NEURON

A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia. A number of specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord, cause muscle contractions, and affectglands. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord.

PARTS OF NEURON

Cell body- The cell body of a neuron is a ball-shaped structure about 0.025 millimetre
wide. Each neuron cell body is a centre for receiving and sending nerve impulses. The cell body is also responsible for making proteins and using energy for the maintenance and growth of the nerve cell. The vast majority of neuron cell bodies are within the central nervous system, where incoming messages are combined and outgoing messages are produced. The few neuron cell bodies outside the central nervous system are grouped into clusters called ganglia. The best-known ganglia are in the autonomic nervous system.

Axon- The axon, also called the nerve fibre, is a tubelike extension of a neuron cell body.
The axon is specialized to carry messages. An axon of one neuron may have enough branches to make contact with as many as 1,000 other neurons. Most axons in the central nervous system are less than 1 millimetre long. However, many axons in the peripheral nervous system are longer, and some are much longer. For example, the axons that extend from the spinal cord to the muscles in the feet may be 75 to 100 centimetres long. The structures commonly called nerves are actually bundles of axons lying next to one another in a cordlike formation. Nerves can be made up of the axons of motor neurons or sensory neurons, or of both. Some axons are covered by a sheath of a white, fatty substance called myelin. The myelin increases the speed of impulses along the axons. Myelin also causes the

distinction between the grey matter and white matter in the nervous system. Grey matter consists largely of unmyelinated axons (axons without myelin sheaths) and neuron cell bodies. White matter is made up mostly of axons that have white sheaths of myelin. Myelin is formed in the peripheral nervous system by Schwann cells, which are special supporting cells that surround the axons. In the central nervous system, supporting cells called glia produce myelin.

Dendrites- The dendrites of a neuron are branching, tubelike extensions of the cell body
that form a pattern resembling the limbs of a tree. Most neuron cell bodies have about six main dendrites, each of which is two or three times as thick as the axon of the cell. The distance between the cell body and the tips of the dendrites is about 0.5 millimetre. Dendrites are specialized structures for receiving impulses, mostly from the axon of another neuron. Dendrites and axons do not quite touch each other. In almost all cases, they are separated by an extremely narrow space called the synaptic cleft, over which nerve impulses are transmitted. These places where one neuron communicates with another are called synapses. TYPES OF NEURON 1. Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. 2. Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). 3. Interneurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.

Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia, are non-neuronal cellsthat
maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. In the human brain, there is roughly one glia for every neuron with a ratio of about two neurons for every glia in the cerebral gray matter. As the Greek name implies, glia are commonly known as the glue of the nervous system; however, this is not fully accurate. The four main functions of glial cells are to surround neurons and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroypathogens and remove dead neurons. Types of Glia cells Microglia are like specialized macrophages capable of phagocytosis that protect neurons of the central nervous system. They are derived from hematopoietic precursors rather than ectodermal tissue; they are commonly categorized as such because of their supportive role to neurons. These cells comprise approximately 15% of the total cells of the central nervous system. They are found in all regions of the brain and spinal cord. Microglial cells are small relative to macroglial cells, with changing shapes and oblong nuclei. They are mobile within the brain and multiply when the brain is damaged. In the healthy central nervous system, microglia processes constantly sample all aspects of their environment (neurons, macroglia and blood vessels).

Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic side of the synapse. Release of neurotransmitters usually follows arrival of an action potential at the synapse, but may also followgraded electrical potentials. Low level "baseline" release also occurs without electrical stimulation. Neurotransmitters are synthesized from plentiful and simple precursors, such as amino acids, which are readily available from the diet and which require only a small number of biosynthetic steps to convert.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous systemof vertebrates (such as humans) contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and nerves connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system. These regions are all interconnected by means of complex neural pathways. The enteric nervous system, a subsystem of the peripheral nervous system, has the capacity, even when severed from the rest of the nervous system through its primary connection by the vagus nerve, to function independently in controlling the gastrointestinal system.

Neurons send signals to other cells as electrochemical waves travelling along thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmittersto be released at junctions called synapses. A cell that receives a synaptic signal may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. Sensory neurons are activated by physical stimuli impinging on them, and send signals that inform the central nervous system of the state of the body and the external environment. Motor neurons, situated either in the central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, connect the nervous system to muscles or other effector organs. Central neurons, which in vertebrates greatly outnumber the other types, make all of their input and output connections with other neurons. The interactions of all these types of neurons form neural circuits that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called glial cells (or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support. Nervous systems are found in most multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity.
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Sponges have no nervous system, although they have homologs of many genes that play

crucial roles in nervous system function, and are capable of several whole-body responses, including a primitive form of locomotion. Placozoans and mesozoansother simple animals that are not classified as part of the subkingdom Eumetazoaalso have no nervous system. In Radiata (radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish) the nervous system consists of a simple nerve net. Bilateria, which include the great majority of vertebrates and invertebrates, all have a nervous system containing a brain, one central cord (or two running in parallel), and peripheral nerves. The size of the bilaterian nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to on the order of 100 billion cells in humans.Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system.

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Central Nervous System The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The average adult human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg (approximately 3 pounds). The brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) and trillons of "support cells" called glia. The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column, the collection of bones (back bone) that houses the spinal cord, is about 70 cm long. Therefore, the spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The picture on the left shows the somatic motor system. The cell body is located in either the brain or spinal cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle

BRAIN
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfishhave a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. Brains can be extremely complex. The cerebral cortex of the human brain contains roughly 1533 billion neurons, perhaps more, depending on gender and age, linked with up to 10,000 synaptic connections each. Each cubic millimeter of the cerebral cortex contains roughly one billion synapses. These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body and target them to specific recipient cells.

DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN

The forebrain is responsible for a variety of functions including receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor function. There are two major divisions of forebrain: the diencephalon and the telencephalon. The diencephalon contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus which are responsible for such functions as motor control, relaying sensory information, and controlling autonomic functions. The telencephalon contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebrum. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. The midbrain and the hindbrain together make up the brainstem. The midbrain is the portion of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and the forebrain. This region of the brain is involved in auditory and visual responses as well as motor function. The hindbrain extends from the spinal cord and is composed of the metencephalon andmyelencephalon. The metencephalon contains structures such as the pons and cerebellum. These regions assists in maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, and the conduction of sensory information. The myelencephalon is composed of the medulla oblongata which is responsible for controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

Prosencephalon - Forebrain

Diencephalon Telencephalon Mesencephalon - Midbrain Rhombencephalon - Hindbrain

Metencephalon Myelencephalon

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

The Hindbrain
Having evolved hundreds of millions of years ago, the Hindbrain or the Reptillian Brain is the oldest part of the human brain. As you might guess from it's name, it's a piece of brain anatomy that we share with reptiles and is the most primitive. Likewise it's in charge of our primal instincts and most basic functions. Things like the instincts of survival, dominance, mating and the basic functions of respiration, heartbeat all come from this area of the brain. Located in the Hindbrain are: The Spinal Cord This is the infomation superhighway of the body. It carries information up to the brain and instructions back down. The Medulla Oblongata Helps control the body's autonomic functions (things you don't need to think about to perform) like respiration, digestion and heart rate. Also acts as a relay station for nerve signals going to/from the brain The Pons

Has roles in your level of arousal or conciousness and sleep. Relays sensory information to/from the brain. Also involved in controlling autonomic body functions. The Cerebellum Mostly deals with movement. It regulates and coordinates movement, posture and balance. Also involved in learning movement.

The Limbic System

The Limbic System sometimes called the "emotional brain" or "Old Mammalian Brain" is the next brain to have evolved in the more primitive mammals about 150 million years ago. This is where our emotions reside, where memory begins and where these two functions combine together to mark behaviours with positive or negative feelings. It's where mostly unconcious value judgements are made. Information going through the Limbic System are filed under "agreeable or disagreeable". It also plays a role in salience (what grabs your attention), spontaneity and creativity. Located in the Limbic System are:
The Amygdala

It's name is latin for almond which relates to its shape. It helps in storing and classifying emotionally charged memories. It plays a large role in producing our emotions, especially fear. It's been found to trigger responses to strong emotion such as sweaty palms, freezing, increased heart-beat/respiration and stress hormone release.
The Hippocampus

This guy is all about memory and a little about learning. It's primary role is in memory formation, classifying information, long-term memory. Like the RAM in your computer it processes and stores new and temporary memory for long term storage. It's also involved in interpreting incoming nerve signals and spatial relationships.
The Hypothalamus

It should be called the Hyperthalamus because it does so much. It's linked closely with the pituitary gland to control many of the body's functions. It monitors and controls your circadian rhythms (your daily sleep/wake cycle), homeostasis (making sure your body is running smoothly), apetite, thirst, other bodily urges and also plays a role in emotions, autonomic functions and motor functions.
The Thalamus

The Thalamus is THE relay station in the brain. Most of the sensory signals, auditory (sound), Visual, Somatosensory (from your skin and internal organs), go

through this organ on their way to other parts of the brain for processing. It also plays a function in motor control.

The Neocortex
The last and most advanced brain to evolve to date is called the Neocortex, neomammalian or rational brain. We share this part of our brain with other higher level mammals like the primates and dolphins, although in humans the neocortex is the largest. It takes up 2/3's of the human brain. This is where we find the brain power to develop language, abstract thought, conciousness and imagination. Let there be no doubt, this is what grants us our status on the food chain and allows us to be human. The Neocortex is divided into two hemispheres, right and left. The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body and vice versa. Also the hemispheres are divided in terms of what kind of thought they process or produce. The right being more concerned with the artistic, spatial and musical. While the left is more concerned with the colder, linear, rational and verbal aspects. Located in the Neocortex are:
The Frontal Lobe

This is the most recent evolutionary addition to the brain. If the brain had a White House it would be here. It is the true center for command and control in your body. The Frontal lobe is responsible for functions such as reasoning, problem solving, judgement, impulse control. This coupled with the fact that it's the last to develop when we are young adults, probably answers a lot of questions for many parents out there. It also manages our higher emotions such as empathy and altruism. This lobe is also involved in motor control and memory.
The Parietal Lobe

The Parietal Lobe is involved in processing pain and touch sensation. It's where the Somatosensory (from your skin and internal organs) Cortex resides. It's also associated with cognition (including calculating location and speed of objects), movement, orientation, recognition and speech.
The Temporal Lobe

The Temporal Lobe is involved in auditory (sound) sensation and is where the Primary Auditory Cortex and on the left hemisphere, Wernicke's Area (language recognition) are located. This lobe is also involved in emotion, memory and speech.

The Occipital Lobe

The Occipital Lobe controls visual sensation and processing. The Visual Cortex is resides here.
Broca's Area

This part of the cortex controls speech, language recognition and facial nerves.
The Corpus Callosum

This is the neural bridge that connects the two hemispheres to each other, located centrally in brain. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

In physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. It derives from the Greek words endo meaning inside, within, and crinis for secrete. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different. The endocrine systems effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting for hours to weeks. The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived. Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they travel to target tissue and generate a response. Hormones regulate various human functions,

including Metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and mood. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.

GLAND
Gland is an organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance for release of substances such as hormones or breast milk, often into thebloodstream (endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland). Glands can be divided into 2 groups:

Endocrine glands are glands that secrete their products through the basal Exocrine glands secrete their products through a duct or directly onto

lamina and lack a duct system.

the apical surface, the glands in this group can be divided into three groups: Apocrine glands a portion of the secreting cell's body is lost during secretion. Apocrine gland is often used to refer to the apocrine sweat glands, however it is thought that apocrine sweat glands may not be true apocrine glands as they may not use the apocrine method of secretion.

Holocrine glands the entire cell disintegrates to secrete its substances Merocrine glands cells secrete their substances by exocytosis (e.g.,

(e.g., sebaceous glands)

mucous and serous glands). Also called "eccrine". The type of secretory product of an Exocrine gland may also be one of three categories:

Serous glands secrete a watery, often protein-rich product. Mucous glands secrete a viscous product, rich in carbohydrates (e.g., Sebaceous glands secrete a lipid product.These glands are also known as oil

glycoproteins).

glands.

HORMONE
A hormone (from Greek "impetus") is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones; plant hormones are also called phytohormones. Hormones in animals are often transported in the blood. Cells respond to a hormone when they express a specific receptor for that hormone. The hormone binds to the

receptor protein, resulting in the activation of a signal transduction mechanism that ultimately leads to cell type-specific responses.