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es Production of materials: Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substance: Students Learn to:
construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered Hydrochloric acid + Sodium 2HCl(aq) + 2Na(s) Pb(NO3)4 +4KI New things: Alkanes when combusted (reacted with oxygen) form only water and carbon dioxide. However, if methane reacts with chlorine (is chlorinated): CH4(g) + Cl2(g) petroleum: Petroleum (aka Crude oil) is a mixture of hydrocarbons found in deposits in the crust throughout the world. This raw crude oil is then fractionally distilled until it is in groups if chain lengths (some differing by 2-3 carbons). The higher length carbon chains are then broken (or cracked) into small, and more useful chain lengths. This is done by thermal cracking (done my extreme heat and steam) or by catalytic cracking (with a catalyst.) CH3Cl + HCl (this is called a substitution reaction) identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of 2NaCl(s) +H2(g) Lead Nitrate + Potassium Iodide 4KNO3 +PbI4

Steam Cracking (or thermal cracking):

Conditions: 1. No catalyst 2. alkanes and steam passes through hot metal tubes at 1000 degrees Celsius to decompose the alkanes into smaller chains. Advantages: High yield of ethylene Disadvantages: Very expensive due to energy requirements for such high temperatures. Difficult to control production of end-products as there are many different places where bonding could occur. Example: C2H6 Conditions: 1. Zeolite catalyst used 2.Carried out at 500 degrees in absence of air. Advantages: The process could be carried out at much lower temperatures. Example: C9H20 C2H4 + C7H16 (one alkene and one alkane) identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many C2H4 + H2

Catalytic cracking:

useful products The double bond present within alkenes make them more reactive then alkanes, with a single bond. The reactivity of these alkenes means that they are much more useful as building blocks for the petrochemical industry. Ethylene specifically is an extremely versatile starting material for the production of many different organic compounds. Some of the reactions to create useful products are:

Addition Reactions: Two new atoms, or groups of atoms are added across the double bond, one to each
carbon atom linked by the double bond. This converts the carbon=carbon double bond into a single one, and the unsaturated compound turns into a saturated one. Specifically, addition reactions comprise of: Hydration- the addition of water (to create alkanols) Bromination- the addition of bromine (to make dibromoalkane) Hydrogenation- the addition of hydrogen. Hydrohalogenation- addition of hydrogen halides (ie. Hydrochloric acid) (all page 28 of workbook)

Substitution reactions: Sometimes the ethylene is used to make other starting molecules for polymarization
by substituting a hydrogen atom for other atoms or groups of atoms. An example is the production of Vinyl Chloride: ethylene will react with chlorine in the presence of oxygen to form vinyl chloride (chloroethane). 4CH2CH2 + 2Cl2 + O2 4CH2CHCl + 2H2O Some of these useful products include: ethanol, vinyl chloride, styrene, PVA etc. identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made Ethylene is a monomer, meaning that it is a basic molecule that can be combined to make a polymer. Ethylene is a monomer, because when its double bond is broken, the now free bond is capable to link onto another ethylene compound. (good way to remember, suffix; Poly: means many, Mono: means one.) identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term An addition polymer is a polymer that is created and all the atoms involved in the reaction become a part of the polymer. The breaking of the double bond in ethylene creates an extra bonding site in which an additional broken ethylene molecule can join to. All of the compounds that have combined to create the polymer were the same substance, and in this situation, that molecule was ethylene. outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer Production of polyethylene: 1. Initiation- An initiator is added to ethene in a reaction vessel. The initiator (often peroxide) breaks the double bond and provides a site for further bonding. (When the molecule is split, a radical is formed.) 2. Propagation: The chain of ethenes grow until the free radical ethene chain combines with another free radical ethene chain to form a polyethylene molecule. A catalyst is usually added to quicken the process. 3. Termination: The combination of free radicals is called termination. By varying the temperature in the reaction vessel, different forms of polyethylene can be produced, such as HDPE (high density polyethylene) and LDPE (low density polyethylene). LDPE- Made in high pressure & temperature, the polymer chains have branching, and cant pack close together- which reduces the dispersion forces between the strands. LDPE is soft and flexible with a low MP. Eg. bottles, toys, food wrap.

HDPE- Made at low pressure & temperature, the polymer chains have no branching, and can pack tight together. These molecules have strong dispersion forces, which makes them hard, rigid and has a high MP. Eg. Rigid toys, bins, tackle boxes, pipes. identify the following as commercially significant monomers: vinyl chloride styrene By replacing (substitution reaction) a hydrogen atom with either a benzene ring (styrene) or a Chloride atom (vinyl chloride), a new product can be created. Poly(vinyl chloride) [chloroethene]: CH2CHCL- Garden hoses, pipes. Polystyrene [benzylethylene]: Modern furniture, disposable cups, foam packaging.

Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels:
discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry The Earths store of fossil fuels is limited, due to them being a non-renewable resource. The worldwide demand for fossil fuel is infinite. The need for fossil fuels in continually accelerating, with estimations of all fossil fuels being completely dispersed within 200 years. Most of the polymers produced today derive from fossil fuels. Scientists from around the world have been finding alternative sources for fuels, besides petroleum. Theyve been searching not only for alternate sources of energy, but also renewable supplies of materials from which synthetic polymers can be made. A promising find is Biomass which is organic material including plant and animal material. All living animals create biopolymers such as starch, cellulose and proteins. It is suggested that cellulose, starch and gluten would contain carbon structures, required by the plastic industry. The advantage of using biomass instead of petroleum, is that biomass is a renewable resource. explain what is meant by a condensation polymer A condensation polymer is a polymer that forms by elimination of a small molecule, usually H2O, when monomers join. 2 naturally occurring condensation polymers are starch and glucose. Starch is formed from alpha-glucose, whilst cellulose is formed from beta-glucose. Alpha and beta glucose differ by the linkage of they hydroxyl group around carbon number 1. For 2 beta-glucose molecules to join, one molecule needs to be inverted relative to the other. describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed n (any number) x (C6H12O6) (C6H10O5)n + nH20 When 2 monomers react, each looses at least one atom, which then form to create an extra molecule, most often water. (ie, in waters case, one monomer would have lost OH and the other, just a H, with the O acting as the centre of the bond between the 2 monomers, making it a polymer.) describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass Cellulose is the main constituent on plants cell wall structures, and is the major structural component of woody plants and natural fibres such as cotton, flax and hemp. (Infact, wood is about 50% cellulose) A typical cellulose molecule is made up of thousands of glucose monomers.

identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material Cellulose can be broken down into its constituent sugars. The first step in this process involves thermo chemical (steam/acid) pre-treatment of the cellulose followed by hydrolysis using the enzyme cellulase. The sugars that are produced may then be converted into chemicals which can be used as monomers for the polymerisation process. Plastics and fibres made of biopolymers are biodegradable, because the bonds within the molecule can be broken down by bacteria and fungi. This is an advantage in some applications but a nuisance in others. Plastics designed to be used only once, such as food wrappers, could be made of starch or cellulose based plastics. A number of products made from such materials have appeared on the market recently. Another example would be with foam peanuts used for packing, which have been available for decades, however, the new biopolymer equivalent has positives that its made from a renewable resource, and its biodegradable.

Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants:
describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Dehydration is a chemical reaction in which water is removed from a compound. Ethanol is dehydrated by heating it with concentrated sulphuric or phosphoric acid which acts as a catalyst: CH3-CH2-O-H (After a catalyst) CH2=CH2 + H2O. Ethene is made from Ethanol by dehydration. Similarly, ethanol is made from ethene via hydration. To hydrate a solution, the acid must be of a low concentration so that there is a higher proportion of water, to react with the solution. To dehydrate a solution, the acid must be of a high concentration, so that the water from within the molecules are attracted to react with the large proportion of water molecules available. The acid must be present in the reaction, as it increases reaction rate. describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used Ethylene can be hydrated by being reacted with a low concentration acid steam (at approximately 300 degrees Celsius). The acid is used as a catalyst for the reaction to occur. And example of this: C 2H4(g) + H2O(g) (low conc. H2SO4) CH3CH2OH(l). describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar substances Ethanol comprises of a Hydroxyl (OH) group, and an alkyl group (C2H5). The Hydroxyl group makes the molecule slightly polar, and thus, indicates that ethanol dissolves polar substances. However, within the alkyl group, hydrogen bonds are formed between the H atoms of the molecule and other H atoms of other molecules. These hydrogen bonds allow for non-polar substances to be absorbed within them. These 2 qualities leave ethanol as a solvent for both polar, and non-polar substances. outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource Ethanol can be used as an additive to unleaded petrols to create whats known as an ethanol blend. Ethanol alone destroys car engines via corrosion, and so the blends are necessary. Ethanol releases less energy than unleaded petrol does- although, it also burns cleaner. Its considered a renewable resource because bioproducts can be fermented and converted into ethanol. And so, the resources to make ethanol can be replentished.

describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted Fermentations of sugars is promoted in an anoxic environment, that is heated to roughly 37 degrees Celsius, with water present. The ethanol needs to be distilled regularly, as if the ethanol percentage exceeds 15, the yeast will die. summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process The glucose within the biomass is fermented via yeast to result in ethanol and carbon doixide. The equation for which is. C6H12O6 (yeast) 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from first-hand data The molar heat of combustion of a compound is the amount of energy, in kilojoules, that a fuel excretes when its burned. Ethanols molar heat of combustion is -1366.8 kJ/mol. assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use Ethanols benefits include in the fact that they produce less air pollution, and are created from renewable resources. However, the disadvantages lay within the fact that the land use for ethanol would forfeit many acres of land that could lead to food production, and force the world to starve, manipulation of cheap labour is also an issue. For one-page synopsis, see assignment. identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8 methanol, ethanol, propenol, butanol, pentanol, hexanol, septanol, octanol.

Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy:

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explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons A displacement reaction is a reaction in which a metal converts the ion of another metal to the neutral atom. Cu + 2Ag^+ 2Ag + Cu^2+ Copper loses two electrons, and therefore increases its charge. The copper has been oxidised. Likewise, the Silver gains an electron, to each atom involved in the reaction, and decreased its charge. This means that the silver has been reduced. The relevant half equations: Ox: Cu Cu^2+ + 2eRed: Ag^+ + e- Ag identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals The activity series is determined upon an atoms difficulty to oxidise. Displacement reactions show which of the two metals is the more easily oxidised, as its the one that eventuates as a complete atom (that is, not an ion.) The more reactive metal is the one which will displace the other metal from a solution of its ions. If the activity series is one as provided by TSFX, then the atom on the right hand-side will react with any species on the left hand side and below it. However, if given a table, then the most negative charge is the most reactive, and therefore, will oxidise the easiest, and the other species will reduce.

account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons For monatomic ions, the oxidation state of the element is the charge of the ion. The oxidation state of an element present in its stable elemental state is zero, regardless of the formula of the molecule of the element. An increase in oxidation state, results in a loss of electrons, and therefore is oxidation, where as a decrease in oxidation state results in a gain of electrons, and is therefore reduction. Eg. The oxidation state of copper in: Cu2O is +1, of iron in FeS is +2, Titanium in TiCl3 is +3 etc. For the first 2 periods of the periodic table, the valencies of the electrons remain the same, eg. O is always 2-, and Cl is always 1-, but as theyre lower then the first two periods, then you can calculate them. Also, you can determine whether a species oxidises or reduces by these equations. As, you determine the initial oxidation state, and compare it to the final oxidation state. If its a positive, it oxidised, if its negative, it reduced.

describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another. Coincidentally, an electric current is a flow of electrons through a wire, which is supplied as an external wire connecting to the two electrodes. A voltmeter can be added this way. If an oxidation, and reduction reaction are being undertaken whilst a wire connects the 2 reactions for electron transfer to be undertaken, an electric current can be harnessed, and proved by a voltmeter set up. A typical galvanic cell contains a copper anode (oxidises), in a nitrate ion solution (NO3-), and a salt bridge (made of a conductible substance, namely Potassium nitrate) that connects to the silver cation (reduces) in a solution, also of a nitrate ion (NO3-). A salt bridge is connected to the two electrolytes (if they arent already mixed within a solution) to achieve whats called electrical stability. As a current is made: 1. Metallic silver deposits on the silver wire- as can be seen by inspection/weighing. 2.Some of the copper strip dissolves, again as can be confirmed by weighing. 3. The concentration of silver ions in the right beaker falls appreciably, and 4. The concentration of copper ions in the left beaker increases. So, basically, electricity was produced by a chemical reaction, as the voltmeter showed that electrons flowed from the copper strip to the external circuit, down the silver wire. Cu Cu2^+ + 2e- (oxidised) Ag+ + e- Ag (reductant) Cu + 2Ag Cu2^+ + 2Ag (net) Electrons flow from anode to cathode. That is, negative, to positive. outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow The electrons move from the anion to the cation. And, the construction of a galvanic cell is listed above^^ For all cells, the elctrodes move from the negative to the positive. define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells Anode: The metal that oxidises Cathode: The metal that reduces. Electrode: The conductors of a cell which get connected to the external circuit. Electrolyte: a substance which in solution or molten conducts electricity. This is the solution in the cells. Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid cell and evaluate it to one of the following:

Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials:

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distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable Atomic Number: The number of protons in an atoms nucleus. (symbol Z) Mass number: The number of protons and neutrons in an atoms nucleus. (symbol A) Isotope: for one element that has the same atomic number, but a different mass number. An example of this is: the stable isotope of Rb has an atomic number of 37 and a mass of 85. The radioactive isotope of Rb has an atomic number of 37 but a mass number of 87 (thats 2 more neutrons.) However, to determine whether the isotope is unstable, 2 easy rules are: If its atomic number is greater then 83 its unstable. Or, if its ratio of neutrons to protons lies outside the zone of stability. [In a Protons (y-axis) vs Neutrons (x-axis) graph]. Types of radiation emitted: Alpha- These are a helium nucleus, which have an atomic mass of 4, and 2 protons. Beta- Beta emits an electron. Gamma- is a wave, no mass to be measured. describe how transuranic elements are produced Nuclear Fission: a reaction in which neutrons bombard atoms and cause them to split into two roughly equal fragments. Eg. 1/0 n + 235/92 U 141/56 Ba + 92/36 Kr + 3(1/0 n) + energy Eg2. 1/0 n + 235/92 U 144/54 Xe + 90/38 Sr + 2(1/0 n) + energy. Some isotopes when hit by neutrons under go fission. U235 for example. Others, however, undergo nuclear reactions that produce new elements. For example, U238 is not fissile, meaning that it does not split when its hit by a neutron. Instead, it forms a new element, Np. U238 + n e + Np239 (unstable)

It then rapidly decays to plutonium which is much more stable Np239/93 e + Pu239/94 Neither neptunium or plutonium exist in nature, and are artificial. Linear accelerators: Positive particles accelerated in a straight line along the axes of a series of cylinders move alternatively positive & negative so the particles are pushed from behind & pulled from infront by a negative charge. Cyclotrons: Also accelerates positive particles by passing them through positive and negative fields but they use a strong magnetic field to spiral the particle.
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describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced Half-life: is the time required for half the atoms in a given radioisotope to undergo radioactive decay, for any particular radioisotope, the half-life is independent of the initial amount of the isotope present. Nuclear reactors are a convenient source of neutrons, and so are used to make radioisotopes that can be prepared by neutron bombardment. Suitable target nuclei are placed in the reactor core where they are bombarded by neutrons to produce the required isotope. Eg. Cobalt 60 is created by regular Cobalt 59 which is bombarded by neutrons, until it absorbs one and becomes Cobalt 60. identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation Photographic film- the first use of detecting radiation, however its still used in laboratorys by workers (They wear whats known as a radiation badge) and the darker the badge gets the more radiation the workers been exposed to. Cloud Chamber- An instrument which has alcohol vapour within it, and as the radiation ionises it, it condenses to liquid form, and so you can see the amount of radiation that has passed through. Geiger- Muller counter- The rays enter the thin end of the Geiger tube, and hits a has molecule and ionises it by knocking an electron out of it. The high voltage accelerates this electron towards the central electrode and it ionises more gases in its path. This creates an electric pulse which is amplified and measured by generating clicks in an audio amplifier. Scintillation counter- The instrument uses the fact that when certain substances are irradiated with alpha, beta or gamma rays, they emit a flash of light which can be collected an amplified.

identify one use of a named radioisotope: - in industry Cobalt 60- used in industrial radiography to inspect metal parts and welds for defects. Beams of radiation are directed at the object to be checked from a sealed source of Co-60. Radiographic film on the opposite side of the source is exposed when it is struck by radiation passing through the objects being tested. More radiation will pass through if there are cracks, breaks, or other flaws in the metal parts and will be recorded on film. By studying the film, structural problems can be detected. Co-60 is used because it as an emitter of gamma rays which will penetrate metal parts. Co- 60 has a half life of 5.3 years and can be used in a chemically inert form held inside a sealed container. This enables the equipment to have a long lifetime and not require regular maintenance. Also, once emitted, it forms non-radioactive nickel, and ceases to be harmful. - in medicine Technetium 99m- Used widely in medicine for diagnosis. Its half-life is only 6 hours, and therefore, it has to be produced at the hospital needing it. Its formed by the radioactive decay of molybdenum-99. At the hospital Technetium 99m is chemically bound to biologically significant molecules for the diagnostic test to be performed. Tc-99m can attach itself to red blood cells, and by a gamma scanner (because Tc-99m emits low gamma radiation) the blood flow can be monitored. If the blood flow is concentrated around a certain area more than whats ideal, this is indicative of a cancerous growth. Tc-99m offers a non-invasive means of inspection for issues/abnormalities with the body.

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gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write equations to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the HSC course identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water The reasoning for cyclo hexane and hexane to be used is that they are both liquids at room temperature, and the only variable between the two substances is the double bond of the hexane and hexane which is whats intended to be tested. Br2 + (Cyclochexene) 1,2 dibromo-cyclyhexane. The clyclohexanse would slowly react with the bromine water, if it were in the presence of UV light. The decolourisation of either substances would indicate the presence of unsaturated hydro-carbon molecules, and so the colourless liquid was identified as the alkene. A beaker of cyclohexane and a beaker of cyclohexene were both available. An equal amount of bromine water was added to both solutions. We then wofted both hydrocarbons, and noted that the cyclohexane hardly smelt, whilst the cyclohexene had a pungent odour. After gentle shaking, the bromine water (brown/orange) turned clear within the cyclohexene solution (as an addition reaction was undertaken, in cyclohexenes highly reactive double bond) whereas in the cyclohexane solution, the two substances mixed, and didnt react.

analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process For this prac test, we had different assortments of lollies as representations of varying elements. For example, Raspberries were carbons, tooth picks were bonds and hydrogen was marshmallows. We then proceeded to create various polymers, including PVC, polyethylene and polystyrene. Advantage of using models: Models give an inclination as to which atoms are jined to which, and the general shape of the molecule is understood. They are used to visualise what is happening, at both the atomic and sub-atomic particles. However, the limitations are that they may over simplify the processes involved, and as they are not to scale- and so they can give generalisations, and not acuurately measured information.

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use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) is a unique biopolymer (that has over 150 different monomers that when initiated, propagated and terminated can heavily alter the PHAs properties, melting point variaions from 40-180 degrees, infact the commercially popular Biopol is a specific PHA) thats produced by the micro-organism A. eutrophus, when its placed in a suitable medium (such as minimal nitrogen and oxygen present, with an excess of carbon) so that it breeds constantly. The nutrients components are altered (now a glucose or cellulose become the nutrients), and this forces the A. eutrophus to synthesise PHA. The PHA is extracted by disrupting the A. eutrophus cells. Current research is currently being undertaken to try and create PHA from muinicipal waste water, although so far most attempts have been unsuccessful. Properties: Ductile, elastic, UV stable, reasonable impact strength/ flexibility, good moisture resistance. Uses: (mainly medical and pharmaceutical because its biodegradable): sutures, rivets, bone stents, vein valves, slings, surgical mesh.

Students: LOOK AT ASSIGNMENT!

process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies or computer simulations to model: the addition of water to ethylene The breaking of the double bond in ethylene allows for the water molecule to break into a H atom and an OH- group. Both of these then bond to a carbon atom and form ethanol. the dehydration of ethanol An OH molecule, and a H atom break from the ethanol, to form H2O and the ethene molecule.

process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane Sugar cane is harvested in mass proportions, and then is boiled and chopped to create a biomass. This biomass is then soaked in a dilute sulphuric acid solution to break the cellulose bonds, and leave a combination of glucose and sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid is then filtered. Calcium hydroxide is added to even the pH, the then created CaSo4 is then filtered. The sugar is then placed in a fermentation tower, the oxygen is removed from the tower, and yeast is added. Ethanol is then created by this reaction. The ethanol needs to be filtered constantly as a concentration of greater than 15% kills the yeast. H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + 2H20 process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage Brazil is currently the only country that has 100% ethanol engines. However, the 5% blends in Australia are effective, but over 10-15% blends can erode car parts. Ethanols heat of combustion is slightly lower than that of C4-C12 alkanes. solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes Fermentation of Glucose: Aim: to monitor the mass change of limewater and a glucose/yeast solution during fermentation. Hypothesis: The limewater will gain weight. Method: 1. Fill one conical flask with 100mL of glucose. 2. Fill another conical flask with 100mL of limewater. 3.Add 5g of yeast into the glucose solution. 4. Plug the conical flasks with a connecting delivery tube that is submerged into the limewater solution. 5. Incubate at 37 degrees, and then weigh the two individual conical flasks after each day for the next 5 days. Results: The limewater solution gained 1.4 g, which was in the form of carbon dioxide that had reacted with the solution. Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H20(g)

present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol C6H12O6 (yeast) 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole Comparison between different Alkanol s heat of combustion. Aim: To determine the relationship[ between the carbon chain lengths, and the heat of combustion between varying alkanols. Method: 1. Set up a retort stand with a boss head clamp. 2. Place in it a beaker with 100mL of water. 3. Weigh the alkanols pre-combustion. 4. Using a thermometer, measure the temperature of the water. 5. For 5 minutes, have an alkanol burning approximately 5cm from the beaker.

6. Record the final temperature. 7. Weigh the final weight of the alkanol. 8. Repeat this two more times, with varying alkanols. Result: The longer the carbon-chain length, the more heat that is released per mole.

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perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced Method: 150mL beaker filled with 50mL of 0.1 molar sodium chloride. Two electrodes (graphite and test metal) are in the beaker connected by a voltmeter. Using different variations of metals, the volts were recorded. We then alternated the electrolytes, with a graphite and zinc electrode, whilst changing the electrolye from NaCl to HNO3 to KNO3 and recording the voltages. We then altered the concentration of an NaCl electrode, and measured the voltages. To determine the right amounts of each substance was required in order to determine the concentration: c1v1=c2v2 was used. Conclusion: There are three types of galvanic cells; 1. Electrodes that consist of a piece of metal dipping into a solution containing the ion of the same metal. Ie. A Cu electrode dipping into Cu2+, and an Ag electrode dipping into Ag+ ions. 2. Electrodes consisting of an inert conductor dipping into a solution containing both the oxidised and reduced form of the one element. Ie, platinum wire dipping into a solution containing both Fe2+ and Feions. 3. Electrodes with a gas bubbling into solution containing the oxidised or reduced form of the gas with an inert conductor dipping into the solution such as chlorine, chlorine electrode or a hydrogen on a hydrogen ion electrode. perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution Method: 1. Clean the metal strips with steel wool. 2. Place the solutions of zinc nitrate, copper nitrate, lead nitrate, iron (II) sulfate into separate 100mL beakers, about half full. Add the same metal to the beaker containing the metal ion solution. Eg. Zn metal goes in Zn ion solution. (this is the half cell). 3. Place strips of filter paper in a 250mL beaker, add saturated potassium nitrate solution and leave to soak. (salt bridge) 4. Connect the zinc half cell to the copper half cell with the salt bridge. 5. Use the connecting wires to connect the zinc metal and copper metal to the voltmeter to get a reading. Note which metal is positive and the magnitude of the voltage. 6. Record these observations. 7. Remove the salt bridge and note what happens to the voltage. 8. Repeat with various other combinations of half cells. Results: The larger the EMF difference, the greater the voltage is. gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following: - button cell - fuel cell - vanadium redox cell - lithium cell - liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg the Gratzel cell) in terms of: - chemistry - cost and practicality - impact on society - environmental impact

Lead-acid cell
Chemistry:
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The cell has one plate made of lead, and another of lead dioxide. (Pb and PbO2 respectively).

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A strong sulfuric acid (H2SO4) electrolyte is what the plates are submersed within. Anode: Ox: Pb + SO4(^2-) PbSO4(s) + 2eCathode: Red: PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4(2-) + 2e- PbSO4 + 2H2O The reaction is completely reversible, if you apply current, lead and lead dioxide form on the plates, and so the battery can be re-used. six 2volt cells are combined in series to create a 12v battery. The surface area of the electrodes in contact with the electrolyte, with the plates close together- in order to create the biggest current output.

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Cost and practicality:

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The batteries have a very low energy/weight ratio, but has a very large power/weight ratio (can supply high surge currents.) The batteries are relatively cheap for their uses, as common usage is within a car- where one needs replacing between 1-2 years. Is often used on cars, but also in emergency lighting (incase of power failure.) Allows ordinary people to afford to run a car, and have emergency lighting. Was the first type of rechargeable battery, created a building block for other research to take place. Lead is extremely toxic, and if cracks occur in the battery casing, this lead can escape. 97% of all battery lead is being recycled in America, which is indicative of the rest of the world.

Impact on society:
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Environmental Impact:
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Hydrogen Fuel Cell:

Chemistry:
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Theres porous, carbon electrodes (inert) and hydrogen passes over the anode, and oxygen passes over the cathode. Theres a Potassium hydroxide electrolyte between both electrodes. Water passes out the bottom of the cell. Anode: Ox: H2 + 2OH-(aq) Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e2H2O + 2e4OH-

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Cost and practicality:

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The price of the fuel cells are rather expensive in an industrial sense- but this is mainly because they arent widely produced. Theres on going costs, having to buy oxygen and hydrogen as fuel. The fuel cell will always work, so long as you fill the fuel- as neither electrodes react (due to them being inert.)

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Impact on society:
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Fuel cells produce only heat and water as their by products. Fuel cells being created as a cheap alternative, would ensure that the public have an eco-friendly alternative. An issue with them is that they cant create high voltages.

Environmental impact:

Is eco-friendly, as its by products are heat and water.

solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half-equations E total= - (E ox) + E red. Determine which of the metals is the oxidant and the reductant. Times the oxidant by minus 1, and then add it with the EMF value of the reductant.

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process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements Ununseptium (element 117). Discovery: in January 2010, scientists at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions announced that they had succeeded in detecting the decay of a new element with 117 protons, using the reactions: Ca48+ Bk 297 Uus117. use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine Tc-99m: Used for over half of the current nuclear medical procedures, such as pin-pointing brain tumours. Its advantages are within its ease of use, and effectiveness. However, a disadvantage is that its created by the nuclear decomposition of Molybdenum 99, and needs to be transported from the one reactor that exports it (Lucas heights) to all hospitals in Australia, which can be expensive. Other radioactive isotopes can be used to sterilise delicate equipments, which is an advantage, and stronger isotopes require laborious tests/checks to ensure the patients safety. The low gamma rays emitted ensure that the tissues of the patient arent affected, whilst the radiation can still be detected by a scanner. Co-60: Is used in machinery, to detect micro-fractures etc in machinery parts. Due to its long half life (over 5 years) the Cobalt-60 needs to be housed properly, which could require a lot of space, and also money. Also, there is danger to workers if they are over exposed. The advantages are within its practicality, as it enables for fractures to be identified before the dismantling of a large and cumbersome apparatus. The reparation of machinery is important also, because faulty equipment can seriously injure a worker.