power.
Scrubbers are of different kinds like; venturi, spray and
impingement.
 Air Quality Control Technique
6. Absorption - This involves the use of liquids (commonly water with additives) to scrub
contaminants from waste gas streams
— In general, absorbers can achieve removal efficiencies grater than 95 %. One potential problem with
absorption is the generation of waste-water, which converts an air pollution problem to a water
pollution problem
7. Adsorption - Solid collecting media with large surface-to-volume ratios, such as activated charcoal,
are used to remove contaminants from waste gas streams
— The most common industrial adsorbents are activated carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they
have enormous surface areas per unit weight.
8. Combustion - Incineration or combustion, is most used to control the emissions of organic
compounds from process industries.
 This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance through the combination of oxygen
with a combustible material at high temperature or a catalyst like Cu, Ni, V, Zn compounds at lower
temperature in the presence of heat. Catalytic converters installed in vehicles use this principle to
convert nitrogen oxides into N2 before emission.
 When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
vapor (H2O)
 Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion can be divided in three categories:
- Direct combustion or flaring; Thermal incineration and Catalytic incineration.
 Ambient Air Monitoring
1. High Volume sampler – Used for the monitoring of PM10 and PM2.5
— Particulate samplers used for collection of particulate matter of 10 μm or smaller in
size.
— Most widely used sampler is High Volume PM10 sampler (HVPM10)
— Standard high volume total suspended particulate sampler with modified size specific
inlet
— Flow controller to trap particles smaller than 10 on a quartz microfiber filter
2. Virtual impactor sampler/Dichotomous PM10
— Device for dividing aerosol particle population into two size fractions
(PM10 and PM2.5) during sampling
— Facilitate chemical analysis of the collected sample on inert teflon filters
3. PM10 Automatic Seven Day Sampler (PASS)
— Used for long sampling periods.
— Two kinds of PASS:
I. High volume samplers associated with a cyclone sampler at the inlet
II. Impacter separation based sampler
 Ambient Air Monitoring
I. High volume samplers associated cyclone
separators
— Air enters the inlet and passes through the cyclone.
— Coarse non-respirable dust is separated by
centrifugal force and collected in bottles fitted at the
bottom
— Fine dust (RSPM) passes through cyclone with air
stream to a filter paper between top cover and filter
adaptor assembly.
— Clean air exits through the blower and RSPM is
retained by the filter
II. Impactor separation-based sampler
— Air is inserted into the sampler from the bottom and
passed through the impactor
— Impactor traps the particulates larger than specified
size (PM10 and PM2.5) as the filter paper pores are
made smaller than the diameter of the particulate
matter
— The air that comes out is articulate free and is
evacuated through an exhaust pipe using a motor
National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM)

 In 1999, the NAAQM program was renamed Nation Air Monitoring

Program (NAMP)
 The objectives of the N.A.M.P. are:
 to determine the status and trends of ambient air quality
 to ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are
violated
 to Identify Non-attainment Cities
 to obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing
preventive and corrective measures and to understand the natural cleansing
process undergoing in the environment through pollution dilution,
dispersion, wind based movement, dry deposition, precipitation and
chemical transformation of pollutants generated.
 The network consists of three hundred and forty two (342) operating
stations covering one hundred and twenty seven (127) cities/towns in
twenty six (26) states and four (4) Union Territories of the country
 Nation Air Monitoring Program (NAMP)
 Under N.A.M.P., four air pollutants have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
 Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2
 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
 Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10)
 The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and wind direction, relative
humidity (RH) and temperature were also integrated with the monitoring of air quality.
 The monitoring of pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly sampling for gaseous pollutants
and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a frequency of twice a week, to have one hundred
and four (104) observations in a year.
 The monitoring is being carried out with the help of
 Central Pollution Control Board;
 State Pollution Control Boards;
 Pollution Control Committees;
 National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur
 CPCB co-ordinates with these agencies to ensure the uniformity, consistency of air quality data and
provides technical and financial support to them for operating the monitoring stations. N.A.M.P. is
being operated through various monitoring agencies.
Air Pollution Control Measures
 Fossil fuel use should be replaced by use of renewable sources like wind, solar,
tidal and biogas
 Enforcement of land-use zoning regulations (closure and relocation of industry
from non-conforming areas, development of green belts/areas).
 Introduction and enforcement of new and more stringent emission norms for
new and in-use vehicles. NAMP should be practiced by the state and central
pollution control board
 Treating flue gases through dry and wet scrubbers & discharging treated gas
using high stacks
 Raw materials which cause less pollution should be used
 Catalytic converters should be used in automobiles
 Tightened and better enforced emissions norms which follow NAAQS leading
to installation of pollution control devices