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Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is the down slope movement of rock, regolith,

and soil, under the influence of gravity, also called mass
movement.
Mass wasting is referred has non-technical term "landslide",
is the down-slope movement of a mass of sediment or rock due
mainly to the force of gravity. The "mass" part of the name
implies that a somewhat coherent grouping of sediment/rock
begins moving downward due to the force of gravity, and usually
in combination with some triggering mechanism such as an
earthquake or rapid erosion of the base of a slope.
The "wasting" part of mass wasting means that a cliff or
mountain slope is diminishing in size, or wasting away. This can
occur suddenly with tremendous destructive force, or very slowly
with only a gradual alteration of Earth’s surface over a period of
many years. Mass wasting, also known as slope movement is
the geomorphic process by which soil, regolith, and rock move
down slope under the force of gravity.
Mass wasting include creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls,
each with their own characteristic features, and take place over
timescales from seconds to years. Mass wasting occurs on both
terrestrial and submarine slopes.
When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its
resisting force, slope failure (mass wasting) occurs. The slope
material's strength and cohesion and the amount of internal
friction between materials help maintain the slope's stability and
are known collectively as the slope's shear strength. The steepest
angle that cohesion less slope can maintain without losing its
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stability is known as its angle of repose. When a slope possesses

this angle, its shear strength perfectly counterbalances the force
of gravity acting upon it.
Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate, particularly
in areas that are very dry or those areas that receive sufficient
rainfall such that vegetation has stabilized the surface. It may also
occur at very high speed, such as in rock slides or landslide, with
disastrous consequences, both immediate and delayed, e.g.,
resulting from the formation of landslide dam.
Factors that change the potential of mass wasting include:
change in slope angle; weakening of material by weathering;
increased water content; changes in vegetation cover and
overloading.
Gravity factor
The force of gravity is downward, towards Earth’s center. As
gravity pulls downward on material comprising a tilted or sloping
portion of Earth’s surface, a translational force is formed within
the slope sediment/rock. This force creates shear stress within the
slope's material, reducing the slope's strength and making it more
prone to mass wasting. So, since gravity is always in effect, there
is always the possibility of mass wasting of a sloped surface. Note
that the steeper the slope, the more in line its material components
(sediment and/or rock) are with gravity, so the more likely is mass
wasting of that slope. See the diagrams below to better visualize
the effects of gravity on slope material.
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Mass wasting is much more likely on the slope shown in this

diagram because the slope is more in line with the force of gravity
than in the top diagram.
Force of Gravity
Rock and or sediment comprising a slope is held together in a
variety of ways, giving that slope its shear strength. This shear
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strength resists the shear stress placed on the slope material by

gravity. Listed below are some of the factors related to a slope's
shear strength, and therefore its ability to resist mass wasting.
If slope material is composed of sediment then mass wasting
can be resisted by:
1. Friction between sediment grains in contact with each holds
the loose grains together. The greater the friction between
sediment grains, then the greater the shear strength of a slope.
2. The presence of a small amount of water which sticks
sediment grains to each other. Note that too much water has an
opposite effect, reducing a slope's shear strength.
3. Plant roots which physically bind sediment grains together,
and anchor the sediment to bedrock. The best situation is to have
a combination of small plants which protect slope sediment from
the impacts of rain drops and water runoff, and trees which send
roots deeply into the sediment as well as underlying rock.
If slope material is composed of rock then mass wasting is
resisted by:
A. the formation of natural cement which locks sediment grains
together (present in sedimentary rocks)
B. Interlocking mineral crystals within the rock (common to
igneous and metamorphic rocks).
A slope composed of solid rock will be much more resistant
to the many causes of mass wasting than a slope composed of
sediment, no matter how many plants are binding the sediment
together. So, given the option, always choose a building location
underlain by solid rock.
CLASSIFICATION
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The movements of rock waste may be either slow or fast. A

classification of movements may be done on the basis of
1. Kind of material moved.
2. Size of the materials.
3. Rate of movement.
4. Water content.
5. Texture of the material.
6. Relation of moving material to the solid surface.
The types of the materials moved are rock, earth, solid
debris and mud.
The classification is essentially based on the amount of water
present in the debris, because water reduces the cohesive strength
of fine- grained materials and act as a lubricant in the down slope
movement of debris. As the proportion of water present in the
debris rises, the slope angle required for the transportation of
materials becomes less and less. In other words, as the amount of
debris in proportion to water present increases, steeper and
steeper slopes are needed for the transport of the materials.
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Mass movements are divided into three groups based on rate

of movement:
1. Flowage.
2. Sliding.
3. Subsidence.
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A. FLOWAGE B. SLIDING C. SUBSIDENCE

Slow Rapid Translational Rotational Falls A. Natural

flowage flowage slides slides (toppling) subsidence
(creep) Earth flows Rock slides Single Rock
1. Shallow Rotational falls
2. Deep Mud flows slides
creep Debris slides
Multiple Debris
1. Soil, 2. Rock Sub- aqueous rotational slides falls B. Artificial
Mass glaciers subsidence
creep
Stone
1. Talus streams
Creep,
2. Rock
Creep

Solifluction

Flowage: When water is present in the debris then the debris

tends to flow down with the water. When the amount of water
present is relatively less, the movement of debris is slow and
when the amount of water is more, the movement of debris is
faster. Consequently, it is possible to identify two sub-divisions.
a. Slow flowage: The ground may be moving down slope at as
such low rate as few centimeters a year or even less, include
Slow flowage is gradual, almost imperceptible down slope
transit of soil and may sometimes take places even under the
cover of vegetations is observed in both tropical and temperate
climate. The rate of downgrade movement may vary from one
millimeter to several centimeters in a year. In most cases, soil
creep is essentially a surface phenomenon in which only the top
one meter or so of the soil is involved in the failure.
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1. Soil creep, 2. Talus creep, 3. Rock creep and 4. Solifluction.

b. Rapid flowage: In the rapid flowage the movement of failing
mass may be easily visible and the mass may travel a few meters
or more a day. The conditions causing flowage in the two classes
may be closely related or entirely different.

1. Soil creep:
Soil creep in which movement is relatively fast (10
centimeters a year or more) and the material involved is mostly
made of rock fragments. It is a account of soil creep that
telegraph, poles and trees are found bend downwards on slopes
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2. Talus creep: Talus or Scree is a slope built up by an

accumulation of rock fragments at the foot of a cliff or ridge.
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2. Solifluction:

Slow flowing of water saturated earth or soil gravity is

known as solifluction is found in permanently frozen grounds.
Solifluction differs from soil creep in water content. In
solifluction the soil movement occurs in almost saturated
condition where as soil creep may start without much water,
due to presence of enough water.
To solifluction the conditions are:
1. The water supply from melting of ground ices and snow.
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2. Slope
3. Permanently frozen ground.
4. Supply of the rock waste.
5. Solifluction is a slower, continuous and surfaceal movement.

B. Rapid flow movement

1. In rapid flow movement the amount of water present in the
debris is more, so that these is through lubrication of the
debris and mass movement takes place principally or wholly
in the form of flow. Rapid movement includes 1. Mud flow,
2. Earth flow or slump, 3. Avalanches, 4. Rock slide or
debris slide and Falls
1. Mud flows: Mud flow is a highly fluid, high velocity
mixture of sediment and water that has a consistency of
wet concrete. These usually result from heavy rains in
areas where there is an abundance of unconsolidated
sediment that can be picked up by streams. Thus, after a
heavy rain streams can turn into mud flows as they pick
up more and more loose sediment. Mud flows can travel
from long distance over gently sloping streams beds,
because of their high velocity and long distance of travel
they are potentially very dangerous.
Debris flows or mudflows

Commonly occur in volcanic areas, where they are called lahars. Mudflows
generally follow established drainage patterns (valleys).
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Road damaged by the mudflow in central Italy.

2. Earth flows (slump):

Earth flows are usually associated with heavy rain and move at
velocities between several Cm/yr and 100s of m/day. They
usually remain active for long period of time; they generally tend
to be narrow tongue – like features that begin at a scarp or small
cliff.
Slumps
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Slumping involves the rotational movement of a material

downward and outward along a curved shearing plane. Or
slides wherein downward rotation of rock or regolith occurs
along a concave-upward curved surface (rotational slides).
The upper surface of each slump block remains relatively
undisturbed, as do the individual blocks. Slumps leave
arcuate scars or depressions on the hill slope. Slumps can be
isolated or may occur in large complexes covering thousands
of square meters. They often form as a result of human
activities, and thus are common along roads where slopes
have been over steepened during construction. They are also
common along river banks and sea coasts, where erosion has
under-cut the slopes. Heavy rains and earthquakes can also
trigger slumps.

Slump Or Slope failure

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Movement of a mass of rock or unconsolidated

material as a unit along a curved surface occurs along
over steepened slopes

Large-scale landslides of the Slump variety have

occurred in the arid and semi-arid. The blocks formed by
these slumps are called Toreva blocks
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2. Rock Avalanches: Any large catastrophic landslide may be

called an Avalanche. They can include broken rock, ice and
snow, usually so mixed that the material term debris is most
appropriate. Debris avalanches are very high velocity flow
of large volume mixture of rock and regolith that results
from complete collapse of a mountainous slope. They move
down slope and then can travel from considerable distances
along relatively gentle slopes and they are often triggered by
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earth quakes and volcanic eruptions.

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B. Rock Sliding: In sliding there is a rapid down slope

movement of principally dried materials. There are different
kinds of slide such as a. rock slide, b. debris slide and c. land
slide.
Rocks falls
Separated rock blocks move down on step
surface of a cliff. These are known as rocks falls.
These are common in mountains areas during
spring season when freezing and thawing is
repeated. They may involve large rock masses and
result in severe loss of life and damage to property.
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Rock falls from steep hillsides frequently disrupt road traffic in the
mountainous regions or when a piece of rock on a steep slope
becomes dislodged and falls down the slope.

In land slide a mass of rock and debris separates from the underlying rock
along a shear plane and most rapidly down slope under the influence of
gravity as a result of failure along the shear plane.

In rock slide and debris slide the failure surface is shallow and frequently
parallel to the surface and when there is mass movement of consolidate
rockes is called rock slide and when there is mass movement of
unconsolidated debris or regolite it is called debris slide.
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Debris falls:-

Debris falls are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil,

regolith, vegetation, and rocks. A rock fall may be a single rock or
a mass of rocks and the falling rocks can dislodge other rocks as
they collide with the cliff. Because this process involves the free
fall of material, falls commonly occur where there are steep cliffs.
At the base of most cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material
termed talus. Debris falls are similar, except they involve a mixture of
soil, regolith and rocks.

C. SUBSIDENCE:- It is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in almost

vertically downward direction which may occurs because of removal of
natural support from the underground or due to compactions of the weaker
rocks under the load from overlying mass.
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Types of subsidence :-

There are two types of subsidence:-

1. Natural subsidence:-
These are the type of landslides which occur usually in low lying area
due to natural activities.

Example:- Plate tectonics (regional changes in land and water)

Karst (chemical weathering of soluble rocks)

1. Artificial subsidence:-
These are type of the landslides which occur usually in low lying area
due to manmade activities.

Example: Mining, loading, oil extraction, ground water etc.

Sinking may vary from a few centimeters to many meters and may be due
either to natural or artificial causes.

Natural causes responsible for subsidence:-

a. Solution of sub- surface rocks:-

Ground water is a active solvent many rocks especially lime
stones, dolomite and gypsum. When such chemically susceptible rocks
support the ground in any given region, there is possibility of dissolution
(partial or complete) of these rocks with the passage of time. This may
eventually results in settling or subsidence of the ground from above.

b. Geological constitution:-
Sometimes the geological region may be responsible for
settling of the ground. Thus, when the layers of weak plastic character such
as those of peat and shale or deposits of coarse sand and silt are over lain by
other deposits, they may result from settlement due to the load of the over
lying material.

Among the artificial causes of the subsidence, the following deserve

special mention:-

Removal of material- It is a matter of common knowledge that

subsidence are settling of the ground is more in the mining and oil extraction
regions. It is because with the extraction of economically important minerals
and also oil and ground water, the ground loses critical support below and
hence sinking take places at the surface. Settling of ground associated with
removal of ground water is a commonly observed phenomenon. In other
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case, ground may contract because of drainage. These are especially true for
swampy regions.

POSSIBLE PREVENTIVE MEASURES

A. Slope Reduction
1. Reduce slope angle

2. Place additional material at toe of slope

3. Reduce the load on slope

B. Retention Structures
1. Plant ground cover

2. Retaining walls and structures

3. Terrace slope (farms)

C. Fluid Removal
1. Diverting surface runoff

2. Subsurface drainage

3. Hot air blown through boreholes (good use for politicians)

D. Others
1. Drive vert. piles into foot of shallow slide (? effective)

2. Rock bolts (used in tunneling and mining, too)

3. Harden soil (dry and bake clay-rich soil)

4. Modify slope geometry, load, and dewatering

combinations

5. Expensive
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Reference

Text book of Geomorphology By Dayal ,

Engineering Geology book by Parbin Singh.
Text book of geomorphology Blooms.

3. Slides

Rockslide: Blocks of bedrock slide down a slope, Generally very fast and destructive
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Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debris slide down a pre-existing surface,
such as a bedding plane, foliation surface, or joint surface (joints are regularly spaced
fractures in rock that result from expansion during cooling or uplift of the rock mass). Piles
of talus are common at the base of a rock slide or debris slide. Slides differ from slumps in
that there is no rotation of the sliding rock mass along a curved surface.

Earth flows Form in humid areas on hillsides following heavy rain or melting
snow, in fine-grained materials (clay and silt). Also occurs at the toe of slumps. Rate
of movement varies (less than 1 mm per day to several meters per day), but may be
long-lived (days to years). Includes the liquefaction associated with earthquakes.
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Avalanche is a flow of snow down a mountainside, though rock slides and debris
flows are also sometimes called avalanches. Avalanches are one of the biggest
dangers in the mountains for both life and property. Many factors contribute to
avalanches. Point-release avalanches occur when the weight of the snowpack
exceeds the shear strength within it, and are most common on steeper terrain. In
fresh, loose snow the release is usually at a point and the avalanche then gradually
widens down the slope as more snow is entrained, usually forming a tear-drop
appearance. This is in contrast to a slab avalanche. Slab avalanches account for
around 90% of avalanche-related fatalities, and occur when there is a strong, stiff
layer of snow known as a slab. These are usually formed when snow is deposited by
the wind on a lee slope. When the slab fails, the fracture, in a weak layer, very
rapidly propagates so that a large area, that can be hundreds of metres in extent and
several metres thick, starts moving almost instantaneously. The third starting type is
a slush avalanche which occurs when the snowpack becomes saturated by water.
These tend to also start and spread out from a point.

As avalanches move down the slope they may entrain snow from the snowpack and
grow in size. The snow may also mix with the air and form a powder cloud. An
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avalanche with a powder cloud is known as a powder snow avalanche. The powder
cloud is a turbulent suspension of snow particles that flows as a gravity current.
Powder snow avalanches are the largest avalanches and can exceed 300 km/h and
10,000,000 tonnes of snow, they can flow for long distance along flat valley bottoms
and even up hill for short distances.

Creep

Creep is a long term process. The combination of small movements of soil or rock
in different directions over time are directed by gravity gradually downslope. The
steeper the slope, the faster the creep. The creep makes trees and other shrubs curve
to reach the sun light. These often trigger land slides because the dirt underneath is
not very strong. The trees most of the time die out because of lack of water and sun,
and these rarely happen in wet climates.

The rate of soil creep down a slope depends on the steepness (gradient) of the slope,
water absorption and content, type of sediment and material, and lastly vegetation.
The rate of creep will take into account all of these factors to decide whether or not
the hillside will progress downward. Creep is what is responsible for the rounded
shape of hillsides.

Water is a very important factor when discussing soil deformation and movement.
When building a sand castle at the beach you would notice that the presence of
water making damp sand aids in keeping your castle standing up. The water will
offer cohesion to the sand which will bind the sand particles together. However,
when you pour a bucket of water over your sand castle or it gets hit by a wave, it
destroys it. This is because the presence of too much water fills all the pores
between the grains with water creating a slip plain between the particles and offering
no cohesion causing them to slip and slide away. This holds true not only for sand
castles but for hillsides and creep as well. The presence of water may help the
hillside stay put and give it that cohesion but in a very moist/wet environment or
during/after a large amount of precipitation the pores between the grains could
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become saturated with water and cause the ground to slide along the slip plain it
creates.

Creep can be caused by the expansion of materials such as clay when they are
exposed to water. Clay expands when wet, then contracts after drying. The
expansion portion pushes downhill, then the contraction results in consolidation at
the new offset.

Vegetation also can play a role with slope stability and creep. When a hillside
contains many trees, ferns, and shrubs their roots can create an interlocking network
that can strengthen unconsolidated material. They also aid in absorbing the access
water in the soil to help keep the slope stable. They also however, add to the weight
of the slope giving gravity that much more of a driving force to act on in pushing the
slope downward. Slopes with the absence of vegetation have a greater chance of
movement.

Design engineers sometimes need to guard against downhill creep

during their planning to prevent building foundations from being
undermined. Pilings are planted sufficiently deep into the surface
material to guard against this behavior.

Solifluction

In geology, solifluction, also known as soil fluction or soil creep, is a type of mass
wasting where waterlogged sediment slowly moves downslope over impermeable
material. It can occur in any climate where the ground is saturated by water, though it is
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most often found in periglacial environments where the ground is permanently frozen
(permafrost). A term often used for deposits formed under periglacial conditions is
Gelifluction. During warm seasonal periods the surface layer (active layer) melts and
literally slides across the frozen underlayer, slowly moving downslope due to frost heave
that occurs normal to the slope. This type of mass wasting can occur on slopes as shallow
as 0.5 degrees at a rate of between 0.5 and 15 cm per year. In Germany the solifluction
deposits from the Younger Dryas are found to have a consistent thickness of 0.4–0.7
metres.

Subsidence

subsidence is the motion of a surface (usually, the Earth's surface) as it shifts

downward relative to a datum such as sea-level. The opposite of subsidence is
uplift, which results in an increase in elevation.
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Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of ground water have been withdrawn
from certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The rock compacts
because the water is partly responsible for holding the ground up. When the water is
withdrawn, the rocks falls in on itself. You may not notice land subsidence too much
because it can occur over large areas rather than in a small spot, like a sinkhole.
That doesn't mean that subsidence is not a big event -- states like California, Texas,
and Florida have suffered damage to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars over
the years.

Dissolution of limestone

Subsidence frequently occurs in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by

fluid flow in the subsurface causes the creation of voids (i.e. caves). If the roof of
these voids becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will
fall into the space, causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can
result in sinkholes which can be many hundreds of meters deep and can provide
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areas of ecological isolation which see the evolution of new branches of animal and
plant life.

Mining-induced

Several types of sub-surface mining, and specifically methods which intentionally

cause the extracted void to collapse (such as pillar extraction, longwall mining and
any metalliferous mining method which utilises "caving" such as "block caving" or
"sub-level caving") will result in surface subsidence. Mining induced subsidence is
relatively predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, except where a
sudden pillar or near-surface underground tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old
workings). Mining induced subsidence is nearly always very localised to the surface
above the mined area, plus a margin around the outside [1]. The vertical magnitude
of the subsidence itself typically does not cause problems, except in the case of
drainage (including natural drainage) - rather it is the associated surface compressive
and tensile strains, curvature, tilts and horizontal displacement that are the cause of
the worst damage to the natural environment, buildings and infrastructure. Where
mining activity is planned, mining-induced subsidence can be successfully managed
if there is co-operation from all of the stakeholders [2]. This is accomplished
through a combination of careful mine planning, the taking of preventative
measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining.
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4.

Causes of land subsidence

Land subsidence is most often caused by human activities, mainly from the removal
of subsurface water. This pictures shows a fissure near Lucerne Lake in San
Bernardino County, Mojave Desert, California. The probable cause was declining
ground-water levels. Here are some other things that can cause land subsidence:
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Ground-water pumping and land subsidence

Compaction of soils in some aquifer systems can accompany excessive ground-

water pumping and it is by far the single largest cause of subsidence. Excessive
pumping of such aquifer systems has resulted in permanent subsidence and related
ground failures. In some systems, when large amounts of water are pumped, the
subsoil compacts, thus reducing in size and number the open pore spaces in the soil
the previously held water. This can result in a permanent reduction in the total
storage capacity of the aquifer system.

Topples
Topples are instances when blocks of rock pivot and fall away from
a slope.

Triggers of mass wasting

Soil and regolith remain on a hill slope only while the gravitational
forces are unable to overcome the frictional forces keeping the material in
place (see Slope stability). Factors that reduce the frictional resistance relative
to the down slope forces, and thus initiate slope movement, can include:
• Seismic shaking
• Increased overburden from structures
• Increased soil moisture
• Reduction of roots holding the soil to bedrock
• Undercutting of the slope by excavation or erosion
• Weathering by frost eave
• Bioturbation

Causes and consequences of Mass Movements

Basically, mass movements occur whenever the downward pull of

gravity overcomes the forces resisting sliding or flow. The down slope
pull tending to cause mass movements, called the shearing stress, is
related to the mass of material and to slope angle. Counteracting the
shearing stress is friction or, in the case of a cohesive solid, shear
strength, sliding occurs. Sudden movements may be set off by a
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triggering mechanism, such as an earthquake. Mass Movements, in turn

may cause secondary problems, such as folding.

1)Earthquake

The vigorous shaking of an already-unstable slope by seismic waves may cause it to

fail. Typically, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, the more mass wasting will
occur.

2) Over-steepening of a slope

A slope whose material is stable at a fairly gentle slope angle may become unstable
if its slope angle becomes steeper. This can occur where a stream cuts into a valley slope,
or where ocean waves remove the base (toe) of a slope. Also, sometimes humans over-
steepen slopes when constructing building sites, or roads in mountainous areas as shown in
the image to the left.

3) Removal of slope vegetation

A slope denuded of vegetation loses surface protection from the impacts of

raindrops, which can mobilize sediment grains with water flowing down slope. The roots
of plants on a slope can play a significant role in binding sediment together, reducing the
likelihood of rapid or sudden mass wasting of a slope. Removal of the vegetation, due to
human cutting or harvesting, or due to fire, reduces strength of the slope

4) Introduction of water into slope material

An excessive amount of water within a slope increases its mass, increasing

shear stress within parts of the slope, especially along rock fractures tilted in the same
direction as the slope surface. If the slope is composed of sediment where grains are not
cemented together, excess water can float the grains apart, reducing friction (and shear
strength). Both of these situations, often associated with heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt,
can lead to mass wasting

5) Ice wedging

Water can flow into even the narrowest of rock fractures. If the temperature then
drops below freezing, ice crystals will form, expanding in volume by 9 %. This is a very
powerful force that can wedge apart rocks, often causing them to fall from steep slopes in
mountains and canyons

6) Biological activity

Animals moving along steep slopes may loosen rocks, sending them crashing down
slope. Some animals are more destructive than others, rolling rocks down slope on
purpose.

Causes of Mass Movements

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Mass movements are caused by various conditions:

• Volcanic activity many times causes huge mudflows when the icy cover
of a volcano melts and mixes with the soil to form mud as the magma in
the volcano stirs preceding an eruption.
• Mudslides can also develop when water rapidly accumulates in the
ground, such as during heavy rainfall or rapid snow melt, changing the
earth into a flowing river of mud or "slurry.".
• Earthquake shocks cause sections of mountains and hills to break off
and slide down.
• Human modification of the land or weathering and erosion help loosen
large chunks of earth and start them sliding downhill.
• Vibrations from machinery, traffic, weight loading from accumulation of
snow; stockpiling of rock or ore; from waste piles and from buildings and
other structures.
• However, the trigger mechanism for mass movement is the gravitational
pull of the earth on soil, rocks, and mud.

Preventing Measures of landslides

The key to preventing damage from landslides is to identify and avoid developing
landslide prone areas such as steep, unstable hillsides. However, if some of these areas
must be developed then building codes should require extensive efforts to insure slope
stabilization:

• Vegetation of unstable slopes

• Installation of drainage and runoff channeling structures
• Benching and regrading of slopes to lessen their steepness
• Stabilization structures such as retaining walls, deeply sunk pylons, and backfilled supports

Good slope engineering is expensive and the temptation to cut corners is great. However,
landslide damage is far more expensive and estimates have shown that for every dollar
spent on slope stabilization, between 10 and 2000 dollars are saved over the long term. For
example, a landslide in Utah in 1983 dammed a river and caused flooding of the town of
Thistle, a railroad, and a major US highway. Total damage was about $200 million. The
slide was triggered by a high water table due to high precipitation and was a reactivation of
an older slide that had a well known history of movement. Estimates suggest that the slide
could have been predicted to be imminent and could have been prevented for about
$300,000 worth of drainage engineering. Benefit to cost ratio: about 100:1.
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Creep

Creep is a long term process. The combination of small movements of soil or rock in
different directions over time are directed by gravity gradually downslope. The steeper the
slope, the faster the creep. The creep makes trees and other shrubs curve to reach the sun
light. These often trigger land slides because the dirt underneath is not very strong. The
 36

trees most of the time die out because of lack of water and sun, and these rarely happen in
wet climates.

The rate of soil creep down a slope depends on the steepness (gradient) of the slope, water
absorption and content, type of sediment and material, and lastly vegetation. The rate of
creep will take into account all of these factors to decide whether or not the hillside will
progress downward. Creep is what is responsible for the rounded shape of hillsides.

Water is a very important factor when discussing soil deformation and movement. When
building a sand castle at the beach you would notice that the presence of water making
damp sand aids in keeping your castle standing up. The water will offer cohesion to the
sand which will bind the sand particles together. However, when you pour a bucket of
water over your sand castle or it gets hit by a wave, it destroys it. This is because the
presence of too much water fills all the pores between the grains with water creating a slip
plain between the particles and offering no cohesion causing them to slip and slide away.
This holds true not only for sand castles but for hillsides and creep as well. The presence of
water may help the hillside stay put and give it that cohesion but in a very moist/wet
environment or during/after a large amount of precipitation the pores between the grains
could become saturated with water and cause the ground to slide along the slip plain it
creates.

Creep can be caused by the expansion of materials such as clay when they are exposed to
water. Clay expands when wet, then contracts after drying. The expansion portion pushes
downhill, then the contraction results in consolidation at the new offset.

Vegetation also can play a role with slope stability and creep. When a hillside contains
many trees, ferns, and shrubs their roots can create an interlocking network that can
strengthen unconsolidated material. They also aid in absorbing the access water in the soil
to help keep the slope stable. They also however, add to the weight of the slope giving
gravity that much more of a driving force to act on in pushing the slope downward. Slopes
with the absence of vegetation have a greater chance of movement.
 37

Design engineers sometimes need to guard against downhill creep

during their planning to prevent building foundations from being
undermined. Pilings are planted sufficiently deep into the surface
material to guard against this behavior.

Solifluction
 38

In geology, solifluction, also known as soil fluction or soil creep, is a type of mass
wasting where waterlogged sediment slowly moves downslope over impermeable material. It can
occur in any climate where the ground is saturated by water, though it is most often found in
periglacial environments where the ground is permanently frozen (permafrost). A term often used
for deposits formed under periglacial conditions is Gelifluction. During warm seasonal periods the
surface layer (active layer) melts and literally slides across the frozen underlayer, slowly moving
downslope due to frost heave that occurs normal to the slope. This type of mass wasting can occur
on slopes as shallow as 0.5 degrees at a rate of between 0.5 and 15 cm per year. In Germany the
solifluction deposits from the Younger Dryas are found to have a consistent thickness of 0.4–0.7
metres.

Subsidence

subsidence is the motion of a surface (usually, the Earth's surface) as it shifts downward
relative to a datum such as sea-level. The opposite of subsidence is uplift, which results in
an increase in elevation.
 39

Land subsidence occurs when large amounts of ground water have been withdrawn from
certain types of rocks, such as fine-grained sediments. The rock compacts because the
water is partly responsible for holding the ground up. When the water is withdrawn, the
rocks falls in on itself. You may not notice land subsidence too much because it can occur
over large areas rather than in a small spot, like a sinkhole. That doesn't mean that
subsidence is not a big event -- states like California, Texas, and Florida have suffered
damage to the tune of hundreds of millions of dollars over the years.

Dissolution of limestone

Subsidence frequently occurs in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid

flow in the subsurface causes the creation of voids (i.e. caves). If the roof of these voids
becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space,
causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can result in sinkholes which can
be many hundreds of meters deep and can provide areas of ecological isolation which see
the evolution of new branches of animal and plant life.
 40

Mining-induced

Several types of sub-surface mining, and specifically methods which intentionally cause
the extracted void to collapse (such as pillar extraction, longwall mining and any
metalliferous mining method which utilises "caving" such as "block caving" or "sub-level
caving") will result in surface subsidence. Mining induced subsidence is relatively
predictable in its magnitude, manifestation and extent, except where a sudden pillar or
near-surface underground tunnel collapse occurs (usually very old workings). Mining
induced subsidence is nearly always very localised to the surface above the mined area,
plus a margin around the outside [1]. The vertical magnitude of the subsidence itself
typically does not cause problems, except in the case of drainage (including natural
drainage) - rather it is the associated surface compressive and tensile strains, curvature, tilts
and horizontal displacement that are the cause of the worst damage to the natural
environment, buildings and infrastructure. Where mining activity is planned, mining-
induced subsidence can be successfully managed if there is co-operation from all of the
stakeholders [2]. This is accomplished through a combination of careful mine planning, the
taking of preventative measures, and the carrying out of repairs post-mining.
 41

Causes of land subsidence

Land subsidence is most often caused by human activities, mainly from the removal of
subsurface water. This pictures shows a fissure near Lucerne Lake in San Bernardino
County, Mojave Desert, California. The probable cause was declining ground-water levels.
Here are some other things that can cause land subsidence:

Ground-water pumping and land subsidence

Compaction of soils in some aquifer systems can accompany excessive ground-water

pumping and it is by far the single largest cause of subsidence. Excessive pumping of such
 42

aquifer systems has resulted in permanent subsidence and related ground failures. In some
systems, when large amounts of water are pumped, the subsoil compacts, thus reducing in
size and number the open pore spaces in the soil the previously held water. This can result
in a permanent reduction in the total storage capacity of the aquifer system.

A Talus cone at the base of Mount Smith, Canadian Rockies.

Causes of Mass wasting

When there is a little friction between particles they will not lie
on a high angle slope. Another factor in the down slope movement of
material is water or fluid. Material that is stable below it critical angle
of repose may become unstable when saturated water. The water has
the effect of adding significant weight and reducing friction between a
 43

load of materials and the surface upon which it rests. Heavy rain an a
slope known to be near the angle of repose , therefore can spell
trouble in a populated area.

The angle of repose is different for different kinds of material. Coarser material may
have an angle of repose of up to about 370, while the angle decreases with grain size down
to a range of 20 to 350 for fine dry sand. Angular material generally can have a higher angle
of repose than rounded material. There are other factors, aside from lubrication and
Steepness of slope, that can contribute significantly to down slope movement where
vegetation is lacking, for e.g. there is no root system to stabilize the soil an a slope and
erosion is promoted . Down slope movement is also promoted as material is loosened
during freeze thaw cycles. Certain rock types, such as shale’s, may become very slippery
when wet so that overlying rock layers may slide along the shale. Finally bedrock
structures such an bedding planes and alignment of crystals with in the rock, may form
planes along which the material may be weaker and movement takes place along these
planes.
However an additional force is often responsible for actually
initiating the mass movement, often materials on the slopes are
ready to move downward if only a little extra push is given push. This
additional push sometimes comes in the form of an earthquake, large
amounts of precipitation or changes in slope by natural or human
activity

Geomorphic significance of Mass wasting

The really significant role of mass wasting is its contribution to the

slow reduction of land masses . The effects of soil creep are
usually not particularly apparent except upon vegetation and man
made structures. It is made evident through such features as curved
trees and tilted fence, telephone and telegraph poles.
 44

A landslide leaves a basin – shaped scar on the slope from where

the material has slid downwards and a mass of debris at the foot often
projecting forward as a tongue. As a rule landslide leads to a reduction
of slope angle by transfer of rock and debris from upslope to
downslope. Every subsequent land slide results in the formation of a
gentler slopes and even where steeper slopes are formed they are of
lesser height than the pre-existing one . The net geo morphological
effect of landslides is there fore, reduction in the steepness of the
slope and to bring it to an angle at which it may attain long term
stability . when a slope attains the stage of long term stability ,
landslides cease to occur on such a slope.

Mass movement causes essentially catastrophic denudation which

is different from the normal continuous denudation . Catastrophic
denudation Generally follows a heavy rainfall and is

accomplished through rapid mass movement . The amount of

denudation by landslides in a short time equals denudation done by
the continuous process over thousands of years.

Landscapes may seem fixed and unchanging, but if you have

made a time- lapse movie of almost any hillside for a few years you
would see that the slope changes constantly as a result mass
wasting . All slopes are subject to mass wasting. Exactly how
movement happens and low fast it happens is controlled by the
composition and texture of the regolith And bedrock , the amount of
air and water in the regolith and the Steepness of the slope.

Mass wasting is especially prevalent where average

temperatures are very low and much of the landscape is underlain by
perennially frozen ground. Ice that is forming in saturated regolith
pushes up the ground surface in a process called Frost heaving. The
ground surface is lifted at right angles to the slope. As the ground thaws,
 45

each particle tends to drop vertically pulled downward by gravity. The

net result of repeated episodes of freezing and thawing , during which
a particle experiences a succession of upward and downward
movement ,is slow but progressive downslope creep . During summer
the thawed layer becomes saturated with meltwater and is very
unstable esp on hill sides gravity pulls the thawed sediment slowly
downslope in a form of solifluction known an gelifluction .

Hill slope Processes and Mass Movement

Introduction

Hillslopes are an important part of the terrestrial landscape. The Earth's landscape can be
thought of as being composed of a mosaic of slope types, ranging from steep mountains
and cliffs to almost flat plains. On most hillslopes large quantities of soil and sediment are
moved over time via the mediums of air, water, and ice often under the direct influence of
gravity. The form a hillslope takes is dependent on the various geomorphic processes
acting on it. Hillslopes are also the source of materials that are used to construct a number
of depositional landforms.

In practical terms, hillslopes have direct and indirect influence on a number of human
activities. The steepness and structural stability of hillslopes determines their suitability for
agriculture, forestry, and human settlement. Hillslopes can also become a hazard to

humans if their materials move rapidly through the process of mass wasting.

Inputs and Outputs to the Hillslope System

We can begin our study of hillslopes by thinking of them as a process-response system.

The hillslope system receives inputs of solar radiation, precipitation, solid and dissolved
substances from the atmosphere, and unconsolidated sediment derived from the
weathering of bedrock. The inputs of unconsolidated sediment are controlled by
weathering rates. In general, the warmer the climate the higher the rates of bedrock

weathering. Rates of weathering are also influenced by the presence of moisture.

 46

Outputs to hillslopes occur by evapotranspiration, by percolation of water and the

movement of dissolved substances into the bedrock, and by removal of sediment by
streams by glaciers or by ocean waves and currents. Outputs of debris or sediment from
hillslope systems are controlled primarily by the availability of erosional mechanisms to
transport material that accumulates at the slope's surface and base. For example, the
presence of a stream at the base of a hillslope encourages removal of sediment that moves
downslope. If the stream's discharge is too small to handle the debris input, sediment will
accumulate at the base of the slope.

The magnitude of hillslope inputs and outputs depends upon a number of factors,
including bedrock geology, climate, and the nature of the slope to the broader
landscape. The balance between inputs and outputs from the hillslope system
exerts a major control over the form of the developing slope. In situations where
inputs are the controlling factor, the slope is said to be weathering limited
because outputs quickly remove any accumulating debris. Where the potential for
weathering is high but outputs are restrained the hillslope system is classified as
being transport limited. Landscapes that are transport limited are easily
recognized by the presence of a deep soil profile.

Mass Movement and Hillslope Stability

A variety of processes exist by which materials can be moved through the hillslope system.
These processes are generically known as mass movement or mass wasting. The
operation of mass movement processes relies upon the development of instability in the
hillslope system. Under these conditions, failure of the slope material can occur on a range
of time scales. Some types of mass movement involve rather rapid, spontaneous events.
Sudden failures tend to occur when the stresses exerted on the slope materials greatly
exceed their strength for short periods of time. In many cases, type of mass movement is
produced by the operation of short term trigger mechanisms. Mass movement can also be a
less continuous process that occurs over long periods of time. Slow failures often occur
when the applied stresses only just exceed the internal strength of the hillslope system.
 47

What are the sources of the stresses and strength acting within hillslope materials? As we
have noted, a major source of stress is the gravitational force. The magnitude of this force
is related to the angle of the slope and the weight of hillslope sediments and rock. The
following equation models this relationship:

F = W sin Ø

where F is gravitational force, W is the weight of the material occurring at some point on
the slope, and Ø is the angle of the slope.

The internal strength of the hillslope system varies according to the nature of the materials
making up the slope. Hillslopes composed of loose materials, like sand and gravel, derived
their internal from frictional resistance which depends on the size, shape, and arrangement
of the particles. Hillslopes consisting of silt and clay particles obtain their internal strength
from particle cohesion which is controlled by the availability of moisture in the soil. Too
much moisture breaks the cohesive bonds and can turn a solid hillslope into a river of mud.
Rock slopes generally have the greatest internal strength. Internal strength in these systems
is derived from the effects of the solidification and crystallization of magma or the
lithification of once loose particles.

The stability of a hillslope depends on the relationship between the stresses applied to the
materials that make up the slope and their internal strength. Mass movement occurs when
the stresses exceed the internal strength. This condition is not always caused by an increase
in stress. In some cases, the internal strength of the materials can be reduced over relatively
short periods of time resulting in mass movement.

Many factors can act as triggers for hillslope failure. One of the most common is prolonged
or heavy rainfall. Rainfall can lead to mass movement through three different mechanisms.
Often these mechanisms do not act alone. The saturation of soil materials increases the
weight of slope materials which then leads to greater gravitational force. Saturation of soil
materials can reduce the cohesive bonds between individual soil particles resulting in the
reduction of the internal strength of the hillslope. Lastly, the presence of bedding planes in
 48

the hillslope material can cause material above a particular plane below ground level to
slide along a surface lubricated by percolating moisture.

Earthquakes are another common mechanism that can trigger mass movement. The seismic waves
produced by earthquakes vibrate slope materials. This vibration can lead to failure by increasing the
downward stress or by decreasing the internal strength of the hillslope sediments through particle
movement.

Water, Sediment Transport, and Hillslopes

Rain splash is a microscale process that can be quite effective in moving material on
slopes. The impact of rain droplets on the soil surface often detaches individual grains of
soil moving them some distance from their source. On flat surfaces, the effect of rain drop
impact is to redistribute the material without any net transport in a particular direction.
However, on a slope the influence of gravity and slope encourage more material to be
redistributed downslope rather than upslope. When slopes become 25 degrees or greater,
almost all the redistribution occurs in a downslope direction.

Considerable transport of surface sediments on slopes occurs by rainwash and surface

runoff. On relatively flat surfaces, runoff occurs as a continuous layer of water commonly
called sheet wash. The erosive potential of sheetwash is usually quite limited because this
type of flow is shallow and non-turbulent and cannot readily entrain surface particles.
However, topographic irregularities can quickly transform sheetwash into small channels
called rills. Rills then coalesce into larger stream channels and so on. Rills and large
stream channels concentrate the movement of water causing an increase in flow velocity
and turbulence. Higher flow velocities and turbulence lead to a greater potential for
entrainment and subsequent transport of hillslope materials.

Mass Movement in Non-Cohesive Materials

Many slopes are composed of non-cohesive, coarse-grained sediments. This type of slope
is common to landform features like alluvial fans, screes, talus cones, sand dunes, and
glacial outwash deposits. On slopes of this type, mass movement often occurs through the
sliding or rolling of a small number of particles as localized instabilities develop (Figure
 49

10x-1). In some cases, these movements can organize themselves into larger avalanches
through a domino effect. Mass movement on non-cohesive materials can also occur by way
of shallow sliding. Shallow sliding occurs when planes of weakness develop just beneath
the surface of the slope. Planes of weakness develop where horizontal layering occurs in
the sediment. This layering can be caused by the nature of sediment deposition, percolation
of water, or by the presence of subsurface soil, sediment or rock layers.

Figure1: Scree slope formed of non-cohesive sediments at the base of a

steep hill.

In many mountainous areas, shallow coarse soils develop over bedrock. Under the right
consitions, large downslope movements of this material can occur. This type of mass
movement is known as a debris flow.

Mass Movement in Cohesive Materials

Slopes formed from clays and silts sediments display somewhat unique mass movement
processes. Clay and silt particles have a degree of cohesion which gives them potentially
more internal strength than non-cohesive sediments. This cohesion occurs because of
electrochemical bonds which operate between particles and the surface tension effects of
water films that forms around particles. Both of these sources of cohesion are dependent
upon moisture content. Maximum cohesiveness takes place when mositure conditions are
 50

moderate. Too much or too little water reduces the strength of the cohesion. Two common
types of mass movements in cohesive materials are rotational slips and mudflows. Both of
these processes occur over very short time periods. Rotational slips or slumps occur along
clearly defined planes of weakness which generally have a concave form beneath the
Earth's surface (Figure 2). Rotational slips can be caused by a variety of factors. The most
common mechanism reason for them to occur is erosion at the base of the slope which
reduces the support for overlying sediments. Erosion at the base of a slope can be caused
by the presence of a stream channel or by wave action.

Figure 2: The head of a rotational slip in the Black Hills of North Dakota.
(Source: Image provided by the National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA).

Mudflows occur when slope materials become so saturated that the cohesive
bonds between particles is lost. The saturated material then flows like a thick fluid
downslope (Figure 3). Flow stops when water loss through seepage causes the
sediment to solidify. Mudflows can occur on very low slope angles because
internal particle frictional resistance and cohesion is negligible.
 51

Figure 3: The Slumgullian mudflow in the San Juan Mountains,

Colorado.

Some of the mass movement processes operating on cohesive materials occur over very
long time spans. One of the most widespread of these processes is soil creep. Soil creep
involves the movement of slope sediments in a series of numerous cyclical steps .The
cyclical effects of temperature fluctuations, variations in moisture, and gravity on inclined
soil sediments often cause this process.
 52

Soil creep can only occur on a slope. It occurs when some mechanism causes the surface
soil layer to expand and contract. Mechanisms that can cause this expansion and
contraction include cyclical changes in soil temperature and mositure. Expansion moves
soil particles upward and perpendicular to the angle of the slope. When contraction occurs
the soil particles move downward under the influence of gravity.

Mass Movement on Hard Rock Slopes

Mass movement on hard rock slopes is often dramatic and quick (Figure 5). Hard rocks
derive their internal strength mainly from the strong inter-granular bonds that form when
magma cools and crystallizes or when lithification occurs in sedimentary rocks. Because
of their strong internal strength hard rock slopes can have relatively steep angles.
Nevertheless, weaknesses do occur along bedding planes and joints naturally found in
these materials. Most mass movement on hard rock slopes involves the downward
movement of small rock fragments pried loose by gravitational stress and/or freeze-thaw
processes. We call these types of mass wasting rockfalls.

Larger scale down slope movement of rock can also occur along well defined joints or
bedding planes. This type of movement is called a rock slide. Most rock slides occur
because the hill slope and rock layers dip in the same direction (Figure 6). In these cases,
the rock slide occurs when a fracture plane develops causing overlying materials to slide