DONORS WITHOUT BORDERS: THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON PHILANTHROPY

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Philanthropy and Development Saint Marys University of Minnesota Winona, Minnesota

By Gina L. Eisler, CFRE June 2008

M.A. in Philanthropy and Development

As administration and faculty of Saint Marys University of Minnesota, I have evaluated the FINAL CAPSTONE PAPER:

by Gina Lois Eisler

and recommend that the degree of Master of Arts be conferred upon the candidate.

Gary A. Kelsey Ed.D. Program Director

Date

Acknowledgements Throughout my twenty-year career in non-profit management and revenue development, it has been an honour to work with so many wonderful mentors, selfless donors, volunteer leaders, and employees in the non-profit sector. Each of them has contributed to this work. I would like to thank my colleagues in Cohort 16, the late Tim Burchill and the Tim Burchill Scholarship Fund, the Canadian Cancer Society and the Ontario Division Gift Planning Team for their guidance, wisdom, patience and support throughout the last two years.

4 Abstract Globalization has become a catchword representing a spectrum that ranges from the Internet, rapidly expanding multinational corporations and extends beyond the stock market and boardroom into deadly airborne viruses such as SARS. At the same time, the last twenty-five years have witnessed the development of non-profit organizations at an unprecedented rate all over the world. This Capstone Paper documents the results of a literature review to identify key influences in this rise of the non-profit sector and to identify common themes and trends to determine how globalization is affecting philanthropy outside of North America. Many of the same factors influencing government and business also influence organized philanthropy. Technological advances are assisting organizations to raise funds, communicate and learn from each other. Professional networks and organizations to teach and share best practices have been established. In organizations around the world, the employees of non-profit organizations are being educated and trained with the realization of the importance the civil sector plays in democratic society. Long considered the domain of the United States, the community foundation is rapidly becoming a successful method of organized philanthropy outside North America with its own support organizations and networks. The research revealed that from a global perspective, organized philanthropy is poised to become even more important as borders open, knowledge is shared, and skills are taught. Communications technology has, and will continue to play a critical role in advancing philanthropy around the world. Despite the tremendous progress the community foundation movement has made, it may require another generation to benefit

5 before results are felt. Countries new to democracy will only reap the rewards of organized philanthropy if government, business and civil society work together.

Table of Contents

Title Page .............................................................................................................................1 Final Paper Approval Form .................................................................................................2 Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................3 Abstract ................................................................................................................................4 Table of Contents ................................................................................................................6 Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................7 Chapter 2: Literature Review.............................................................................................19 Chapter 3: Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................49 Summary ............................................................................................................................55 References..........................................................................................................................57 Annotated Bibliography.....................................................................................................64

Chapter One Introduction Purpose The reach of civil society on a global scale became evident during the tsunami disaster of December 2004. As soon as the media around the world publically broadcast the tragedy, non-profit organizations and non-government organizations mobilized to coordinate relief operations for millions of distraught people in South and Southeast Asia. The tsunami revealed remarkable effects of globalization, as people, businesses and governments around the world responded with donations to humanitarian organizations through the repeatedly televised and pod-cast tragedy. This disaster happened in a new global world in which borders, time and space are almost irrelevant. By collapsing time and space, making communications instantaneous and creating networks of knowledge and shared values around the world, globalization has radically expanded the opportunities for effective philanthropy (Brodhead, 2005, p. 7). This more effective philanthropy will need to rely on professionals and support organizations to deliver programs and raise funds, as well as opportunities to share best practices using technology and communications tools. The literature review sought to find themes and trends in globalization and philanthropy and to document their impact on organized philanthropy outside of North America. What impact does globalization have on philanthropy? It helps us to see the world in a different way. It enlarges our concept of community. In an interconnected globalized world, all

8 problems become everybodys problems: disease, conflict, pollution spread rapidly and affect each of us no matter where they originate (Brodhead, 2005, p. 6). More than ever, shared solutions to global problems will enable organized philanthropy, philanthropists, and non-profit managers to play a role in changing the world in which we live. Those charged with leading organizations will need to know what factors will impact philanthropy, how philanthropic practices can be influenced and how these changes will affect non-profit organizations. The rapid spread of the community foundation movement to newly democratized countries is an example of a philanthropy tool that is being transported effectively. The purpose of this Capstone Paper is to define globalization as it relates to philanthropy through a review of factors that influence globalization, briefly review information related to philanthropy and globalization, and document the effects that were consistent, as well as common themes in the literature review. The background section of this paper will highlight and explain globalization and its history with a brief introduction to philanthropy. Two very important factors surfaced in many books and articles: the growth of the civil sector around the world and the role philanthropy can play in this new global society. These points are documented in the first section of Chapter Two. The subsequent sections of Chapter Two focus on the three core trends that surfaced as consistent themes in the review of related literature: the extraordinary impact that communications technology has on non-profit organizations, the growth in, and need for, higher education and support organizations for non-profit managers and professional

9 fundraising staff, and the rapid increase and expansion of the community foundation movement around the world. It should be noted that the research and literature review focus on globalization and philanthropy; not on international, transnational, diaspora giving, friends organizations or the effects of globalization on international organizations. Diana Leat provides a succinct explanation to differentiate between global philanthropy versus crossborder giving that can be referenced throughout the literature review: The globalization of philanthropy as the process of spreading philanthropic institutions and practices globally. Although these two meanings of global philanthropy are analytically distinguishable they are related in practice insofar as the globalization of philanthropy . is a necessary accompaniment, if not condition for, the growth of crossborder giving, i.e. global philanthropy (Leat, 2007, p. 199). A further intention of this Capstone Paper was to determine the impact of globalization on philanthropy, and whether or not this information can be useful and applicable for countries new to organized philanthropy. Shared solutions to societal issues can benefit everyone, and with the rapidly growing and important civil society almost everywhere on earth, studying and implementing the factors that affect the globalization of philanthropy can help people share solutions faster and better.

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Research Question What are the common trends affecting the globalization of philanthropy outside of North America since 1989? Background The research and literature review undertaken focused on examining the factors affecting the globalization of philanthropy in countries outside of North America since the year 1989. The literature review included research on globalization and its historical origins, as well as several papers, case studies from other countries and articles considering the role of philanthropy within globalization. There are numerous studies of democracy and civil society, the movement of goods and services related to the economy and trans-national companies, and the growth of the non-profit sector, or civil society, on a global scale. A common theme emerged in the work of several respected authorities in both globalization and philanthropy and the civil sector: the globalization of civil society has been on a parallel course as the economy globalizes. Digital Giving author Richard McPherson stated, Where commerce goes, charity soon follows (2007, p. 70). Similarly, Lester Salamon noted that the factors responsible for globalization are those same factors responsible for the growth in the civil sector: communications technology, neoliberalism and new public management, an emphasis on social capital, social entrepreneurs and external actors (grassroots democracy) (2005, p. 137-140). Helmut Anheier echoed Salamon when he stated that philanthropy is, following the familiar path of globalization as companies increasingly move funds, goods and services. Combined

11 with the growing number of countries networked with international law treaties philanthropy is increasingly moving across and beyond borders (Anheier, 2007, p. 117). The research to define and trace the history of globalization has shown that it is not a new concept, or term, and many views on the beginning of globalization exist. In recent decades, the ability to communicate and travel has been a major force in connecting the world. Long before 1989, the internationalization of the telephone system and major credit cards both played a role in the erosion of national boundaries. In 2005, Thomas Friedman suggested that globalization began in 1989 with the end of the Cold War; while others like Philippe Legrain claim it has always existed. The first wave of 19th century globalization may be credited to the development of canals to move goods, steam replacing sails, and railways linking one coast of a continent to the other. When the telegraph was invented in 1835, it began connecting the world in minutes rather than weeks. The unification of postal services made correspondence faster and easier and the invention of the radio and telephone linked people more than ever before. During the 1800s the greatest international migration of people took place; sixty million Europeans moved to the Americas (three fifths to the United States) in the early to mid1800s and 12 million Japanese and Chinese moved to East and South Asia (Legrain, 2002, p. 89-96). Some historians claim that globalization began with Columbus in 1500, then continued with Vasco de Gama and Magellan sailing around the world and leading to thriving trade by 1600 (Legrain, 2002, p. 82-83). The Industrial Revolution (circa 1770 and on) could have marked the first period of globalization, and todays era the second globalization. The Renaissance may be considered the beginning of globalization, or,

12 perhaps it started at the height of European imperialism in the 1890s when world trade was larger than in the 1990s. In the 1920s interconnection through travel and world trade could establish globalization, or in the 1950s with the creation of new international organizations, trade agreements, communication via television and popular culture (Grew, 2005, p. 18). According to Thomas Friedman there have been ten important factors that have had flattening, or globalizing, effects on the world. The fall of the Berlin Wall didnt just help flatten the alternatives to free-market capitalism and unlock enormous pent-up energies for hundreds of millions of people in places like India, Brazil, China, and the former Soviet Empire. It also allowed us to think about the world differently to see it as more of a seamless whole. Because the Berlin Wall was blocking our way; it was blocking our sight - our ability to think about the world as a single market, a single ecosystem, and a single community. Before 1989, you could have an Eastern policy or a Western policy, but it was hard to think about having a global policy (Friedman, 2005, p. 53). Regardless of when globalization began to connect the world, civil society has emerged as a beneficiary, both as a user and dependant, as the trends documented in this paper will illustrate. Two of Friedmans claims regarding globalization have also had a significant impact on the globalization of philanthropy: the fall of the communist state and the introduction of the Internet, or World Wide Web. For the purposes of this paper,

13 the examination of globalization and philanthropy will focus on globalization since the late 1980s. Friedman believes that the second most important flattening effect is the invention of the Web. British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee created the Web in 1991 to allow science researchers to be able to share their research quickly and easily (Friedman, 2005, p. 59). This rapid growth of communications technology has enabled the sharing of fundraising concepts, techniques and practices around the world (Johnson, 2005, p. 7). These are documented within Chapter Two of this Capstone Paper. While Friedman claims globalization cannot be halted, former special adviser to the World Trade Organization Philippe Legrain disagrees. He notes globalization is a product of expansive growth in technology, leading to less expensive transportation and communications. He goes on to observe that accepting globalization is a political choice: North Korea, for instance, continues to close its borders to the outside world, and China enforces restrictions on its citizens through their use of the Internet. He also notes few countries trade with more than their neighbours, as language, culture and customs will always differentiate people and their communities. And he observes most consumable goods cant be traded; hair stylists, fitness clubs, and cleaners cannot provide services over the World Wide Web (Legrain, 2002, p. 6-9). Philanthropy is not new in any culture or country. The terminology is often different; many versions of philanthropy have deep religious or cultural influences. There are examples of international philanthropy dating back to Roman times when Herodes Atticus, a Greek businessman, endowed a stadium, restored a theatre, and contributed to the building of aquaducts in Rome (Ruffin, 2003, p. 35). Organized and strategic

14 techniques used to raise funds often credited to the United States, such as community foundations and capital campaigns (Onishi, 2007, p. 10) were preceded by Japans first modern foundation in 1829, the Society of Gratitude (Salamon, p. 8, 1994; Ruffin, 2003, p. 3). In Great Britain, laws controlling charitable giving date back to 1601 with the English Charitable Law of Trusts. The United States developed laws governing international giving in 1935, giving rise to foundations able to send resources outside the United States to support NGOs and non-profit orphanages and hospitals. Non-profit regulations and laws still restrict many countries from developing their civil society. In post-communist countries, the laws have made it difficult for people to understand the positive contribution non-profit organizations can make to society (Ruffin, 2003, p. 3537). Internationally, within the non-profit sector there is a greater level of sophistication used to both manage organizations and raise funds. There are 184 nonprofit management programs in colleges and universities established outside the United States. Dozens of support organizations have been created to support the third sector. For example, when apartheid ended in South Africa, there were a number of communitybased organizations, NGOs and charities that were very political and well-organized. With democratic government, these organizations lost much of their influence and many are beginning to adopt the community foundation model. The South African

Grantmakers Association was created to research and help develop strategic philanthropy with a goal of enhancing grant effectiveness (Fraser, 2007, p. 79-81). Other support organizations are explored in Chapter Two.

15 According to the literature reviewed, no organized fundraising or philanthropic techniques have spread outside North America as rapidly and successfully as the community foundation movement. Community foundations have been a traditional North American model of strategic philanthropy. Comparable organizations were established in other countries; however they are now considered the fastest growing philanthropic innovation outside North America as they develop unique roles in communities around the world. Many of the Eastern European community foundations organized since 1989 have received start-up funds from the Open Society Foundation, Mott, Ford or Rockefeller Brothers Foundations in the United States (Leat, 2006, p. 252). Globalization of philanthropy is real, and very positive. We need to think differently about how money is given now. People are motivated differently than in the past. It is no longer chequebook charity. There is an opportunity for foundations because they should be the vehicle for global philanthropy (Brock, 2005, p. 163). Extraordinary challenges are being overcome by Central and Eastern European organizations. To prevent a return to authoritarian states, more people are relying on a strong, responsive civil society to protect against regression (Gaberman, 2003, p. 3). European countries had a rich history of philanthropic foundations, but their philanthropic practices, including voluntarism, were wiped out in World War II. Under communism there was complete distrust of the government or anyone outside of family; yet there was complete dependence on the state for service and solutions to problems (Pospscil, p. 22). These trends the growth of civil society, the expansion of

16 communications technology, the professionalization of non-profit employees and the community foundation movement are all playing a significant role in the globalization of philanthropy.

Significance Although some scholarly material has traced a rise in the number of non-profit education and training programs, far less attention is paid to this when compared to other topics on globalization, or philanthropys role within it. For many employees within the non-profit sector, there exists a willingness to share, teach and help build a better society. Research into globalization and philanthropy can lead to opportunities, present knowledge applicable in North America and add to the growing information that exists for new practitioners around the world. As the community foundation model was shaped to save time and effort for countries seeking ways to operate a foundation, perhaps other elements of non-profit management and fundraising can also be shared to save time, effort and embrace a new global philanthropic community. As competition for employees, volunteers and donors continues to impact the sector, being aware of the effects of globalization on philanthropy, and the successes and failures of techniques used in other countries should influence best practices. Awareness of trends in any sector is critical for success, as it should be for the increasingly scrutinized non-profit sector. As the sector encounters challenges related to accountability, transparency and benchmarking, having knowledge of the world-stage of philanthropic practices can benefit volunteers and staff regardless of their place in the world.

17 This research can be of use to those practicing professionals keen for new knowledge, for those wishing to mentor others, and to understand the profession on a worldwide stage. In countries with diverse populations, such as Canada, there is an urgent need to redefine and expand the prospect pool. It is of interest and benefit to know what traditions and trends are happening in a prospective donors home country before engaging the person in an organization. In any growing field, it is important to see the big picture and to learn from those who have gone before us. Philanthropic leaders who have listened to the civil society sector in emerging countries are the ones to promote systemic change and modify the impact of globalization. The demand for change has come from the community base. And philanthropy has listened (Oliviero and Simmons, 2007, p. 122-123).

Definition of Terms Civil society: an organization or group operating for the benefit of society without paying dividends to shareholders. Often used interchangeably with non-profit organization, nongovernment organization or third sector, this term encompasses churches, community groups, service organizations, charities, social movements, health organizations as well as NGOs and non-profit organizations. Also considered a more positive term (rather than saying what the organization is not doing as in not for profit) (Perlas, p. xv). Philanthropy: giving for the common good of humankind.

18 Strategic philanthropy: creative/innovative philanthropy leading to significant results; potential for further growth (Wattanasiritham, p. 93). Web 2.0: Social interactions online, or using the Internet and World Wide Web. Refers to FaceBook, Youtube and other programs/systems that allow users to communicate immediately and share their own thoughts and daily activities online. Nongovernment organization (NGO): international development agencies working in developing countries at arms length from the government, but receiving government funding. Non-profit organization (NPO): an organization operating for the benefit of society without paying dividends to shareholders. Often receives funds from the government to operate. Third sector: the first sector is government, the second is business and the third sector refers to civil society or non-profit organizations.

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Chapter Two Literature Review Introduction The literature reviewed is organized under the following headings. 1. The growth of civil society and the role of philanthropy in globalization

2. The impact of technology on the globalization of philanthropy 3. Networks and education to support non-profit employees 4. The growth of the community foundation movement and globalization

The growth of civil society and the role of philanthropy in globalization A well-documented trend found in the literature is the remarkable increase in the international non-profit sector throughout the last 20 years. This documented growth is noted by several non-profit experts such as Helmut Anheier, Lester Salamon, Timothy Brodhead, Holt Ruffin, et al., in numerous sources utilized for this Capstone Paper. Influencing factors include political reform, government policy changes, and the collapse of communism in Russia, Eastern Europe and Asia. In response to reductions in public sector support in Latin America and Africa, nongovernment organizations have been created. Asian organizations have been established because new legal regulations and governments allowed the non-profit sector to develop (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 67).

20 At the same time, a global third sector, or civil society, is expanding and growing in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Foundations, associations and grassroots efforts to provide services and economic development, and to protect human rights and the environment, are being created like no other time in history. We are in the midst of a global associational revolution that may prove to be as significant to the latter twentieth century as the rise of the nation-state was to the latter nineteenth (Salamon, 1994, p. 1). The World Bank, official aid agencies and governments have supported and even subsidized this growth. In countries like the United States and the United Kingdom, conservative government leaders such as Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan made support for the voluntary sector a strategy to reduce government spending. Other countries have seen it as a way to tap into creativity and ensure democratic support (Salamon, 1994, p. 4). It is not a coincidence that organized philanthropy has expanded and grown with the demise of authoritarian states; many link the end of the Cold War with the opening of societies. It does not mean that government and civil society are in opposition, as civil society relies on the framework that government provides (Brodhead, 2005, p. 4). The growth of civil society from democracy, the emergence of new global needs, and inexpensive, widely available technology has created borderless networks that allow civil society to organize and speak locally as well as internationally. Power has shifted and spread from government to NGOs, corporations and international organizations. Information on global needs is more accessible due to the technological revolution; and

21 a broad range of actors committed to responding to these needs has emerged due to the worldwide boom of civil society (Frumkin, 2005, p. 111). Philanthropy has learned from its civil society constituencies to leverage its power to bring groups together within and across sectors. While government, commercial enterprise, and private investment remain the driving forces of globalization, philanthropy can help give citizens a voice in the process. In the context of globalization the role of philanthropy is critical to helping globalize civil society networks (Oliviero, Simmons, 2007, p. 128). Lester Salamon echoed this in his article, Globalization and the Civil Society Sector : A powerful citizen sector has also emerged in this process and is laying claim to an expanded voice on both the national and international stages. The growth, importance and size of civic society is remarkable given how, closely they parallel the forces that have also been responsible for the parallel growth of globalization (2005, p. 138). The globalization of philanthropy has followed a path blazed by corporations. As people, money, and goods have crossed borders, so too has the practice of establishing an organized process to help those in need, especially through the work of foundations (Anheier, 2007, p. 117). A common trend in the literature revealed that many believe there is a new opportunity for philanthropy to connect and bind governments, economic strength and civil society to build alliances (Oliviero, Simmons, 2007, p. 128). Kathy Brock states that the World Wide Web and the Internet will connect citizens and, organizations

22 may share and borrow ideas and best practices, and causes may mobilize citizens (2005, p. 157). If globalization means that the problems of the world are now global, then the solutions have to become global too, that means each of us in our own organizations has to think about the ways in which we are part of a larger world and work with people elsewhere in the world. If the problems are interconnected, then solutions have to be connected too (Greene, 2003, p. 4). In this open world both problems and solutions become shared because of their local and global factors. From SARS to e-Bay, AIDS to Google, the avian flu to podcasts, people become instantly connected across borders. However, a connection is not sufficient to solve the problems facing society today. These problems far outweigh what one sector can do alone to manage or improve those living outside democratic countries. Governments, business and civil society must cooperate, engage and work together. Neither the third sector, nor civil society, can replace government or social justice (Brodhead, 2005, p. 4). Indeed, Nicanor Perlas believes the third sector has ability to, change human evolution for the better and that it is the most important social innovation of the 20th century (2000, p. 82). As the global community becomes increasingly open and interconnected, philanthropy will play a decisive role in shaping the new international order (Hewa and Stapleton, 2005, p. 9). According to Lester Salamon, the rise of the nonprofit sector is related to the coming together of historical trends related to globalization

23 and the growing international connection between organizations and people (2005, p. 137). Non-profit scholars and researchers Anheier, Simmons and Winder have amassed a volume of information regarding the strategic role philanthropy could play in globalization. By understanding solutions in various countries and cultures to build on historical charitable factors as well as growth areas, strategies for effective philanthropy can be created, with the greatest value added (Anheier, 2007, p. v). Philanthropic foundations could, and have, played a major part in creation of civil society organizations emerging from conflict. Foreign donors provide encouragement, expertise, training and financial support to such organizations, as they appreciate the value of civil society and need local partners to implement their projects. Logically, foreign donors have tended to spread their own organizational model to the emerging local NGOs; in most cases this was the Anglo-Saxon model of the board and an executive (Leshchenko, 2007, p. 188). Organized philanthropy is flexible: people from all sectors can work together and donors have the ability to respond and create partnerships. Philanthropy can transcend borders, operate without profit and respond quickly (Anheier, p. 148). Civil society organizations are not passive recipients of global influence but active players in the process (Brock, 2005, p. 158). These are causative effects on philanthropy, but also on globalization. The following sections document three areas deeply impacted and influenced by globalization.

24 The Impact of Technology on the Globalization of Philanthropy The literature shows that although communications technology is being used in the non-profit sector, it has not yet been harnessed to benefit the sector and those it serves on an equitable global scale. To put the reach of technology into perspective it should be noted that the first communications technology to have a profound positive impact on globalization and the third sector was television. In 1986, Soviet President Gorbachev was unable to prevent satellite images of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster from being broadcast internationally. In the age of transparency through technology, the Soviet government had to respond to their public relations disaster by admitting their nuclear disaster was worse than they originally wanted to share with the world. Student demonstrators in Tiananmen Square, media reports about starving Somali children, and the Rwanda massacre were subsequently brought into western living rooms through television. Later, the Internet helped prompt NGO and government action (Suter, 2006, p. 40-43). In 1994, Lester Salamon wrote about factors responsible for the worldwide expansion of the non-profit sector. His article talked about a revolution in communications through the rapid distribution of computers, satellite, television and fibre optics to remote areas of the world. Accompanying this was a growth in education and adult literacy in the developing world, core elements for using new technology (p. 6). The awareness that people can change their circumstances has prompted civil groups to emerge as catalysts for improved human rights, freedom and protection of the environment. All advanced through the progress of communications technology (Salamon, 2005, p. 138).

25 In the acknowledgment of Globalization, Philanthropy and Civil Society, author Soma Hewa referred to the December 2004 tsunami that struck Asia as a remarkable event within the globalization of philanthropy. This disaster showed that neither international agreements nor the geopolitical interests of nation-states have the capacity to mobilize the global community to the same extent as human generosity (Hewa, 2005, p. vii). This epic disaster was brought into our homes, offices, and hand-held devices with new communications technology. When UNICEF offered tsunami pod-casts, three million were downloaded (McPherson, 2007, p. 26). Peter Frumkins article, American Foundations and Overseas Funding in Globalization, Philanthropy and Civil Society addresses the role of large U.S. foundations with a lengthy history of supporting developing countries. He believes the democratization of the communications industry made the widely available, economical Internet and cellular telephone the enabler that allowed non-profit organizations to create cross-border support, increasing the ability to be well-organized and noticed locally and internationally (Frumkin, 2005, p. 111). Cost reductions in telephone and fax lines, and allowing on-site face-to-face meetings has widely promoted sharing amongst organizations and foundations (Anheier and Daly, 2005, p. 119). This positive effect was certainly evident in the tsunami disaster, but without media attention, dozens of equally as needy and worthy projects have been unfunded because they were not pod-cast or highly visible. The compassion fatigue that television viewers experience after watching highly publicized tragedies can work against these new forms of technology as people demand solutions (Suter, 2006, p. 62-63).

26 This new global reach has left some pondering how involved the civil sector will become when making decisions with governments and business (Perlas, 2000, p. 72.). Broadcast media, and then the reach of people with Internet, have forced governments to act. Today it is in response to people, and not just the media, that the government must answer, as in the 1999 case of the Battle of Seattle. Twenty million people around the world, many supporting NGOs such as the World Wildlife Fund, used the Internet to voice their opposition to the policies of the World Trade Organization during its summit (Legrain, 2002, p. 203; Perlas, 2000, p. 74). Within the anti-globalization movement of some NGOs, the modern tools of communication can spotlight positive and negative aspects of globalization (Friedman, 2005, p. 474-475). Salamon (1994) and Brock (2006) state that the expansion of technology makes it faster for people to organize and mobilize and authoritarian regimes that had successfully controlled their own communications networks have grown powerless to stop the flow of information (Salamon, 1994, p. 6). Even in countries like Malaysia that have restrictions on broadcasting, satellite and Internet audio streaming will soon be readily available (Suter, 2006, p. 42-43). Marc Lindenbergs 1999 article, Declining State Capacity, Voluntarism, and the Globalization of the Not-for-Profit Sector, highlights factors responsible for growth in the northern international non-government sector. Global communications technology, fax, electronic mail, and the Internet are inexpensive, fast, interactive and easy methods of communication compared to 20 years ago. This allows NGOs to develop low-cost networks faster than ever before. The employees of CARE instantly link to field

operations in rural Ethiopia with e-mail in their jeeps (Lindenberg, 1999, p. 151-154). In

27 South Africa, strategic philanthropy relies on technology; online applications and e-mail are common and widespread (Anheier, 2007, p. 84). Greenpeace has been able to plan, co-ordinate and strategically raise funds, using the Internet, without overlapping its campaigns (Mehta, 2007, p. 197). The World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) has expanded from 570,000 supporters in 1985 to 5 million through Internet and electronic mail campaigns (Legrain, 2002, p. 202). According to a 2000 study by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, there were 140 websites dedicated to social change, voluntarism, and philanthropy. By 2001, there were more than 300 such sites and the number is growing (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 37). Communications and technology have allowed people to view the needs in other countries easily and participate as activists. However, cross-border giving is still complicated, especially if the donor expects a tax credit (Charities Aid Foundation, 2006, p. 4). With extraordinary claims of 20 million people responding to an Internet call for action to block the Multilateral Agreement on Investment, it is easy to lose perspective about parts of the world without this instantaneous technology. Former special advisor Philippe Legrain reminds readers, Whereas a majority of Americans use the Internet, half the world has never made a phone call (Legrain, 2002, p. 9). The seemingly positive effects of both the expansion of the philanthropic sector and the increase in technology used by non-profit organizations serve to both strengthen and complicate charity (McPherson, 2007, p. 52). Limited access and exclusion in some communities and countries exacerbates the growing divide between affluent people, with their wealthier organizations, and geographically remote or poor areas. Time, effort and

28 lack of technology skills also play a role in the negative aspects of the Internet (Brock, 2005, p. 160-161). Despite advancements in organized philanthropy in South Africa, those without the infrastructure and hardware have been excluded from development opportunities because of poverty (Anheier, 2007, p. 84). Technology available to non-profit organizations is also available to terrorist organizations. These same communications advances available to better the human condition have been available to recruit, train and educate radical extremists with often violent agendas (Friedman, 2005, p. 480-482). While environmental non-profit organizations have fought for better use of land space and less consumerism, new electronic devices continue to come on-stream, leading to increased waste. The environmental fall-out of this technology revolution has led to increased challenges to dispose of waste left from cell phones and computers, as newer models appear at reduced prices. In a creative, innovative response to this, a computer recycling non-profit organization was founded in England, to redevelop computers and send them to schools in Kenya. Since 2002, Digital Links have been refurbishing and delivering computers to nongovernmental organizations, schools and churches throughout Africa (Global Giving Matters, 2007, p. 1 - 2). The Internet has expanded quickly, but depending on the location and budget, computer technology and Internet services are limited by the readiness of the philanthropic sector in each country. As in North America, human resources are required to manage a website and giving portal with appealing, informative, up-to-date pages (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 39). Another negative aspect of technology can be messages and information that are misinterpreted and run contrary to the values of other

29 cultures. Instantaneous communication by telegraph, radio and Internet does not eliminate local difference and can even amplify misunderstanding (Grew, 2005, p. 26). In organizations trying to manage and deliver programs, operate grants and raise funds, the resources to have a communications specialist with Internet and Web skills will not be the easiest position to fund with an annual salary. To support the community foundation movement the Worldwide Initiative for Grantmakers Support-Community Foundations (WINGS-CF), one of the organizations created in response to the community foundation movement, has initiated a translation fund, and an online resource centre, plus funds for face-to-face meetings. Despite the drawbacks listed above, the organization has relied on the Web to assist new organizations operating in a difficult environment. Through sharing advice and practical knowledge electronically, they have initiated meetings with simultaneous translation and created a Spanish website (Leat, 2004, p. 204 - 206). Since 1991, the Internet has increased the ability for people to interact online. In recent years Facebook, Youtube, MySpace and scores of other interactive sites referred to as Web 2.0 are becoming daily communicating activities. Fifty per cent of donors checked a charity website before responding to an appeal. For new organizations, direct mail can be too expensive and resource-dependent (McPherson, 2007, p. 74 - 75.) Convio President Sheeraz Haji believes, Non-profits should actually dominate Web 2.0 because its all about passion and interest. And the low cost of many online tools, especially compared to traditional media, answers the challenge facing many organizations a small budget (McPherson, 2007, p. 10).

30 E-mail has proven as an effective and emotional way of connecting donors with funds by quickly providing stewardship in unique ways not possible before the Internet and Web. Kiva.org, an interactive micro-financing website, encourages feedback online and provides impact and stewardship e-mail reports from outside the United States for donors. Cell phones are going to revolutionize electronic giving. Europe and Asia are further ahead than North America in using these mobile applications. In Tel Aviv POIP or Prayer Over Internet Protocol, broadcasts prayers through speakers at religious sites in Israel. Pre-paid, credit cards and a 1-888 number allow people to dial from anywhere and choose their prayer (McPherson, 2007, p. 65). The Initiative on Social Enterprise at Harvard Business School reports that from 1999-2000, online donations escalated from $10-million to $250-million. Online giving is fast, convenient and appeals to the digital population. They projected that by 2010 onethird of giving will be online (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 37). In Japan, ephilanthropy is used actively through websites and online giving. From a cultural perspective, Japanese fundraisers appear much more comfortable and positive in using the Internet for solicitation, since they can avoid face--to-face solicitations with donors (Onishi, 2007, p. 21). There are many positive aspects of communications technology that the non-profit sector must consider locally and globally. There appear to be far more reasons to continue to invest in Web-based tools and communications technology for the civil sector; however the negative arguments demand consideration.

31 Networks and education to support non-profit employees A common theme in the literature of globalization and its effects on philanthropy is the growing awareness of employees working in the non-profit sector. As the sector evolves, it becomes more important in the delivery of social programs. With the number of people employed in the sector growing, it is widely acknowledged that there is a need for higher education and networking/support organizations to ensure efficiency, effectiveness and impact. NGOs are applauded for operating with low costs, but are criticized for not being able to duplicate programs, for a lack of technical capacity and a perceived inability to think broadly about policies. Training and technical assistance should receive more attention from managers in the non-profit sector (Salamon, 1994, p. 8). Others disagree, NGOs are now more professional. The Lady Bountiful image of the nineteenth century has gone. The staff are paid and are often well qualified. NGOs now provide careers for people who wish to help their fellow human beings. Some tertiary educational institutions have taken this concern for professionalization a step further by creating a specific diploma course for managing NGOs (Suter, 2006, p. 149). Lester Salamon echoed this in his later work, Globalization and Civil Society. He confirmed that the third sector now has a sizable economic presence. He collected data in the mid to late 1990s that accounts for 26 million full-time employees within the nonprofit sector (including religious organizations). To put this in perspective, the

32 expenditures for this group make it the seventh largest economy in the world (Salamon, 2006, p. 143-144). As the civil sector grows and becomes a viable member at the table with government and the private sector, it will be of increasing importance to have professional non-profit managers (Brock, 2007, p. 156). Non-government organizations must give greater sensitivity to the trade-offs that exist between voluntarism and professionalism, between the informality that gives these organizations their special character and the institutionalization necessary to translate individual victories into permanent achievements (Salamon, 1994, p. 8). In an examination of the sector in Canada, Brock says that civil society must position itself well to recruit the labour and capital needed to be sustainable. This entails the professionalization of staff, adopting a more policy-focused orientation and being able to speak the language of business (2005, p. 156). As organizations evolve to meet these demands, including transparency and accountability, with smaller budgets and higher service demands, professionalism and leadership are necessary to operate within the globalization market. A study of Save the Children, CARE and OXFAM revealed their plans to cope with the effects of globalization: they are looking internally for leaders and plan to manage all aspects of operations better. These NGOs plan to invest in staff capacity, with training in state-of-the-art practices and thinking (Salm, 1999, p. 99). In Peter Frumkins article on American Foundations and Overseas Funding he supported the views of Salm, Brock, Suter, and Salamon,

33 Having quality leaders in key civil society positions is important .for the entire sector. Investing in people through professional development and training programs can be a slow and incremental approach to bringing change. However, given the pressures and changes now being put on non-profits around the world by globalization processes, taking the time to invest in people - particularly civil society leaders - may return significant benefits. Foundations can build the human capital in civil society by supporting training programs, professional development workshops, retreats, seminars, and skill-building exercises, all with the goal of improving the quality of leadership within NGOs (2005, p. 112). A number of programs have been created to support local and international nonprofit professionals. For example, the International Fellows Program at the Center for Philanthropy at City University of New York offers a three-month program focused on community foundations for non-profit leaders and researchers. The program offers participants the opportunity to study in New York (Ruffin, 2003, p. 14). These opportunities allow people to learn from the knowledge and expertise learned through decades of community foundation experiences (Greene, 2001, p. 6). The literature related to globalization, and the role of globalization in philanthropy, consistently revealed tremendous growth in the non-profit sector, as well as a need to ensure those managing the third sector have higher-education options. In order to get a sense of the education programs, their creation, growth, and focus, it was

34 necessary to review available research and analysis of programs in the United States. At the time Roseanne Mirabellas article was published in December 2007, there were 240 universities and colleges in the U.S. offering non-profit management courses. The relevant information from a 10-year review of non-profit management education programs by Mirabella of Seton Hall University are summarized as follows: 206% increase in coursework in philanthropy and the third sector The second most frequent type of course is fundraising Outside functions include philanthropy, advocacy, public policy and fundraising Inside functions include internal management, financial and human resources management There has been a significant increase in programs with an international emphasis, from five in 1998 to 36 in 2007. The courses focus on four areas: comparative civil society; NGOs and development; management of international nongovernmental organizations; and theoretical explanations of the international third sector (Mirabella, 2007, p. 14S - 22S). Of note was one comparative course offered at Indiana University. A discussion of whether civil society can be exported or will take root in certain areas of the world, such as the Middle East, and concludes with a section regarding civil society and the future of democracy, considering whether or not civil society is a universal feature of social life-and always a desirable one (Mirabella, 2007, p. 23S).

35 Mirabella et al. surveyed 62 regions outside the U.S. with 189 non-profit management education programs (Britain, 37%, Africa 28%, Asia Pacific 15%). In Africa, the programs differed from other areas; their focus was not on the western model of learning good management theory and practice, but on sustainable development (p. 115S). In Latin America, the increase in non-profit management programs is again attributed to democratic practices and the, impact of globalization on contacts, information sharing, and even internationalization of the actions of some NGOs from developed countries. An interesting contradiction exists in Japan and South Korea, as their sectors are the youngest, but they have a higher number of academic programs than southern Asian countries (Mirabella, 2007, p. 119S). University-based programs in Australia and New Zealand have evolved as a result of the need for recognized qualifications within the growing civil sector. This growth was generated in the 1980s through the downloading of services from government to the non-profit sector. Similarly, programs are being established in Europe with a focus on management and technical education, not philanthropy. Despite these new programs and the growth of the sector in Europe it has been very hard to attract funding and full-time academic positions; the need for research, networks and education does not stand solidly on an academic and historical framework like in the U.S. (Mirabella, 2007, p. 123S). Within the growing field of non-profit management, there have been an increasing number of organizations to support, educate, confer and guide sector leaders and volunteers. In Europe, the European Foundation Centre and the Association of Charitable Foundations noted transferring best practices, fundraising, and lessons learned from experiences (Salamon, 2005, p. 128). Partnerships have developed, such as the one

36 between the University of Victoria in western Canada, with Indias Society for Participatory Research in Asia (Mirabella et al. p. 120S). The Philippines were ahead of other countries when the Association of Foundations was created in 1972 as a network of NGOs and foundations to build capacity and encourage networking (Amott, 2007, p. 61). In 2001, the Peace Equity Access for Community Empowerment Foundation (PEF) was founded to help support the development of community building efforts and to support local NGOs. It has initiated a donors forum to ensure they are complementary in allocating their resources, applying resources to maximize impact, and creating partnerships where possible and so that no funder should reinvent the wheel (Amott, 2007, p. 71-75). Brazil has experienced a huge rise in the number of community organizations that are credited with positively changing society. GIFE (Group of Institutes, Foundations and Enterprises), an organization similar to the U.S. Council of Foundations and the European Foundation Centre, was established to co-ordinate the efforts of foundations. Other support organizations enhance Brazilian civil society: the Brazilian Association of NGOs, Business for Social Responsibility, Centre for Studies of Third Sector, Institute for Development of Social Investment and Volunteer Centres. In 1989, the Abrinq Foundation for Childrens Rights was established in Brazil. It credits its success to making the decision to hire professional fundraisers to co-ordinate outreach efforts. The Community Philanthropy Organization operates to translate philanthropic research into building local or community efforts. It fosters community philanthropy through sharing techniques, best practices and benchmarks (Kisil, 2007, p. 9-19).

37 Mexico has also seen a significant increase in the number of organized philanthropic groups. The Mexican Centre for Philanthropy (CEMEFI) was established in 1988, and, among other activities, has played a role in professional development for fundraisers (Winder, 2007, p. 39). In Pakistan, the first philanthropic support organization in the Islamic world was established in 2000 to support indigenous philanthropy and provide services to citizen organizations (Bonbright, 2007, p. 59-60). The Charities Aid Foundation in South Africa has established a Non-Profit Partnership to support the non-profit sector (Fraser, 2007, p. 84). The growth in the number of education programs and groups to support philanthropy in the last 25 years is a sure indicator that the industry is becoming increasingly important in its ability to attract funds, steward donors and provide social programs.

Community Foundations

A significant trend seen in the research and review of literature related to the globalization of philanthropy is the community foundation movement outside North America. The growth of community foundations was researched in an attempt to discover how countries have been able to successfully modify western best practices to meet local needs. Holt Ruffin defines this movement as remarkable, It is the result of international giving based on a clear strategic aim (to build sustainable institutions of philanthropy) a business model that adapts itself easily

38 to conditions in many countries (Ruffin, 2003, p. 12). In the mid-1990s there were very few community foundations outside of Canada and the United States. By 2003, there were 1,100 in thirty-seven countries (Leat, 2006, p. 252; Ruffin, 2003, p. 13). They are not as established as in North America and there are far fewer, but they are considered the newest and fastest form of philanthropy (Brodhead, 2005, p. 4; Leat, 2006, p. 252). Despite this, Anheier, Johnson and Leat believe that the role of foundations in globalization remains unclear, as does the impact globalization has on organized philanthropy (Brock, 2005, p. 118). Community foundations generally share several common features: a pool of funds from a variety of donors, support for one geographic region, self-governance with a local group of interested investors. They are shaped by their history, local needs, operating policies and procedures. They vary in the number of services they offer to donors, whether they operate their own programs or focus on making grants (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 23). In a study done by Anheier and Daly, most community foundations act in traditional fields such as education, research, health care and the arts (2005, p. 120-122). Politicians, civic and business leaders are calling on foundations and other civil society actors to play a greater role in the public good both nationally and internationally (Anheier, Daly, 2005, p. 117). Certainly, the changing role of government in the 1980s has encouraged charitable giving, lending legitimacy to the community foundation movement despite the challenge of the endowment concept not being widely understood (Leat, 2006, p. 255-256).

39 Due to legal and tax implications, many countries have not been able to establish charities in the same way that North America and the U.K. were able to create an environment conducive to civil society activity. For example, in Thailand other forms of giving are practised but the administrative and legal system cannot yet support community foundations. Tax exemption for non-profit organizations and civil sector trusts have not been developed yet (Wattanasiritham, 2007, p. 94). In Eastern European post-Soviet countries, non-profit organizations battle left over inconsistent and vague communist laws that are open to manipulation. Segregation from the belief system of western civilization has made it challenging for people to understand the role of non-profit organizations (Ruffin, 2003, p. 37). Foundations in existence before communism were suppressed by dictatorial regimes and deprived of income through inactivity. Others lost capital through war and confiscated assets (Leat, 2006, p. 275). Natalia Leshchenko conducted a study of post-conflict situations to examine the effects of the community foundation and other philanthropic strategies in order to learn how to focus efforts in the future (Leshchenko, 2007, p. 183-184). Throughout the 111 armed conflicts that became a mark of the post-Cold War world, attention focused on providing humanitarian relief and support for peace accords. Philanthropic foundations could, and have, played a major part in creation of civil society organizations emerging from conflict. Foreign donors provide encouragement, expertise, training and financial support to such organizations, as they appreciate the value of civil society and need local partners to implement

40 their projects. Logically, foreign donors have tended to spread their own organizational model to the emerging local NGOs; in most cases this was the Anglo-Saxon model of the board and an executive (Leshchenko, 2007, p. 188). Barry Gaberman of the Ford Foundation delivered a lecture in 2003 indicating his belief that foundations and grant-making have been the resource and building blocks of the global infrastructure of philanthropy. Experts such as Helmut Anheier of the Centre for Civil Society at the School of Public Policy and Social Research agreed with Gaberman. In contrast to non-government organizations, such as OXFAM, Red Cross, and Greenpeace, the community foundation model is a local actor for local welfare (Anheier and Daly, 2005, p. 118). Humanitarian relief organizations whose success is largely measured by quantities of food and potable water delivered, or tents and blankets provided. Foundations like to see their grants more as investments that will have a multiplier effect within society, creating new institutions or helping fledgling projects in their early years (Ruffin, 2003, p. 11). The rapid growth of community foundations as a strategic form of philanthropy is remarkable because they had been virtually unknown up until the mid-1990s. Organized philanthropy is a crucial source of funds for groups engaged in strategic efforts to promote systemic change, which is exactly what a community foundation aims to do. When funders recognize the capacity of civil society to organize itself and

41 challenge both the public and private sectors, they can act as the lever to transform big ideas into action (Oliviero and Simmons, 2007, p. 134). Most of the growth outside the United States has been initiated by large private foundations, referred to as elite philanthropy by sociologist Ann Vogel. Vogel believes that the elite foundations have viewed their role on the macro level compared to the community level. Community foundations use the investments of large foundations to impact smaller organizations (Vogel, 2006, p. 641-642). Philanthropy researchers and advocates know of the organizational versatility and business model character of the community foundation (Ruffin 2003), which shows a capacity to adapt to different tax structures, laws and cultures. Philanthropists call it the best mechanism to foster philanthropy in communities..philanthropy reproduces itself through this unfolding structure.through challenge grants endowmentsand spread the volunteering spirit (Vogel, 2006, p. 642). The source of start-up funds can affect a foundations operations; for example, in Russia, Italy, Australia and Eastern Europe community foundations have been funded by banks and corporations (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 23; Leat, 2006, p. 258). Challenge grants from U.S. foundations, such as C.S. Mott, were widely used to stimulate growth, raise profile in the community and lend legitimacy in European foundations (Leat, 2006, p. 262-265). In Central and South-Eastern Europe support for the postconflict rebuilding was received from several foundations such as the Mott, Soros

42 Foundation Network and King Baudouin Foundation that had been involved for at least a decade before 1989 (Bollag, 2001, p. 2-3). Charities Aid Foundation in the U.K. assisted Russia and Poland in 1998 to establish their first foundations (Ruffin, 2003, p. 13). Open Society began providing training for management and staff members, help in choosing competent boards, and assistance in operating in a transparent way designed to win the trust of potential donors (Bollag, 2001, p. 3). Countries in Europe still differ in terms of tax laws and the amount required to establish foundations. In France, a significant amount is required to set up an endowment and government approval must be sought. Germany requires lengthy approval processes. Despite this, European countries and others do not yet experience the same level of scrutiny and need to justify themselves as those in the United States (Leat, 2006, 13-16). Foundations in Europe have evolved from being parochial, linked to religious bodies and charitable, to strategic and developmental. The movement has spread through North America, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Asia, Africa and into Europe (Gaberman, 2003, p. 3). In Mexico, the community foundation movement has been actively developing since 2002 and is considered an area of great potential for philanthropy. Most foundations are endowed and provide operating and grant funds (Anheier, 2007, p. 3840). The European movement has benefited from numerous support organizations, among them Community Philanthropy Initiative and the European Foundation Centre, to share fundraising knowledge and experiences (Anheier and Daly, 2005, p. 128). To promote philanthropy and best practices, new community foundations rely on technical

43 assistance, collaboration, and peer-to-peer learning (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 24). The Canadian community foundation development plans have been transferred to Europe and other countries because they are smaller in scale and easily transferable compared to some of the large U.S. models (Brock, 2005, p. 162). An example of the community foundations ability to transfer benefits evolved from the case of a group in Slovakia that has become a model for non-profit organizations in Eastern Europe (Bollag, 2001, p. 2). Dr. Jurag Mesik was a board member of an organization in Slovakia trying to improve the quality of life for residents in his hometown after 1989. Despite being founded by the Rotary Club, they had failed in an attempt to build a playground. People were expected to volunteer; many refused because volunteer time was demanded, rather than offered freely, during the former regime (Bollag, 2001, p. 2). This scepticism about community involvement exists in Eastern Europe after four decades of communist-ordered freely donating time and labour for a public purpose (Ruffin, 2003, p. 13). Fortunately, when a volunteer centre was opened and operated by Soros Czech Open Society Fund, people started to dedicate their efforts (Ruffin, 2003, p. 14). Dr. Mesik travelled to the United States to study non-profit management on a bursary program through the U.S. German Marshall Fund. In a session with the Community Foundation of Greater Flint, he heard about the community foundation model. Dr. Mesik felt, a spark going off in my brain. If we could involve enough people, we could accomplish what we wanted for the community (Bollag, 2001, p. 2). In spite of the challenges of working without moral support, funding and their community culture, the Community Foundation Healthy City Banska Bystrica-Zvolen

44 was created in 1994. The Foundation brought local municipal leaders and community businesses to work together. Disbursements total $25,000 to more than 100 projects in Banska Bystrica and they have a $300,000 endowment (Ruffin, 2003, p. 13). According to Diana Leat, in the United Kingdom there were a number of opportunities for community foundations to succeed, such as the acceptance of charitable giving, less competition from umbrella organizations like United Way, and changing policies placing greater responsibility on civil society. The obstacles faced were those faced in other countries: a lack of funds and the unknown concept of endowing funds. There is not a tax advantage to support a community foundation in the U.K. like there is in the United States. Without an established track record it was difficult to attract citizens to volunteer their time and reputation to ensure that the foundation is seen as legitimate. Endowment has not been an easily understood concept, so for it to compete in an overcrowded fundraising market, saving for the future through endowing money can be seen as hoarding funds (Leat, 2006, p. 256). The Charities Aid Foundation played a leadership role through a challenge grant program with the Mott Foundation, enlisting government support and establishing the Association of Community Trusts and Foundations. Legitimacy and credibility was earned by using community foundations in the United States as examples (Leat, 2006, p. 256-262). Not unlike other countries, the lack of personal wealth and the need for immediate funds interfered with the endowment model used by most community foundations. The Kenya Community Foundation discovered that raising funds for endowment was hard to do because showing immediate results and building a track record was required to gain

45 community trust. One community foundation in Zimbabwe used a very traditional grassroots approach by collecting $1 from 7,000 participants to broaden their base of support and ensure ownership of the Community Foundation for the Western Region (Greene, 2001, p. 3-4). In South Africa, community foundations have become a new form of organized or strategic philanthropy. The South African Grantmakers Association was formed to support research and philanthropic development for all charitable organizations including grant-making NGOs, corporate social investment, government programs and trusts and foundations. In Germany, an attempt to create the community foundation movement has been motivated by the hope that modestly wealthy people would invest in a community fund rather than establish their own foundation. Executives from the Bertelsmann Foundation, the operating foundation set up by the successful German publishing company, believed the intergenerational transfer of wealth would benefit community foundations. Bertelsmann was one of 30 European and North American funds working with the Transatlantic Community Foundation Network to promote knowledge and resource sharing among foundations (Greene, 2001, p. 5; Ruffin, 2003, p. 14). In Leshchenkos case study of philanthropic assistance in post-war South East Europe, where the Mott, Soros and King Baudouin foundations had been active in postconflict assistance for a decade, she concluded there are benefits that foundations can apply in such situations. The findings are worth noting, according to Beca Vuco of the Soros Foundation Network:

46 We are introducing philanthropy to that part of the world which did not know about it for a long time. We bring in a whole idea of charitable attitude, not only in terms of donating, but also volunteering and participating. By being present at this crucial time in this part of the world we managed to move other people to think the way we do in a sense of voluntary, charitable work and organization. We have accelerated the process of democratization (Leshchenko, 2007, p. 195). Leshchenko believed that the case study has produced sufficient information for it to be applicable in areas currently in conflict, such as Africa, the Middle East and SouthEast Asia, recommending that peace and democracy can be sustained through local and individual co-operation in building community. Fifteen strategic philanthropic conclusions were reached from the case study, many of which could be applicable within a number of charitable scenarios such as co-operation and co-ordination, creativity, flexibility, ensuring sustainability, diversifying approaches and promoting common efforts to produce quick results. This is important as global actors such as the large U.S. foundations build networks in newly democratic societies; Asia is set to become the next region with more open societies (2007, p. 195). Many concerns facing non-profit organizations in North America have been experienced by European foundations. Transparency, accountability and evaluation are frequent topics of discussion at the board table, in management meetings and on conference agendas (Anheier and Daly, 2005, p. 126).

47 In 2000, a membership network was initiated to support the community foundation movement by the Worldwide Initiatives for Grantmaker Support (WINGS). WINGS-CF (community foundation) is a network to connect colleagues with an emphasis on sharing information and experience within the context of globalization (Leat, 2007, p. 203). In the context of globalization of philanthropy WINGS-CF is interesting in that it has focused on the development of a particular form of philanthropic institution the community foundation and its work more clearly illustrates some of the difficulties involved in the process of globalizing philanthropy (Leat, 2007, p. 203). A key issue faced by community foundations and WINGS-CF has been that charity and giving has had a long tradition in most countries, but strategic, organized and institutionalized philanthropy has not. This is especially true when trying to set up endowment funds. Despite their independence and sustainability, in some countries they conflicted with the value system and ethics. Where acceptable, they may be impossible because of the financial market (Leat, 2007, p. 206-207). A global support network for community foundations is in itself a way of legitimizing and reinforcing the role community foundations are beginning to play in countries around the world. The benefit of electronic communication, while admittedly limited in some areas of the world, allows staff to interact and share information. The uniqueness of WINGS-CF is in providing a global pool of knowledge for members all over the world . it extends their reach and impact (Leat, 2007, p. 204 - 209).

48 Trying to establish a common identity and staying global without losing organizational efficiency and effectiveness as a support organization working towards the globalization of philanthropy poses numerous challenges. Those faced by WINGS-CF included a lack of funds to operate, determining a common language/terminology and the lack of resources regarding technology. Working in different legal and financial frameworks within already established cultures and traditions illustrates issues to negotiate (Leat, 2007, p. 210). Despite the challenges faced by countries new to the community foundation movement, Emmett Carson of the Minneapolis Foundation stated he is continuously inspired by his colleagues from less-developed countries. He claims that they are able to do a lot with far less resources and opportunities, as they are driven by the passion that some U.S. foundations have lost (Greene, 2001, p. 6; Ruffin, 2003, p. 15).

49

Chapter Three Conclusions and Recommendations

Introduction This final chapter documents conclusions based on the literature review conducted on the topics of globalization and philanthropy. Recommendations for further study are included, based on a variety of themes and issues uncovered in the research.

Conclusions The literature indicates that the elements of globalization have had a profound effect on philanthropy, especially since 1989. Anheier states, philanthropy in the age of globalization can effectively and economically influence progressive social change on a global level, (but) many challenges remain (2007, p. 134-135). As Suter, Perlas, and others observe, the recognition that there is a significant third sector is not yet as important as it should be. Only in recent years has the third sector attracted media and government attention, sometimes through publicity schemes and events such the Battle of Seattle. Little academic attention has been paid to an industry that employs thousands of people, has the ability to attract volunteer labour and stimulates philanthropy to serve a community. As globalization has progressed, the civil sector has taken its place as an increasingly important, and increasingly

50 prominent, social, economic, and political force (Salamon, 2005, p. 150). Yet there is little evidence of it being as important to government and business in the opening of the world as it could be. The issues and problems humanity faces are bigger than any one sector, therefore all three must work together philanthropy can and should be a bridge. Non-profits should not replace government; they need to help make government accountable. Nor is philanthropy a substitute for social justice (Brodhead, 2005, p. 4). Philanthropy researcher and teacher Lester Salamon claimed there has been a dramatic upsurge in the organized voluntary sector that has deep roots everywhere in the world, The third sector has clearly come of age on the global scene, but it must now find ways to strengthen its institutional capacities and contribute more meaningfully to the solution of major problems all without losing its popular base and flexible capacity for change (1994, p. 8). The advancement in communications technology has just begun to affect how non-profit organizations promote themselves, seek and attract funds, recognize and steward donors. Despite ongoing inequalities, the swift expansion of mobile technology in countries like Kenya, combined with appropriate training, will allow countries to rapidly insert themselves into the digital age with the opportunities that come with this (Global Giving Matters, 2007, p. 4). The Internet has changed the philanthropic

51 landscape and made a significant impact on individual giving. While readiness, costs and service may slow down this expansion, e-philanthropy depends on legal and tax revisions in each country (Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p. 39). There are many more applications for technology and philanthropy however, as with other factors of globalization non-profit organizations may wait for business to perfect the technologies before adopting and applying them. A key factor for the future will be ensuring that the resources are in place to manage the downfall or negative influences of globalization (Brock, 2005, p. 167). The positive and negative effects will continue to be taken advantage of by civil society around the world; perhaps with the advent of civil society in conflicted countries, the negative will become less prevalent. There are now dozens of organizations in place to support non-profit organizations and fundraising, from Kenya to Argentina, Thailand to Norway. Books are readily available, information is available on specific areas in the sector, online magazines, education sessions and conferences have grown wherever organizations are practising. New organizations, such as WINGS-CF, international conferences and journals are in place to offer support, training and the sharing of best practices. However the challenges faced by the community foundations in Eastern Europe are an example of what attempts to truly globalize philanthropy can face (Leat, 2006, p. 210). The expectations placed on the third sector are enormous, yet it is still not clear how the sector can meet these needs; the sector is vulnerable to internal forces and external constraints (Salamon, 1994, p. 6). As civil society becomes more important, its professionalization and networking capacity will demand sharing experience and

52 resources. Like other professionals, those with experience must ensure that the knowledge gained in the last 20 years is passed on to the next generation. The methods used to raise funds are not unique to any one country, nor is it unusual for a community to band together to want to improve its situation or create a program for common good. The growth in the community foundation movement has translated into an organized philanthropy program transferable to countries that experienced several generations without civil society. For countries new to the community foundation movement, finding the necessary resources to advance themselves has come from the large U.S. foundations that have supported Europe since World War II (Bollag, 2001, p. 3). From the research conducted, it appears that soon few countries will be without community foundations. In addition to training and financial support, foundations could begin to advance the understanding of the effects of globalization and how to cope with it (Frumkin, 2005, p. 113). After 10 years in South East Europe, it has become apparent that philanthropy does have a role to play in post-conflict society. Leshchenkos case study determined, Some results are already evident, and it is possible to establish strategic strengths and weaknesses of philanthropic action in this area (2007, p. 185). For the future, there are proven resources and examples to use for other countries. This will depend on support from more experienced countries to continue to share their resources, people and plans. The core values and practices of the twenty-first century are consistent with those of the underlying principles of organized philanthropy, and as the global community

53 becomes increasingly open and interconnected, philanthropy will play a decisive role in shaping the new international order (Hewa, 2005, p. 9). Philanthropic researchers and practitioners are influencing other countries reemergence into organized and strategic philanthropy. Evidence-based programs could enable countries currently without a civil society to establish efficient and effective ways to rebuild and reconnect their communities through organized philanthropy. Globalization is challenging everyone to see the world differently and to respond in such a way that all communities are connected, that the positive and negative effects of globalization are shared. Injustice and the environment affect us all the globalization of philanthropy can be an international network of shared values (Brodhead, 2005, p. 4).

Recommendations for Further Study Within the research examined, questions about the impact of globalization on philanthropy and civil society have not yet been determined conclusively, yet it is clear that the sector is expanding outside North America, technology is impacting the way the business is practised, and more knowledge about the sector is growing. Additional information for the development profession can assist with planning in other countries. Philanthropic leaders studying globalization have called for policies and networks to support civil society as globalization continues to impact philanthropy. Holt Ruffin advocates for a global civil society, or international philanthropy policy, to strategically work with countries to liberalize their laws to encourage the charitable transfers of funds, eliminate legal limitations and boost the status and respect of non-profit organizations.

54 He is not alone in his belief that a clearinghouse to track organizations and their work in all countries would be beneficial (2003, p. 2, 39-43). Soma Hewa also believes that an administrative body to co-ordinate the efforts of philanthropic foundations, international organizations and NGOs can work effectively to respond to the implications of globalization (2005, p. 6). Kathy Brock states that the changing role of civil society in the era of globalization requires a coalition, learning network and international alliance to transcend boundaries. Documenting the laws governing charities, taxes and administration as they differ from country to country would be a valuable asset to the existing body of knowledge on non-profit organizations. As well, a thorough review of the laws affecting charitable giving in some countries, with the historical implications and factors, would be useful for those wishing to explore international giving and how it will be impacted in the future. There is a great deal of conversation about the intergenerational transfer of wealth. It would be of interest to follow the transfer, comparing a country new to community foundations, such as Germany, with Canada or the United States. This kind of comparative study would be of interest to those working in the field of gift planning. Much attention has been given to transnational companies and the movement of corporate headquarters within the non-profit sector. The impact of this on gifts, volunteer leadership and the future of community-based fundraising should be documented and studied as the globalization of large corporations continues. As Asia, China and Africa build, or return to, their philanthropic cultures, documentation of the steps taken, lessons learned from North America, and transferable

55 lessons, would make a useful contribution to the study of the globalization of philanthropy. Within the globalization of philanthropy, there are a number of important issues to be studied and documented that will be of use now, and in the future, as the sector continues to work within a globalized world.

Summary

A knowledge of the Globe and its various inhabitants, however slight has a kindred effect with that of seeing them as travelers, which never fails, in uncorrupted minds, to weaken local prejudices, and enlarge the sphere of benevolent feelings. James Madison, 1822

Globalization and the effect it is having on philanthropy is an important field of study for practitioners, researchers and those interested in the international growth of the civil sector. Knowledge of the impact that globalization is having on the sector in other countries is important as a source of information and best-practice as well as for those seeking employment, study or volunteer opportunities outside North America. Communications technology has allowed people to share ideas, and learn from each other. New ways to engage proactively in advancing an organizations mission can be promoted; methods to seek support have expanded through websites and the Internet; and donors have been acquired online and through websites. Community foundations

56 have become a source of philanthropic support in countries that lost their philanthropic spirit through war, or oppressive political regimes and legal systems. The growth of the sector is of particular note as the knowledge base grows, communications technologies are adopted locally and internationally and fundraising techniques are modified for other cultures - especially for countries that are emerging from conflict. The study of philanthropy, and the effects of globalization within it, will no doubt continue. Mdecins sans Frontires, the International Red Cross and Canadian Red Cross received more donations than they could use wisely to support the rescue and rebuilding effort in Indonesia after the December 2004 tsunami (Brennan, 2008, p. A1). On the day the tsunami struck those with a link to the non-profit industry knew that globalization had just affected philanthropy more than any other time in history. Within this newly globalized civil sector, society must be hopeful for the eradication of disease, hunger, and the promotion of peaceful solutions to conflict.

57

References Amott, N. (2007). Cases from the Philippines in Innovative Philanthropy: An Overview of the Philippines. Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.) (2007). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Anheier, H.K. & Daly, S. (2005). Foundations in Europe: Roles and Policy Scenarios in an Age of Globalization. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the TwentyFirst Century. New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.) (2007). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Bollag, B. (2001) Community Foundations Across Eastern Europe Advance Step by Step. Chronicle of Philanthropy. Vol. 14, Issue 1. Bonbright, D. (2007). Pakistan. Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.) Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Brennan, R. (2008). Red Cross yet to spend $200M of tsunami cash. Toronto Star. Toronto, Ontario. March 3.

58 Brodhead, T. (2005). Philanthropy in the Era of Globalization. Community Foundations: Symposium on a global movement keynote address is from an international conference. Retrieved July 25, 2007. http://www.charityvillage.com/cv/archive/acov/acov05/acov0502.html. Brock, K., Brook, D., Elliott, J. (2005) Globalization and the Third Sector: The Canadian Experience. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the TwentyFirst Century. New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Charities Aid Foundation (November 2006). International Comparisons of Charitable Giving. CAF Briefing Paper. Kent (UK). http://www.cafonline.org Retrieved January 26, 2008. Fraser, D. (2007). South Africa. Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Frumkin, P. (2005). American Foundations and Overseas Funding: New Challenges in the Era of Globalization. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the TwentyFirst Century. New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Greene, S.G., (2001). Cultivating Philanthropy Overseas. Chronicle of Philanthropy, Vol. 14, Issue 1.

59 Greene, S.G. (2000). Virtual Foundation Aims to Bring International Philanthropy to the Masses. Chronicle of Philanthropy. Retrieved January 5, 2008, from http://www.philanthropy.com/temp/ Grew, R. (2005). Global History and Globalization. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Hewa, S., Stapleton, D.H. (2005). Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century, (eds). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Johnson, P.D., Johnson, S.P. (2004). Tools for Good: A Guide to Vehicles for Philanthropy and Charitable Giving. Full Version. International Network on Strategic Philanthropy. Paper 2. Johnson, P.D., Johnson, S.P., Kingman, A. (2004). Promoting Philanthropy: Global Challenges and Approaches. International Network on Strategic Philanthropy. Paper 2. Kisil, M. (2007). Brazil. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Leat, D. (2007) The Infrastructure of Global Philanthropy: Wings and Wings-CF. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic

60 Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Leat, D. (2006). Foundation Legitimacy at the Community Level in the United Kingdom. The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations. In Prewitt, K., Dogan, M., Heydemann, S., Toepler, S. (Eds.). The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations United States and European Perspectives. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Legrain, P. (2002). Open World:/The Truth About Globalization. London, UK: Abacus. Leshchenko, N. (2007). Philanthropic Foundations Assistance in Post-Conflict Situations: A Case Study of Post-Communist Southeast Europe. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Lindenberg, M. (1999). Declining State Capacity, Voluntarism, and the Globalization of the Not-for-Profit Sector. Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (Supp. Vol. 28, 4), Sage Publications. McPherson, R.C. (2007). Digital Giving How Technology is Changing Charity. Lincoln, Nebraska: iUniverse. Mehta, M. (2005) Globalization and Biotechnology. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century. New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.

61 Mirabella, R. (2007). University-Based Educational Programs in Non-profit Management and Philanthropic Studies: A 10-Year Review and Projections of Future Trends. Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (Supp. Vol. 36, 4). Sage Publications. Mirabella, R.M., Gemelli, G., Malcolm, M., Berger, G. (2007). Non-profit and Philanthropic Studies: International Overview of the Field in Africa, Canada, Latin America, Asia, the Pacific, and Europe. Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (Supp. Vol.36, 4). Oliviero, M.B., Simmons, A. (2007). Distinct View-Intervening in the Practices of the Public and Private Sector. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Onishi, T. (2007, September). Current Conditions and Development Strategies of Philanthropy and Fundraising in Japan: A Comparative Study of the United States and Japan. (2007). International Journal of Educational Advancement, Vol. 7, No. 3. Perlas, N. (2000). Shaping Globalization Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding. Center for Alternative Development Initiatives, Philippines, and Globalization Network for Social Threefolding, United States. Prewitt, K., Dogan, M., Heydemann, S., Toepler, S. (Eds.) (2006). The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations United States and European Perspectives. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

62 Pospscil, M. Central and Eastern Europe. (2007). In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Ruffin, Holt. (2003). The Globalization of American Philanthropy. North Carolina, United States: Duke University. Salamon, L.M. (1994). The Rise of the Non-profit Sector (Electronic version). Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, Issue 4. Salamon, L.M. (2005). Globalization and the Civil Society Sector. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Salm, J. (1999). Coping With Globalization: A Profile of the Northern NGO Sector. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 4, Supplement 1999, Sage Publications, Inc. Suter, K. (2006). Globalization. London, England: Hodder Education. The Synergos Institute (Sept.-Oct. 2007). Philanthropy in Kenya. Global Giving Matters. http://www.synergos.org/globalgivingmatters/features/0710kenyaphilanthropy. htm. Retrieved January 26, 2008 Vogel, Ann. (2006). Whos making global civil society: philanthropy and US empire in world society? UK: Blackwell Publishing, London School of Economics and Political Science. British Journal of Sociology, 2006, Volume 57, Issue 4.

63 Wattanasiritham, P. (2007). Thailand. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC.

64

Annotated Bibliography Amott, N. Cases from the Philippines in Innovative Philanthropy: An Overview of the Philippines. Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.) (2007). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives (pp. 61-78). New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Natasha Amott was a Ford Foundation consultant and Program Associate with the Southeast Asia department of the Synergos Institute. She is currently the Senior Program Associate with Structured Employment Economic Development Corporation in New York City. This chapter explores the history and current philanthropic situation in the Philippines. There are two case studies that offer insight into an attempt by the country to create strategic philanthropy and support organizations to enable it. Of note for this capstone is the background and current situation and the case study focused on the Peace Equity Access for Community Empowerment Foundation. Those researching or interested in the development of philanthropy in the Philippines would find this chapter of use; especially as a backdrop before reading the work of Nicanor Perlas.

Anheier, H.K. & Daly, S. (2005). Foundations in Europe: Roles and Policy Scenarios in an Age of Globalization. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-

65 First Century (pp. 117-135). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Helmut K. Anheier is the director of the Centre for Civil Society at the School of Public Policy and Social Research, University of California, Los Angeles, and Centennial Professor in the Department of Social Policy at the London School of Economics. He is a founding board member of the International Society for Third-Sector Research and the founding editor of Voluntas, the international journal of research on non-profit organizations. Siobhan Daly is research manager of Visions and Roles of Foundations in Europe at the Centre for Civil Society, London School of Economics. Her research focuses on research methodology and the comparative analysis of foundations in Europe. Anheier and Dalys introduction to this chapter states that on a global stage foundations and non-profit organizations are being called on by politicians and leaders to have more involvement in health care, social service, culture, research and education. Their work touches on points made by other authors cited for this capstone, such as the growing civil sector throughout the world and the impact civil organizations can make in community renewal. Scholars and observers alike have written and researched the increase in civil society worldwide, especially since the end of the cold war, but the role and impact that foundations and organized philanthropy is playing remains less clear. They cite eight points that have opened organizational space since 1989, of interest to this research is the role of democracy in Eastern Europe, information sharing and communications with increased worldwide technology, and the

66 rise of private non-profit organizations that increasingly operate across borders because of resources and access.

Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.) (2007). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Helmut K. Anheier is Director of the Centre for Civil Society at UCLAs School of Public Affairs and Professor of Public Policy and Social Welfare. Amongst other work, he has focused on philanthropy and the non-profit sector and his current research is on new organizational forms in global civil society, the role of foundations, and aspects of research on globalization. Adele Simmons is President of the Global Philanthropy Partnership and founder of the Chicago Global Donors Network and serves on the board of Synergos Institute. David Winder is a program director at the Synergos Institute in New York. He created and managed their global program to build the skills of staff and boards of grant-making foundations. He was responsible for Ford Foundations grant program in Mexico, Central America and Southeast Asia. This work is a thorough addition to the body of knowledge being created for students of philanthropy, non-profit management and sociology within North America and especially relevant for organizations and non-profit managers in countries investigating foundations, their roles and best practice. Exhaustive information about potential partnerships, large foundation support and innovations in smaller community foundations provides background for

67 researchers, practitioners and students. This book is a compilation of philanthropic case studies and research in developing countries. It specifically relates to foundations: their role, operations and potential for innovation. Contributors began with a case analysis of seven countries to determine transnational philanthropy in the global era and its effects and potential role moving forward in their societies. Case studies provided an important comparative view for this paper as they illuminated philanthropic history, current practices and global effects in countries of interest for research. The authors sought best practices that display innovative and strategic approaches in foundations that had potential for being shared and modified for use in other countries. Of interest to this capstones research are those that related to bestpractice and foundation models with transferable and effective lessons and strategies.

Bollag, B. Community Foundations Across Eastern Europe Advance Step by Step. (2001). Chronicle of Philanthropy. Vol. 14, Issue 1, pp.8. http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.smumn.edu/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=106&s id=0b4b28 Retrieved January 26, 2008. Burton Bollag was a reporter with the Chronicle of Education from approximately 2004 to 2007. He is a frequent contributor to journals on international matters regarding religion, higher education and politics. Burton Bollag highlights key points of interest for the topic of community foundations and their growth in Eastern Europe after 1989. According to

68 Bollag, the community foundation movement has been slower to develop than other forms of non-profit organizations. In Eastern Europe, Soros Open Society and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund have been key supporters of the movement. Bollag documents the story of a man visiting the US courtesy of the Marshall Fund. He gained valuable insight into the inner workings of community foundations, and subsequently was able to share his experience to influence his homeland. Open Society offered training for staff and board members, another topic of research for this capstone. This article is a good introduction to the community foundation movement in Eastern European countries. It provides a different perspective from Anheier, Vogel and Salamon, as it is narrative and less technical.

Bonbright, D. Pakistan. (2007). Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives (pp. 5760). New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. David Bonbright has worked with a number of international development agencies: Ford Foundation, Ashoka, and Aga Khan Foundation. He is the founder and chief executive of Keystone, an initiative in the UK to foster accountability for organizational quality and sustainable development. This brief chapter is an overview of the Aga Khan and Canadian International Development Agencys initiative to create the Pakistan Centre for Philanthropy and to encourage a tax and framework system for effective philanthropy in Pakistan. This chapter was useful in providing an overview of the first

69 philanthropic organization in an Islamic country. Those interested in an overview of philanthropy in Pakistan would find this information of interest.

Brennan, R. Red Cross yet to spend $200M of tsunami cash. (2008) Richard Brennan is a journalist with the Ottawa Bureau of the Toronto Star. This article reports on the fact that three years after the tsunami millions of dollars have still not been spent to help people in Asia. Doctors without Borders (Mdecins sans Frontires) stopped the campaign to support those suffering from the effects of the tsunami when they realized they had collected more than they could possibly use for that disaster.

Brodhead, T. Philanthropy in the Era of Globalization. (2005) http://www.charityvillage.com/cv/archive/acov/acov05/acov0502.html. Retrieved July 25, 2007. Timothy Brodhead is the President and CEO of the J.W. McConnell Family Foundation in Montreal, Quebec. This keynote address is from an international conference entitled, Community Foundations: Symposium on a global movement. Brodhead begins with acknowledgement that charity has always existed in many forms in all cultures; he defines philanthropy as being strategic and links it to community as a building mechanism. Brodhead notes the expansion of organized philanthropy with democracy in former communist countries. He extends his definition of philanthropy to voluntarism, and cites

70 Anheiers comparison of 36 countries in Global Civil Society as an example. Brodheads address further notes technology as one of the key globalization factors influencing philanthropy. Examples of organizations, such as Global Giving, the Ashoka Foundation, and TakingITGlobal are lauded as newfound equalizers to aid philanthropys quest. While not a scholarly address, Brodhead touches on key points that are emphasized in almost every article, book and essay about the globalization of philanthropy. His position and his audience authenticate the opinions he expressed and were a valuable source for this research.

Brock, K., Brook, D., Elliott, J. Globalization and the Third Sector: The Canadian Experience. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the TwentyFirst Century (pp. 153-174). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Kathy Brock is associate professor and head of public policy and the third sector at Queens University in the School of Policy Studies in Kingston, Ontario. David Brook is senior research associate at the Public Policy Forum in Ottawa, Ontario. He has organized and participated in globalization panels and roundtables. Brock and Brook surveyed national leaders on globalization. Janice Elliott is Vice President of the Public Policy Forum and international expert on citizen participation and consultation. According to the authors, it is possible to analyze the impact of globalization on international non-profit

71 organizations; however, the impact on local non-profit organizations is not known. This qualitative survey of forty Canadian leaders in the non-profit sector and several government and corporate representatives studied how globalization affected the operations, practices and relationships of the sector in Canada. Of interest is the discourse on the negative and limiting effects of the Internet, evolving corporate philanthropic practices and the growth of the community foundation movement. More than other sources, this chapter highlights the negative aspects of globalization on local charitable organizations. This study is of interest to Canadian students of philanthropy and those seeking concrete examples of the domestic effects of globalization on non-profit organizations. It is also of interest because demographics of Canada are representative of countries outside the United States.

Charities Aid Foundation November 2006. International comparisons of charitable giving. CAF briefing paper. Kent (UK). http://www.cafonline.org Retrieved January 26, 2008 Charities Aid Foundation is a non-profit organization in the United Kingdom committed to effective giving, providing a range of specialist services to donors, companies and charities in the UK and internationally. Their aim is to increase the level and impact of giving through their activities and work as an advocate for the charitable sector. This briefing is relevant to the topic of the globalization of philanthropy because it was a thorough survey of international comparisons of charitable giving by individuals in twelve countries whose

72 wealth covers more than 50 percent of the total global economy. The purpose of the survey was to determine whether or not giving is as high as it could be in the UK, what countries could learn from each other, and to assess trends such as cross-border philanthropy. Comparing international levels of giving is important as it indicates where civil society, or non-profit organizations, could be strengthened. Comparing giving is a method of understanding how individuals are managing the needs of their own communities. Most countries and cultures have a history of giving and many have tax benefits for making charitable gifts. Global communications provides easy access to websites for information about charities and needs in other countries. This briefing paper is important to this paper because it assisted with putting some of the other sources about the new trend in establishing community foundations in perspective. Students of international philanthropy would find this useful.

Fraser, D. South Africa. (2007). Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives (pp. 7992). New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Dugan Fraser is the leader of the South Africa African Peer Review Mechanism research team in Johannesburg. He has a Masters degree in Sociology and has an interest in participatory governance. This particular chapter provided interesting insight into a country that had civil society (during apartheid) and that actually experienced a decrease in the influence and importance of civil society as a result of democratization (the opposite of

73 Eastern Europe and Asia). The chapter is of relevance due to its excellent introduction to philanthropy in South Africa and the South African Grantmakers Association. The case studies were not important to this literature review. Students interested in furthering their knowledge about international organizations would find this chapter useful.

Frumkin, P. (2005). American Foundations and Overseas Funding: New Challenges in the Era of Globalization. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the TwentyFirst Century (pp. 99-116). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Peter Frumkin is associate professor of public policy at Harvard University. His research interests include all aspects of philanthropy. The intended audience for this work is non-profit students, those involved with US and EU foundations and those interested in the effects of globalization on philanthropy. This chapter reviews the work of American foundations overseas to create new ways of working within globalization. Frumkin states American foundations have significantly expanded their philanthropic activity around the world due to recent world events. Of interest to this research was the expansion of foundation support to post-cold war activity in Europe through major American foundations and moving issues closer to philanthropic support such as strengthening civil society in formerly communist countries. He provides a brief overview of three major elements of globalization. The growth of civil

74 society as a result of democracy and the expansion of technology are of particular interest to the research undertaken for this Capstone Paper. This chapter concludes with Frumkin defining areas that foundations can take on to be of particular use within globalization and philanthropy including the support of non-profit education, training and leadership, which is also of interest within this Capstone.

Gaberman, B., Building the Global Infrastructure for Philanthropy. (2003). Waldemar A. Nielsen Issues in Philanthropy Seminar Series, Georgetown University. http://cpnl.georgetown.edu/doc_pool/Nielsen0209Gaberman.pdf Retrieved July 26, 2007. Barry Gaberman recently retired from a 35-year career with the Ford Foundation. He held numerous positions with the Foundation, from program officer to senior vice president. Gaberman was the founding father of WINGS and Fords International Initiative to Strengthen Philanthropy. This lecture was delivered at the Centre for Public and Non-profit Leadership in Washington, DC on April 11, 2003. Gaberman provided an overview of the global infrastructure that is being built and spoke about defining civil society recalling that it has been the not for profit, non-profit, NGO, voluntary and/or the citizens participation sector. He then set out a framework in which the sector should strive to achieve. Each of the five suggestions supports a vibrant and sustainable civil society and are components of this Capstone Paper: a

75 legal framework, positive tax structure, accountability systems, institutional capacity and sufficient resources. Gaberman identifies countries strong on each area and introduces the growth in the community foundation movement and WINGS-CF, which provide valuable sources of information for this paper. Anyone interested in the community foundation movement would find this a good document to review to gain a quick synopsis of its rapid growth, the infrastructure that has been set up (and how it could easily falter without sufficient funding), and how philanthropic organizations will have to meet the five components in order to be sustainable.

Greene, S.G., Philanthropys Challenges. (November 2003) Chronicle of Philanthropy, http://www.philanthropy.com/tem/email.php?id=gddwnrx6590xnpyoetnjjrehoy 4vt0q7 Retrieved January 5, 2008 Stephen G. Greene is a regular contributor to the Chronicle of Philanthropy, frequently writing about philanthropic topics outside of North America. This review of the annual meeting of the Independent Sector in 2003 spotlights issues and trends of concern for nonprofit organizations: specifically accountability and globalization. The information of relevance and interest to this literature review was that quoted by Greene in reference to Benjamin Barber, the University of Maryland political theorist and author of Jihad vs. McWorld.

76 Greene, S.G., Cultivating Philanthropy Overseas. (2001) Chronicle of Philanthropy, Vol. 14 Issue 1, p. 1. http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.smumn.edu/ehost/delivery?vid=6&hid=106 &sid=0b4b. Retrieved January 26, 2008. Greenes article is an introduction to the community foundation movement outside of North America with a brief paragraph on American foundations. As in other sources for this capstone, community foundations are being heralded as democratic and adaptable to almost any nation and community. Greene cites endowment building as a function normally undertaken to ensure long term sustainability and its subsequent challenges in countries such as Africa. As noted in other community foundation sources, a number of large US and European Foundations are helping to support, promote and build community foundations (e.g. Ford, Bertelsmann, Mott). This article reiterates their involvement and offers comments from key individuals. Of interest is the information provided about the International Fellows Program and exchange programs for staff. Several pieces of information are worth noting for this capstone including strategies to ensure ownership through grassroots fundraising. This is a good article to use as an introduction to community foundations moving into other countries and to help those less familiar with their roots understand the movement and its purpose.

77 Greene, S.G. (2000). Virtual Foundation Aims to Bring International Philanthropy to the Masses. Chronicle of Philanthropy. Retrieved January 5, 2008, from http://www.philanthropy.com/temp/ This short review of the Virtual Foundation is an introduction to the capacity and movement of funds around the world to support people requiring small amounts of money that can significantly alter their lives and communities. The Virtual Foundation posts projects the Foundation Board has approved, donors choose their projects and submit their funds. A few days later, the recipient receives the money. Progress reports are posted on Web sites. A Virtual Foundation Japan and Virtual Foundation Czech Republic are underway thanks to start up funds from Mott, Rockefeller, Turner Foundation and Open Society Institute. For those interested in international philanthropy and globalization, and to support this research, the Virtual Foundation is an example of several elements of globalization (connecting people) and communications technology (email, Internet, World Wide Web). It is of note to those interested in borderless giving (US to other countries) and the changing face of philanthropists (gifts range from $100 to $1,000).

Grew, R. (2005). Global History and Globalization. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 15-31). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.

78 Raymond Grew is Professor of History (Emeritus), at the University of Michigan. He was the editor of the Comparative Studies in Society and History journal and as a writer, focused on historical comparison and global history. Grews chapter in this work focuses on global history and globalization: the widespread use of the term globalization in everything from gender issues to religion. His focus on globalization being far more than a process - economics, and institutions remind the reader of the need to recall the difference between modernization and the intersection of local and global. Grews perspective on global history, when globalization began, and his references to the Cold War, European imperialism and the first/second waves of globalization are the impetus for the historical background documented in this Capstone Paper. He then reflects on three potential categories of questions within the global historical topic that are of note for this paper: global circumstances and experiences (natural disasters such as the tsunami); the diffusion of technologies, institutions and customs spread from place to place (the adaption and adoption of philanthropic techniques from country to country); and the growing web of connections (the Internet). For those students interested in globalization, the history of globalization must be examined and documented on its own; and the theories surrounding global history must too be discussed. Grews definitions are of particular value to this capstone.

79 Hewa, S., Stapleton, D.H. (2005). Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century, (eds). (pp. vii - 11). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Soma Hewa is the principal research investigator on philanthropy, civil society and nonprofit activities in Montreal. He taught sociology in both Alberta and British Columbia and is a widely published author in the fields of philanthropy, sociology of health and sociological theory. Dr. Darwin Stapleton is the executive director of the Rockefeller Archive Centre at Rockefeller University in New York. As a researcher and writer his fields of interest include history of science, technology, public health, philanthropy and education. This book is a compilation of papers from the international conference held in 2003 at the Rockefeller Archive Centre to discuss globalization, philanthropy and civil society. The contents of the book were fundamental to the research undertaken for this paper: history and globalization, philanthropy and globalization during the cold war, philanthropic foundations and civil society in a globalized world. Of particular note are the works by Peter Frumkin, Helmut Anheier, Siobhan Daly, Lester Salamon, Kathy Brock, David Brook and Janice Elliott. Most had published other work on globalization and philanthropy reviewed and used for this Capstone Paper. The book is a thorough introduction and examination of globalization and philanthropy, especially related to the role of philanthropy in globalization. Any student or practitioner in the nonprofit field, or philanthropist, interested in the impact and role philanthropy is playing in

80 globalization, would find this volume of work essential to developing knowledge about globalization and philanthropy.

Kisil, M. (2007). Brazil. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.) (pp. 7-20). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Dr. Marcos Kisil is President of the Institute for the Development of Social Investment in Latin America (an institution to promote philanthropy). He was the W. K. Kellogg Executive Director for Latin America for 15 years. With several organizations supporting philanthropic efforts (Brazilian Association of NGOs, Brazilian Association of Grant Makers, Centre for Studies of Third Sector, etc.) this overview of the philanthropic sector in Brazil offered an in depth view of the growth in civil society, the broad efforts to support the sector and its future in Brazil. This information rounded out the information necessary for this literature review to have a good sense of the history, current situation and growth on several continents. For students or researchers interested in background on support organizations, the number of organizations in Brazil provides more information than most countries.

Johnson, P.D., Johnson, S.P., Kingman, A. (2004). Promoting Philanthropy: Global Challenges and Approaches. International Network on Strategic Philanthropy. Paper 2.

81 Paula Johnson is a Research Fellow with the Globalization Equity Initiative at Harvard University and a Senior Advisor to The Philanthropic Initiative, Inc. Her research and work focuses on the understanding and practice of global philanthropy. Her current research focuses on the development of new philanthropy within specific cultures and countries and other forms of crossborder philanthropy. Stephen Johnson is a Vice President at The Philanthropic Initiative, Inc. His background is law, philanthropy, public policy and education. Andrew Kingman has been Chief Executive of Allavida since 2001. He is responsible for managing their Africa program. He spent four years with the Charities Aid Foundation. Johnson, Johnson and Kingman produced this work related to the strategies that have been used to promote philanthropy, suggestions on how to move the third sector forward in developing countries using known practices and the challenges facing non-profit organizations. The growth and changing roles of nongovernmental organizations are noted and the influence of international foundations are highlighted. Key elements are those used to promote philanthropy in several countries in the early 21st century, and those that may be transferable to other countries if cultural sensitivities are considered. Interest in this research is primarily in the capacity and infrastructure discussion and the community foundation movement, although this paper provides an excellent viewpoint of global networks for philanthropy, and the strategies to promote philanthropy are well documented. Any student of philanthropy or non-profit board member would find this an excellent source of historical data and philanthropy in other countries.

82

Johnson, P.D., Johnson, S.P. (2004). Tools for Good: A Guide to Vehicles for Philanthropy and Charitable Giving. Full Version. International Network on Strategic Philanthropy. Paper 2. Paula Johnson and Stephen Johnson have created a resource tool for students of philanthropy and fundraising. The paper documents the globalization situation in 2004 and then describes current methods used by charities in the US to raise funds. For each method, a comparison is performed for situations in other countries: their limitations, advantages and requirements to move forward successfully. An example is community foundations (particularly relevant for this capstone) and the various tax advantages for donors in the US and Canada, and the lack of these tax structures in other countries. Within the paper the increase in wealth in democratic countries, the intergenerational transfer of wealth in countries such as the UK and Germany, and the growth in the international non-profit sector are explored with their key influences. An interesting section on the emerging trends in philanthropy is covered prior to the exploration of each giving method such as direct mail, planned giving, foundations, donor advised funds and e-philanthropy. The pertinent information is on electronic giving tools and community foundations. There are excellent resources for further information and research at the end of the paper.

Leat, D. The Infrastructure of Global Philanthropy: Wings and Wings-CF. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy

83 Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. (Pp. 199-211). Diana Leat was a research fellow at the Australian Centre for Philanthropy, the London School of Economics and Political Science Centre for Civil Society, and a Visiting Professor at the City University Business School in London. This case study focused on Worldwide Initiatives for Grantmaker Support for Community Foundations (WINGS-CF), an initiative to enhance the globalization of philanthropy as a means to influence change. Of great interest to this capstones research is the focus on community foundations and the challenges faced within the globalization of philanthropy. The literature review has produced several important sources with community foundation statistics highlighting them as the fastest-growing method of encouraging philanthropy (Ruffin, Anheier, Salamon). The second element of importance within Leats work is the impact of electronic communications on WINGS-CF and its weaknesses and challenges. This is of particular interest to this capstones research as most authors consider the movement of people, commerce, technologic inventions and worldwide communications as globalizing factors. Few acknowledge the challenge of working in English, philanthropic terminology, countries without electricity, technology costs and illiteracy. Other factors of interest to those wanting to learn more about WINGS-CF or community foundations would find the conclusion to this chapter worth noting as it provides ample information on the issues that are being faced by foundations as they attempt to spread endowment practices, granting

84 procedures and community benefits that have long been associated with community foundations.

Leat, D. Foundation Legitimacy at the Community Level in the United Kingdom. The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations. In Prewitt, K., Dogan, M., Heydemann, S., Toepler, S. (Eds.). The Legitimacy of Philanthropic Foundations United States and European Perspectives. (2006). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. (Pp. 252-270). This work examines the community foundation model in the US and the UK therefore it is important to this research as one of its main topics for exploration in the capstone paper. Diana Leat addresses the increase in community foundations; their roles, trust and legitimacy as they expand within the United Kingdom. She explores the community foundation movement in the context of the late 1980s and clearly articulates the opportunities, challenges, and advantages. Of note is the Charities Aid Foundations (CAF) role in moving community foundations forward as a legitimate philanthropic tool for the UK. Based on the US model, CAF aspired to create a uniquely UK model, especially given the lack of large pools of endowment funds and tax incentives. Leat states that regrettably, government support remains a challenge in the UK for the continued growth of foundations to support local community projects. Those interested in US models of community foundations attempting to move into other countries as a mainstream fundraising, endowment building and community support tool should review this research.

85 The comparative information between the US and UK would benefit potential donors in the UK as well as volunteers.

Legrain, P. (2002). Open World:/The Truth About Globalization. London, UK: Abacus. Philippe Legrain has a master in politics of the world economy from the London School of Economics. He was special advisor to the director-general of the World Trade Organization and prior to that, the trade and economics correspondent for The Economist. This book is an interesting contradiction to Thomas Friedmans first book on globalization, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, with a purposeful balance of the positive and negative effects. It helps to stabilize this paper as it represents the viewpoint of a European looking into the United States and other areas of the world impacted by the quicker movement of information, ideas, products and people. While not focused on philanthropy or non-profit organizations, it offers opinions on the factors affecting the economy, politics and the future of poor countries. Of interest to this paper is his perspective on the world never being truly global, that globalization a process not a destination, and that the movement of goods and people will always be ruled by money and time. This is in opposition to Thomas Friedmans account of globalization, as Friedman suggests that globalization is not controllable. His book is a reminder that half the world has never made a phone call.

86 Leshchenko, N. Philanthropic Foundations Assistance in Post-Conflict Situations: A Case Study of Post-Communist Southeast Europe. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. (Pp. 183198). Natalia Leshchenko is a PhD candidate at the London School of Economics. Her experience includes being a researcher on the book, Managing at the Leading Edge a non-profit management book on best practices. This chapter focused on providing assistance to countrys exiting from conflict situations. Leshchenko provides a brief history of South-Eastern Europe. Support for the post-conflict rebuilding was received from several foundations but this case study used foundations that had been involved in the countrys for at least a decade (the Charles Stewart Mott, Soros Foundation Network and King Baudouin Foundations). Challenges experienced include: managing relationships with local partners, coordinating efforts with international charities; and improving the effectiveness of their respective foundations. The conclusion of this chapter formulated added value that foundations could apply in post-conflict situations. This work was an interesting addition to the capstone research as it examined foundations on the ground in other countries. The author captured positive and negative information as well as significant opportunities for improvement for each foundation. From the study, fifteen thoughtful, strategic and collaborative lessons are offered to provide the reader with an interesting body of knowledge to use. This study is important to those

87 considering working in non-profit organizations in Eastern Europe and prospective donors to South-East Europe as well as those interested in helping non-profit organizations in post-conflict situations.

Lindenberg, M. (1999). Declining State Capacity, Voluntarism, and the Globalization of the Not-for-Profit Sector. Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (Supp. Vol. 28, 4), pp. 147-167. Sage Publications. Marc Lindenberg is dean and professor of the Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs at the University of Washington. He was the senior vice president of programs for CARE USA from 1992-1997. The initial ideas from this article were presented at a conference in 1995. Lindenberg presents evidence of the rapid growth of the nongovernmental humanitarian and development organizations since the 1960s and examines key motivating factors that have contributed to this explosion. The paper focuses on the structures that organizations are forming, important trends and political influences. This article is not focused on all relevant areas of the capstones research, but it provides an interesting view at what is happening in countries not experiencing rapid community foundation growth. Of relevance is Lindenbergs statement that the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989 (and his subsequent analysis of other political activity affecting international non-profit organizations) and inexpensive global communications have been two of the key factors in the expansion of northern nongovernmental organizations. The growth of nongovernment agencies in developing countries and amongst organizations

88 such as Medecins sans Frontieres and CARE provided a source of information not otherwise examined for this research topic.

McPherson, R.C. (2007). Digital Giving How Technology is Changing Charity. Lincoln, Nebraska: iUniverse. Richard McPherson is a faculty member of New York Universitys George H. Heyman Jr. Centre for Philanthropy and Fundraising. He founded McPherson Associates in 1984 and has consulted with organizations in higher education, womens rights, conservation and the arts. Richard McPherson spent ten months interviewing key people in the United States to seek their perspective on technology in the non-profit sector. He spoke to leaders in technology companies, media experts and non-profit professionals. He specifically sought their strategic insight, lessons learned related to the big technology trends affecting charity and how organizations can use them to increase public support. Numerous examples of technology impacting charity are highlighted including the popularity of Podcasts during the Tsunami. The book examines Internet giving sites such as CARE2, Donorschoose.org, KIVA, Directchange, GlobalGiving and MySpace. Of particular note is the newfound ability to promote, attract, receive funds and steward donors using technology. This is a good source for anyone in the nonprofit sector attempting to both understand how technology has opened up the charitable sector to the public and how charities must be prepared to take advantage of the reasonably low cost of social media versus traditional media.

89 It is especially relevant to this research as it focuses not just on the worldwide web and the Internet, but on the impact, the online social community is having on charity as well as current on line trends.

Mehta, M. Globalization and Biotechnology. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 193-204). New York, New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Michael Mehta is the associate professor of sociology at the University of Saskatchewan and director of the Sociology of Biotechnology program and director of the Social Research Unit. This chapter speaks to issues surrounding biotechnology and globalization; the globalized risk society and the economics of multinational companies and food production. Of interest to this paper is a short paragraph speaking to Greenpeace and their use of the Internet to mobilize people, support and funds to practice strategic philanthropy. Those interested in agricultural biotechnology and this aspect of globalization would find this chapter of interest.

Mirabella, R.M., Gemelli, G., Malcolm, M., Berger, G. (2007). Non-profit and Philanthropic Studies: International Overview of the Field in Africa, Canada, Latin America, Asia, the Pacific, and Europe. Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (Supp. Vol.36, 4).

90 Roseanne Mirabella is the Executive Director of the Centre for Community Research and Engagement, an associate professor in the Political Science Department at Seton Hall University, the lead researcher on Nongovernmental education study since 2002, and tracking nonprofit management education programs since 1995. Giuliana Gemelli is a professor of history of scientific and cultural institutions in the Department of History at the University of Bologna and Director of the Master in International Studies in Philanthropy program. Margy-Jean Malcolm is the Program Director of the Graduate Diploma in Nonprofit Management in the School of Health and Community Studies in New Zealand. Gabriel Berger is the Director of the graduate program in non-profit organizations, the Director of the Centre for Social Innovation and associate professor in the Department of Administration at the Universidad de San Andres in Argentina. This article is a thorough review of the non-profit programs outside the United States for people wishing to work, research and write within the non-profit or civil society sector in both civilized and developing countries. It contains significant information of interest as it reports on the current academic programs from Canada through Asia, Africa and Europe. The research includes the similarities and differences of programs as they relate to the overall growth of the non-profit sector internationally. Information was collected from 189 universities in 62 countries with educational programs in non-profit management outside the United States using a World Wide Web survey. By comparison, the United States has 240 universities and colleges offering non-profit management programs. The article

91 examines where the non-profit studies are located within faculties at colleges and universities however, this was not as relevant to this Capstone Paper. The relevant information on fundraising and philanthropic studies is represented, and of special note are the countries with high growth in community foundations, as well as the evolving need for professionally trained non-profit managers on a global scale.

Mirabella, R. (2007). University-Based Educational Programs in Non-profit Management and Philanthropic Studies: A 10-Year Review and Projections of Future Trends. Non-profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (Supp. Vol. 36, 4). Sage Publications. Mirabellas research tracks the growth of non-profit management programs in the United States since the mid-1990s to report on available programs, their location, courses and degrees offered. Of interest to the researcher and to this capstone are courses focused on internal functions, such as fundraising, and external, such as policymaking. Those interested in non-profit management courses, the differences between programs and their growth in the last ten years would find this research beneficial. Questions arise regarding the role of advocacy in organizations and universities that are now incorporating this function into their teachings. Based on the research collected, an international emphasis on nongovernmental organizations and development, management of nongovernmental organizations, sustainable development and the third sector

92 internationally are areas of growth within the 240 college and university programs. A number of programs focus on partnerships and alliances.

Oliviero, M.B., Simmons, A. Distinct View-Intervening in the Practices of the Public and Private Sector. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. (Pp. 121-137). Melanie Beth Oliviero is an advisor with Strategies for Social Change, an international consultant with Development Alternatives Inc., and an advocate, teacher and advisor for global social justice. This chapter focused on the role that philanthropic foundations have played with private and public sector issues of accountability, global corruption, corporate social responsibility, and coalition building through building relationships that truly represent forward thinking solutions to some of the most challenging problems facing the world and the effect of globalization. The Funders Network for Trade and Globalization is an excellent example of a network set up to assist charitable organizations throughout the globalization process. Other case studies showcase the market, government and philanthropic leaders forging alliances to solve major problems on an international scale. In their conclusion the authors state that the role of philanthropy can be similar regardless of the challenge. They are not advocating, One size fits all philanthropy, however experience, research, understanding, and good judgement are effective practices to solve challenges facing a community or country (Oliviero, p. 136).

93 This thought-provoking article provides ample information on a variety of challenges solved through foundation, business and government coalitions. Students of political science, government, advocacy, commerce, social sciences or non-profit management would find this work worth reading several times as it presents complex situations with novel alliances that should be incorporated into future global challenges.

Onishi, T. Current Conditions and Development Strategies of Philanthropy and Fundraising in Japan: A Comparative Study of the United States and Japan. (2007). International Journal of Educational Advancement, Vol. 7, No. 3, September 2007, p. 205-225. Tamaki Onishi is a PhD candidate at the Centre on Philanthropy at Indiana University. He received funding from the Association of Fundraising Professionals and the Matsushita International Foundation to conduct this research. This paper is a comprehensive examination of the current philanthropic environment in Japan from surveys, interviews and comparative US data. The relevant materials for this capstone relate to Japans methods of raising funds and cultural implications. Like other countries, philanthropy, charity and civil society are not new; but legal structures and organized philanthropy are new within legislation for civil society organizations. Of great interest in this work as an example of old charitable customs is Onishis reference to Kanjin, an eighth century Buddhist method of raising funds for temples that invited gifts based on the donors capability. This paper would be

94 useful for philanthropy students tracing historic methods transplanted to North America. Similar to other countries there new growth in the third sector both in terms of people organizing themselves and funds flowing from individuals, corporations and other countries. This paper is of particular interest as the information presented specific to a country very different from North America that was not seen in other sources. E-philanthropy, education and networking recommendations are studied in Onishis research and relevant to this capstone.

Perlas, N. (2000). Shaping Globalization Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding. Center for Alternative Development Initiatives, Philippines, and Globalization Network for Social Threefolding, US. Nicanor Perlas is President of the Center for Alternative Development Initiatives (CADI) in the Philippines. He is an author, speaker and resource on sustainable development and threefolding. Perlas was awarded the UN Environment Program Global 500 Award for Sustainable Agriculture and The Outstanding Filipino Award. This is an essay about what he calls threefolding or civil society (non-profit and nongovernment organizations), government and business working together for sustainable development. The most important chapter in the book relative to this capstone paper focused on the role non-profit organizations are playing in advocacy and social movements to bring attention to global matters such as the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) and its defeat. There are numerous references to the growth of the civil sector and its potential to impact

95 globalization in a positive way for sustainable development. The book further discusses examples of boycotts and the Battle of Seattle. The Seattle situation was highlighted in numerous sources as the culmination of what voluntary action can accomplish when coordinated, as well as the impact the Internet and email had on its success. This essay is written for those familiar with, and interested in, threefolding, close examination of transnational corporate globalization and sustainable development.

96

Pospscil, M. Central and Eastern Europe. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. (Pp. 21-36). Mirosalv Pospscil has worked in the Czech Republics civil sector since 1989. In 2003, he founded the Centre for Non-profit Sector Research in Brno and is currently their director. This chapter is relevant as it depicts countries impacted by the fall of communism in 1989. Despite a lack of wealth and loss of philanthropic practices and fear of the former regime, thousands of non-profit organizations have been created since then, primarily foundations. Foreign models have been implemented and revised to suit the needs of the Czech environment. He provides an overview of the years since the 1989 and the efforts to rebuild civil society. Two organizations are studied, the Environmental Partnership Organization and the Healthy City Karvin. Both organizations rely on partnership, alliances and stakeholder/volunteer involvement. This chapter offered applicable research from two organizations with funding and operations challenges that could place them in a host of communitys. Their solutions and practices could be transferred to communitys developing their civil society and seeking foundation advice and expertise.

97 Ruffin, Holt. (2003). The Globalization of American Philanthropy. North Carolina, United States: Duke University. Mr. Ruffin, the distinguished Fleishman Fellow in Civil Society at Duke University and the Director, Civil Society International wrote this paper to analyze the globalization of American philanthropy to find trends in crossborder funding between the US and other countries and to suggest how this could be more meaningful in the future. The paper addresses six key areas on this topic, two of which are relevant to this research. Scholars of community foundations, non-profit policy makers and globalization looking for more about these topics would find this paper of interest. Within the research on community foundations, Ruffin examines two features of globalization: the spread of community foundations to other countries around the world and the other is the internationalization of the community foundation. Ruffin goes on to state that he believes the non-profits in this global world need international philanthropic policies. The second important link to this research is his analysis of the important elements of globalization that Thomas Friedman writes about in The World is Flat specifically the Internet and the impact of the democratization of former communist countries. Ruffin calls for higher education in the Southern hemisphere to ensure appropriately educated and trained graduates to work in non-profit organizations.

98

Salamon, L.M. (1994). The Rise of the Non-profit Sector. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 73, Issue 4, p. 109-122. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19940701faessay5129/lester-msalamon/the-rise-of-the-nonprofit-sector.html Retrieved January 12, 2008. This article written by Lester Salamon fourteen years ago is a must-read for every student and volunteer interested in philanthropy and a concise image of third sector growth within the last twenty years. Prior to other popular sources of globalization Salamon was examining the key forces at play generating massive growth in the non-profit sector and alerting people to the impact that this could have on the non-profit industry and the world. Salamon initially questions whether this surge of new organizations is due to a new movement, or a sector ignored for a long time gaining attention and momentum. Salamon credits the US, Canada and Europe for providing moral support to countries new to philanthropy. The combination of literacy with technology is a unique point highlighted by Salamon of interest to this capstone. He foreshadows research written thirteen years later by stating that the non-profit sector will need to find ways to function, and solve major problems plus provide training and technical assistance to its managers to ensure long-term support.

Salamon, L.M. (2005). Globalization and the Civil Society Sector. In Hewa, S. & Stapleton, D.H. (Eds.), Globalization, Philanthropy, and Civil Society Toward

99 a New Political Culture in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 137-152). New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. Lester M. Salamon is professor and director of the Center for Civil Society Studies of the Institute for Policy Studies at the Johns Hopkins University. He is a leading expert on alternative tools of government action and on the nonprofit sector in the United States and around the world. In 1991, he began work on an international research project, the Johns Hopkins Comparative Non-profit Sector Project to document the scope and role of civil society in more than forty countries; to explain the variances; to assess their impact; improve awareness of the institutions and build capacity for future work. The chapter contains a review of the findings that according to Salamon, Sokolowski and Associates of Global Civil Society, challenges commonly held beliefs about the international non-profit or civil society sector (p. 150). This work is relevant to this capstone paper due to its exploration of the workforce within the civil sector and the subsequent impact the sector has played in globalization.

Salm, J. (1999). Coping With Globalization: A Profile of the Northern NGO Sector. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 4, Supplement 1999, Sage Publications, Inc. Janet Salm graduated from the Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs at the University of Washington. Her focus was on international development and nonprofit management. This article provides an introduction of ten high

100 profile, successful, nongovernmental organizations and their reaction, challenges and techniques for managing the effects of globalization. The paper is built on the Bellagio Conference discussions that included identifying common challenges rated to globalization, sharing coping strategies, and future opportunities for adapting. Very brief founding principles of each organization are stated; then programs and staffing are documented. Five core external challenges are listed: globalization, competition and cooperation, autonomy, advocacy and changing north-south relations. Of note beyond these challenges are the need to reform and professionalize. Internal challenges include how boards are made-up, government alliances, the private sector and southern NGOs. The papers documentation about being on the cutting edge and becoming more effective with technology and managing operations better was of use to this capstones focus on technology and the higher education for employees of non-profit organizations. Those interested in learning more about working with NGOs, how they are dealing with globalization and organizations needing examples of non-profits looking inward to improve should carefully review this article.

Suter, K. (2006). Globalization. London, England: Hodder Education. Keith Suter is a foreign affairs analyst in Australia and an internationally renowned social and economic commentator, writer and broadcaster. This book is an excellent introduction and overview of globalizations impact on transforming the international economics and politics. Anyone interested in

101 a broad overview of globalization would find this a useful source of information. Suter focuses on three core factors of globalization: the necessity of governments to work together, the ever-growing importance of transnational corporations as the driving force in economic policy and their ability to reach the entire world and (most relevant to this paper) people mobilizing themselves through nongovernmental (non-profit) organizations. Globalization includes an in depth look at the forces that have shaped what Suter claims is a borderless era. He provides an overview of the United Nations, the Cold War, free trade, consumerism and anti-globalization. Suters work supports claims by Anheier, Ruffin, et. al. within the topic of philanthropy and globalization such as the impact technology has made and the increased dependence on a professional non-profit sector to work with government and business to democratize situations. This book is of particular importance to this research given its wide historical examination of globalization and its focus on nongovernment organizations.

The Synergos Institute (September-October 2007). Philanthropy in Kenya. Global Giving Matters. http://www.synergos.org/globalgivingmatters/features/0710kenyaphilanthropy. htm. Retrieved January 26, 2008 In 1987 Peggy Dulany founded the non-profit organization Synergos (Working Together in Greek) to bring people together to build leadership networks to address poverty and increase equity around the world. They work

102 with civil society leaders, philanthropists, government, community based groups, international organizations and foundations. Synergos attempts to build partnerships to facilitate developing local leadership, capacity and institutions that can sustain their initiatives. Dulany, the Chair, and a staff of forty are headquartered in New York, but work in several South American countries and Mexico. This work focuses on the work of Chris Mathias of the Synergos Institutes Global Philanthropists Circle, co-founder of Digital Links, a computer recycling non-profit based in London, UK, that piloted in Kenya in 2002. They refurbish and deliver computers to nongovernment organizations, schools and churches throughout Africa. Mr. Mathias spearheaded the organization after becoming aware of the waste from computers. His partner is a seasoned non-profit professional. This article relates to the capstone research as it highlights technology in developed countries, the potential partnerships and opportunities in less developed countries as well as the entrepreneurship brought to many non-profits from the business sector. It speaks to the need for alliances between organizations as well as the overwhelming importance of technology in the next phase of globalization. Students of innovative charitable acts and partnerships in non-profits would find this article interesting.

Vogel, A. Whos making global civil society: philanthropy and US empire in world society. (2006). UK: Blackwell Publishing, London School of Economics and Political Science. British Journal of Sociology, 2006, Volume 57, Issue 4. Personal communication.

103 Ann Vogel is currently teaching at the Singapore Management University. At the time she wrote this paper, she was with the Department of Sociology and Philosophy at the University of Exeter. Vogels work is an interesting addition to the topics literature review and research as it approaches American philanthropy as an exported good or service to other countries. This view of the globalization of philanthropy from a sociology scholar introduced a new viewpoint, that of the US participation in sharing, teaching and promoting its philanthropic tools as a further method of injecting the US value system onto the new culture of philanthropy in developing countries. The article also explores the history, social impact and financing of US philanthropy. Within Vogels essay she explores four aspects of US international grant making. Included are the exploration of the international community foundation movement, which is of relevance to this capstone as several new ideas are presented including the role that the large US foundations have played and their impact on the movement as being elite philanthropy. Of note is a paragraph referencing the growth of university programs, think tanks and systems for students of philanthropy to seek higher education and networking opportunities.

Wattanasiritham, P. (2007). Thailand. In Anheier, H.K., Simmons, A., Winder, D. (Eds.). (pp. 93-106). Innovation in Strategic Philanthropy Local and Global Perspectives. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC.

104 Paiboon Wattanasiritham is the Chair of the Moral Promotion Centre, Advisory Chair of the Community Organizations Development Institute and Chair of the Thai Fund Foundation. This chapter provides a thorough overview of the culture of philanthropy and giving in Thailand, gift forms, the legal environment and two case studies. Very little was of importance to this literature review, save the information that community foundations are not yet exist in Thailand (there are a few community based efforts and institutions). Of interest is the type of giving that exists in Thailand but not in other countries: that of giving to the Royal Family for them to disperse funds to those projects and people in need. Other than providing some history and current information, this chapter does not really offer much for philanthropy students.