Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology,medicine and

other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose. Modern use of similar terms includes genetic engineering as well as celland tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. The United NationsConvention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:[1] "Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use." In other term "Application of scientific and technical advances in life science to develop commercial products" is biotechnology. Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology (chemical

engineering, bioprocess engineering, information technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry.

Current events in biotechnology The Dawn of Biotech is considered from the first production of insulin around 1970 to present. The common view of biotechnology is just the field that deals with genes and cloning. However, not until very recently was the first mammal cloned. In 1997, researchers in Scotland cloned a sheep named Dolly. Shortly after, another sheep named Polly was cloned, with one key difference. Polly had been cloned with nuclear transfer technology, therefore Polly had genes from another organism, the human. Other advancements in 1997 include artificial human chromosomes and researchers from Oregon claiming to have cloned two rhesus monkeys. In 1998, there was a breakthrough that rivaled the cloning of Dolly in importance. For years, molecular biologists were interested in studying stem cells because of their ability to grow into any other type of cell in the human body. Two teams in this year successfully grew stem cells

and sparked the field of embryonic stem cell research. Bioethics and the ensuing controversies are also attributed to this. In addition, the genome of an animal, the small worm C. elegans, was assembled and laid the basis of the technology and procedures used to determine the human genome. In 1999, antibody analysis was made available to investigators as another tool to help bring down criminals. If a DNA test failed, an antibody analysis might produce results. Another breakthrough in 1998 was the completion of the human genome map, a genetic map showing where genes are located on chromosomes. Foods created or improved through genetic engineering were soaring and became the subject of some scrutiny on whether it was safe to eat. The year 2000 was one of the most defining years in biotechnology as well as human history. The human genome project was completed, and was released by Craig Venter and Francis Collins. Dr. Peter St. GeorgeHyslop successfully immunized mice against Alzheimer s disease.

What is biotechnology? The term biotechnology, often referred to as biotech, brings to mind many different things. Many people think that biotechnology only involves genetic research. Cloning,

the human genome project, movies, news, and pop culture focusing on genetic research have contributed to this. However, the field of biotechnology is much more broad. Genetic engineering of crops for agriculture, bioremediation, food processing, drugs, and proteomics are all included in the field of biotechnology. Biotechnology is the branch of technology that utilizes living organisms or biological systems to modify humans and their environment. Biotechnology is also not only limited to high-tech or prototype technologies, humans have been practicing biotechnology for centuries. The most primitive examples include the breeding of dogs and using yeast to make bread rise. What advantage do the products of biotechnology have over regular drugs and treatments? Drugs and therapies from Gattaga are designed to be most effective according to the genome of each patient. This allows our drugs to be specifically designed and more effective. Fewer side effects are encountered because our knowledge of the human genome allows us to design drugs specific to your needs- drugs that target specific systems. Synthetically manufactured drugs are not as specific in their actions and tend to cause more side effects. Biotechnology also has it uses beyond medicine or agriculture. DNA fingerprinting was a forensic breakthrough. Investigators can now determine the identity of a criminal just by analyzing DNA from a hair strand or drop of blood at the crime scene.

Current Uses of Biotechnology in Agriculture Genetic engineering can be used to modify the genetic compositions of plants, animals, and microorganisms. The number of genes that have been isolated and are available for transfer is growing daily. Currently, the technology is used primarily to modify crops, although a number of other applications are in the wings. Like other products, genetically engineered products undergo a period of research and development before they are ready for commercial release. Many products never emerge from the research and development pipeline. While this is true for almost any technology, genetic engineering is turning out to be more difficult and more expensive than early proponents expected. Although in the early 1980s biotechnology was touted as a miracle technology that was going to usher in a new era of agricultural abundance with minimal harm to the environment, the initial set of products has proved modest. Some of the most important commercial applications of biotechnology are discussed below. Engineered Crops The most widespread application of genetic engineering in agriculture by far is in engineered crops. Thousands of such products have been field tested and over a dozen have been approved for commercial use. The traits most

commonly introduced into crops are herbicide tolerance, insect tolerance, and virus tolerance. Herbicide Tolerance Case Study: Soybeans Herbicide tolerance allows crops to withstand otherwise lethal doses of herbicides, which are chemicals that kill plants. Some herbicides kill virtually all plants and cannot be used on crops. By offering crops tolerant to herbicides, chemical companies can expand the market for their products. Indeed, the major developers of herbicidetolerant plants are companies that sell herbicides. The current set of commercially available herbicide-tolerant crops is tolerant to three herbicides based on three active ingredients: bromoxynil, glyphosate, and glufosinate. Insect Tolerance All of the commercially available insect-tolerant plants contain a version of the toxin Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which is found in nature in soil bacteria. Bt toxins are highly effective for many pest organisms, like beetles and moth larva, but not toxic to mammals and most other nontarget organisms. A major concern among farmers and environmentalists is that wide use of Bt crops will lead to the rapid development (over the course of perhaps as few as three to five years) of resistance to the toxin. If resistance develops, the Bt toxin will be useless as a pesticide. In this case, the environmental benefits of the product will be short lived.

Loss of Bt efficacy will affect those who currently use the engineered Bt crops, but also many other farmers who use Bt in its natural bacterial form, usually as a spray. These other farmers include those who grow food organically and those who use Bt as part of integrated pest management (IPM) plans. Natural Bt sprays are a valuable mode of pest control for these farmers. Organic farmers and others who rely on Bt question whether the companies who sell the Bt crops have the right to use up this resource guided only by commercial calculations. UCS considers Bt to be a public good that should be reserved for everyone. Virus Tolerance The third major application of biotechnology to crops is virus tolerance. These crops contain a gene taken from a virus. By a process that is not well understood, plants that produce certain viral proteins are able to fend off infections by the viruses from which the proteins were taken. Two virus-tolerant crops are currently approved for commercial use, papaya and squash. The squash, which is resistant to two viruses, is currently off the market. Although it is difficult to get information on why products are not on the market, it is possible that the squash did not perform well enough in the field to capture market share.

Applications

Total recorded alcohol per capita consumption (15+), in litres of pure alcohol[5] Alcohols can be used as a beverage (ethanol only), as fuel and for many scientific, medical, and industrial utilities. Ethanol in the form of alcoholic beverages has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times. A 50% v/v solution of ethylene glycol in water is commonly used as anantifreeze. Some alcohols, mainly ethanol and methanol, can be used as an alcohol fuel. Fuel performance can be increased in forced induction internal combustion engines by injecting alcohol into the air intake after the turbocharger or supercharger has pressurized the air. This cools the pressurized air, providing a denser air charge, which allows for more fuel, and therefore more power. Alcohols have applications in industry and science as reagents or solvents. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polarsubstances, ethanol can be used as a solvent in medical drugs, perfumes, and vegetable essences such as vanilla. In organic synthesis, alcohols serve as versatile intermediates. Ethanol can be used as an antiseptic to disinfect the skin before injections are given, often along with iodine. Ethanol-based soaps are becoming common in

restaurants and are convenient because they do not require drying due to the volatility of the compound. Alcohol is also used as a preservative for specimens. Alcohol gels have become common as hand sanitizers. Production In industry, alcohols are produced in several ways:


By fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37 C to produce ethanol, for instance, the conversion of invertase to glucose and fructose or the conversion of glucose to zymase and ethanol. By direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration)[6] or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.

Believe it or not there is more than one use for alcohol. Drink it Over 90% of the UK adult population drink alcohol. It is widely associated with

socialising and relaxing and studies have shown some possible health benefits. Burn it Methanol and ethanol can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels as they burn very cleanly, producing only carbon dioxide and water. Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel as it can be made from renewable sources such a sugar cane. It's really useful for countries without an oil industry as it reduces their dependence upon imports of petrol. Wear it As ethanol is the least toxic of the alcohols it is used in perfumes to stop the plant and animal extracts from going off. The amount added depends on whether you are making a perfume, toilet water or cologne. Dissolve in it As ethanol is the safest of the alcohols it is often used to dissolve chemicals that are insoluble in water. Examples include perfumes, cosmetics and vegetable essences such as vanilla extract.

Clean with it You may have seen bottles of methylated spirits lying around, which is ethanol with a small quantity of methanol added. The methanol makes the mixture highly poisonous and unsafe to drink, however it is very good for cleaning paint brushes USES OF ALCOHOLS

This page has a brief look at some of the more important uses of the simple alcohols like methanol, ethanol and propan-2-ol.

Uses of ethanol Drinks The "alcohol" in alcoholic drinks is simply ethanol. Industrial methylated spirits (meths) Ethanol is usually sold as industrial methylated spirits which is ethanol with a small quantity of methanol added and possibly some colour. Methanol is poisonous, and so the industrial methylated spirits is unfit to drink. This avoids the high taxes which are levied on alcoholic drinks (certainly in the UK!).

As a fuel Ethanol burns to give carbon dioxide and water and can be used as a fuel in its own right, or in mixtures with petrol (gasoline). "Gasohol" is a petrol / ethanol mixture containing about 10 - 20% ethanol. Because ethanol can be produced by fermentation, this is a useful way for countries without an oil industry to reduce imports of petrol.

As a solvent Ethanol is widely used as a solvent. It is relatively safe, and can be used to dissolve many organic compounds which are insoluble in water. It is used, for example, in many perfumes and cosmetics.

Uses of methanol As a fuel Methanol again burns to form carbon dioxide and water.

It can be used a a petrol additive to improve combustion, or work is currently being done on its use as a fuel in its own right. As an industrial feedstock

Most methanol is used to make other things - for example, methanal (formaldehyde), ethanoic acid, and methyl esters of various acids. In most cases, these are in turn converted into further products.

Uses of propan-2-ol Propan-2-ol is widely used in an amazing number of different situations as a solvent. Details on this are probably not required by UK A level syllabuses, but if you need them, an internet search onpropan-2-ol solvent uses will give you more examples than you can cope with! (There is a Google search box at the bottom of the Main Menu.)

Antibiotics Introduction Antibiotics are among the most frequently prescribed medications in modern medicine. Antibiotics cure disease by killing or injuring bacteria. The first antibiotic was penicillin, discovered accidentally from a mold culture. Today, over 100 different antibiotics are available to doctors to cure minor discomforts as well as lifethreatening infections. Although antibiotics are useful in a wide variety of infections, it is important to realize that antibiotics only treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics are useless against viral infections (for example, the common cold) and fungal

infections (such as ringworm). Your doctor can best determine if an antibiotic is right for your condition.