Review of Transmission System Connection Requirements

entsoe / NGC / E.ON Netz

and annexes for wind turbine connection

E.ON Netz / Elkraft-Eltra / EIR

For Paul Newton, Andrew Bell, Richard Hair Eon Technology Centre, Ratcliffe-on-Soar, Nottinghamshire Author : Ian Moore, Cardiff University, FlexNet PhD Student 30th June 2011

Executive Summary
As part of efforts to improve cross-border electricity trading and market access across the European Union, a generic generator grid connections code is being drafted by the Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (entsoe). This report undertakes a basic comparison of existing generator connection codes in the UK and the EON Netz area in Germany and additionally the new draft code from entsoe. Also included in the comparison are code requirement annexes for wind plant connections in Ireland and Denmark. Integration of wind energy plant in these countries has been a major focus for grid code changes and future plans in the UK to connect large amounts of non-synchronous plant will also represent a major change. The specified areas of generator connection which are common to all of the codes are voltage and frequency ranges, active and reactive power outputs, active power response to frequency changes and Fault Ride Through (FRT). These are variously specified with and without figures and also using different terminology. For the complete codes reviewed (entsoe, NGC and EON) minimum capability requirements generally apply across all generating plant regardless of prime mover type. In general the only common structural distinction made in the codes, is in terms of plant technology, that between synchronous and non-synchronous plant. For EON in Germany, ELTRA in Denmark and EIR in Ireland special annexes to the codes exist which apply to wind plant only. Active power frequency response requirements in NGC and entsoe illustrate some complications in effective description of required operation and possible confusion in interpretation. In all of the codes, non-synchronous requirements for minimum capabilities for reactive power control below maximum active power output may hide possible use of their extended capabilities by system operators. FRT requirements are particularly diverse being dictated by characteristics of the particular regional power system. Additionally they illustrate how underlying plant technology may effect required response capability i.e. load rejection. In terms of format the European codes are relatively concise, the entsoe code managing in addition, to be comprehensive and well structured in its technical specification. However in comparison the UK codes underlying technical structure is difficult to extract. NGC state that increased flexibility and controllability on the future transmission system outlined for 2020 will be required and thus improvement of their existing grid code in terms of technical clarity and structure would be essential. Previous changes in grid code requirements for successful integration of wind energy in Germany and Spain is well documented. In conclusion the entsoe draft connection requirements should prove useful if the result is requirements that are more readable and technically adaptable. Further changes in generation mix planned for European countries including considerable offshore expansion in the UK are resulting in new requirements for plant capability and controls an example being synthetic inertia. New technologies such as multi-terminal dc and addition of functions such as power system stabilisers to nonsynchronous plant may need inclusion in grid connection codes in the future.

CONTENTS Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 6 1.1 entsoe pilot code .................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Scope of Review..................................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Regional Electricity Generation Infrastructure ........................................................................ 7 2 Code Summaries............................................................................................................................. 8 2.1 Overview................................................................................................................................. 9 2.2 Voltage and Frequency ranges............................................................................................. 11 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 11 NGC .......................................................................................................................................... 11 EON H&EHV and EON Offshore .............................................................................................. 12 ELTRA ...................................................................................................................................... 13 EIR WFPS................................................................................................................................. 14 2.3 Active Power Controllability .................................................................................................. 15 2.4 Active Power Response to Frequency Changes .................................................................. 16 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 16 NGC .......................................................................................................................................... 17 EON E&EHV ............................................................................................................................. 20 ELTRA Wind ............................................................................................................................. 22 EIR ............................................................................................................................................ 23 2.5 Reactive Power Capability at maximum active power .......................................................... 24 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 24 NGC .......................................................................................................................................... 24 EON & EON Offshore Wind ..................................................................................................... 25 ELTRA ...................................................................................................................................... 25 EIR ............................................................................................................................................ 25 2.6 Reactive Power Capability below Maximum Active Power ................................................... 26 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 26 NGC .......................................................................................................................................... 26 EON HV&EHV and Offshore Wind ............................................................................................ 27 ELTRA ...................................................................................................................................... 28 EIR Wind ................................................................................................................................... 28 2.7 Reactive Power Control ........................................................................................................ 29 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 29 NGC CC .................................................................................................................................... 30 EON E&EHV & EON Wind ........................................................................................................ 31 ELTRA ...................................................................................................................................... 31 EIR WFPS................................................................................................................................. 31 2.8 Fault Ride Through ............................................................................................................... 32 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 32 NGC CC .................................................................................................................................... 34 EON H&EHV ............................................................................................................................. 35 ELTRA ...................................................................................................................................... 36 EIR WFPS................................................................................................................................. 38 2.9 Fault Ride Through - Fast Acting Voltage Control ................................................................ 39 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 39 NGC .......................................................................................................................................... 40 EON E&EHV and EON Wind .................................................................................................... 40 ELTRA ...................................................................................................................................... 41 2.10 Islanding ............................................................................................................................... 42 3 1

2.11

4 5 6

Inertial Response .................................................................................................................. 42 entsoe ....................................................................................................................................... 42 NGC .......................................................................................................................................... 43 2.12 Miscellaneous ....................................................................................................................... 44 2.13 Offshore power generation facilities...................................................................................... 44 Review of the Codes ..................................................................................................................... 45 3.1 Voltage and Frequency Ranges ........................................................................................... 45 3.2 Active Power Controllability .................................................................................................. 46 3.3 Active Power response to Frequency Changes .................................................................... 47 3.3.1 Continuous Control........................................................................................................... 49 3.3.2 Over frequency and Under frequency .............................................................................. 49 3.4 Reactive Power Requirements ............................................................................................. 50 3.4.1 Reactive Power Capability at Maximum Active Power ..................................................... 51 3.4.2 Reactive Power Capability below Maximum Active Power ............................................... 52 3.4.3 Reactive Power Control.................................................................................................... 52 3.5 Fault Ride Through ............................................................................................................... 52 3.6 Other Requirements ............................................................................................................. 54 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 55 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 58 Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 59 6.1 NGC Nomenclature for Frequency Response Services........................................................ 59 6.2 Grid Code and Distribution Code Boundaries ....................................................................... 61 6.3 ELTRA Active Power regulation requirements ...................................................................... 62 6.4 Generating Plant Capacities for European Countries ........................................................... 64 6.5 EWEA Code Harmonisation Process.................................................................................... 65 References .................................................................................................................................... 66 7.1 General ................................................................................................................................. 66 7.2 Grid Codes ........................................................................................................................... 68

Abbreviations
ACER Agency for the Co-operation of Energy Regulators CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Turbine DFIG Doubly Fed Induction Generator entsoe European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity EON E&HV The German companys High and Extra High Voltage grid code EWEA European Wind Energy Association FPC Full Power Converter FRT Fault Ride Through IG Induction Generator LV Low Voltage MV Medium Voltage OTSDUW - Offshore Transmission System Developer User Works - not sure exactly what this means!! NGC National Grid Company, the UK TSO NGC CC National Grid Company Connection Conditions grid code NO Network Operator PF Power Factor PCC Point of Common Connection STC system operator - transmission owner code - The STC Code defines the high-level relationship between the GB System Operator and the Transmission Owners. [from NGC website] TSO Transmission System Operator VSC Voltage Source Converter

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express thanks for help and support from the staff at EON Technology Centre in Nottingham and Janaka Ekanayake at Cardiff University Institute of Energy. This work was done as part of the SUPERGEN FLEXNet project.

1 Introduction
All transmission system operators have specific technical requirements which any connected generator must adhere to. These grid codes apply to all new plant. Adherence to these codes facilitates safe, efficient and economical operation of the electrical transmission system. Regulated electricity markets also aim to create open and equal access for generators to connect by enforcing common standards through grid codes. Deviance from the codes in particular cases is possible by means of a negotiated derogation. Additions over and above the basic requirements can also apply in specific cases where the network or system demands. Legislation for emissions reduction and issues of energy security has resulted in connection of new types of generators onto the transmission system. In Western Europe a large quantity of this new noncentralised plant will consist of non-synchronous wind generators, some of these connected via dc transmission links.

1.1 entsoe pilot code

The European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (entsoe) was established in December 2008. It is an amalgamation of the previously separate organisations of Transmission System Operators (TSO) for the separate synchronous areas of Europe. These were ETSO, BALTSO, UCTE and NORDEL. Its stated activities are to improve, support and manage a pan-European electricity market. As part of its activities a framework of network codes are being drafted which after consultation will become legally binding for all of the member countries [entsoe2]. These sets of codes include all aspects across the electricity sector from market balancing to connections and planning and scheduling. As an initial test case in drafting of the common codes entsoe have decided to formulate a draft generator connection codes document. In parallel to entsoes work, at a level above this process, the Agency for the Co-operation of Energy Regulators (ACER) is also drafting Framework Guidelines which set out high level principles that the codes should follow. The entsoe generator connection requirements code, also known as Pilot Code for Grid Connection with a special focus on Wind Generation [entsoe] may also be seen as a continuation of efforts by the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) to introduce a Generic European Wind Grid Code in 2008. The intention being that through firstly structural and then secondly, technical harmonisation of codes, integration of new wind plant for manufacturers, developers and operators will be eased. A template for wind plant grid connection was produced by an EWEA working group in 2009 [EWEA3]. The EWEAs proposed process of harmonisation is shown in Appendix Figure 6.3.

1.2 Scope of Review

This review makes a brief comparison of the UK transmission system operators code (NGC) with that of the Pilot Network Code being developed by entsoe. Some other European codes are included in the comparison. These notably are countries which have already connected large penetrations of wind farms onto their networks. Its aim is to broadly compare the structure of the codes and provide useful comment on the results of the entsoe code drafting process so far. In addition where relevant, reference is made to the technical capability of plant to aid the reader. 6

1.3 Regional Electricity Generation Infrastructure

Areas of the European electricity system which form synchronously connected regions are shown alongside in Figure 1.1. The largest area is the Continental European area which includes Western Denmark and Germany amongst its constituents. Interconnection : A characteristic of the continental synchronous area is the high availability of cross-border inter-connections which facilitate sharing of generation reserves and smoothing of load-frequency balancing via electricity market trading. In contrast the British and Irish synchronous areas are islanded and have limited interconnections in relation to their generation capacity. Figure 1.1 Synchronously Interconnected systems within the entsoe area [entsoe2] Generation Mix : A second major difference which distinguishes the capabilities of plant and the requirements demanded for system operation is the primary energy source utilised. Table 1.1 shows the generation plant capacities at the end of 2009. Highly flexible plant such as storage type hydroelectricity can assist in balancing variable output renewables such as wind and inflexible baseload such as nuclear. Percentage penetration for the different types of plant was calculated and is shown in Table 1.1. Although not part of the code review, values for the Spanish system are included as the country is an early adopter of wind generation with a large installed capacity. Both the interconnection topologies and generation mix are reflected in the specifics of the respective grid code requirements. For multiple TSOs in a synchronous area, operational requirements including the technical operation of load frequency balancing through primary and secondary control is specified in a single operators handbook. For the European continental synchronous area this was issued by the previous association of TSOs [UCTE]. Table 1.1 Generation mix percentage capacity
Total Capacity (MW) 76127 7233 139500 92429 13319 8195 Pk Demand (GW) 57.6 (min 23 NGC4])

country GB IE DE ES DK DK_W

% hydro 5.3 7.1 7.5 20.6 0.1 0.1

% nuclear 13.9 0.0 14.6 8.1 0.0 0.0

% renew 2.0 17.4 26.9 25.2 31.2 38.1

% fossil 78.7 75.5 51.1 46.1 68.8 61.8

44

2 Code Summaries
The reviewed codes are shown in Table 2.1 below. All are Western European countries, published in the English language and all include, or are, annexes for connection of wind generation / nonsynchronous plant. The format of the UK codes is an exception to this in not having clearly partitioned code or sub-sections for non-synchronous plant. Note on Referencing Numbered references relate to sections of the relevant grid code document. All other references are by author or publisher. Use of Quotation marks To aid in cross-referencing and to try and preserve any intended original meaning, terminology from the original grid codes where appropriate, is reproduced in quotation marks thus. Table 2.1 - Grid Codes for review Company/Body Document Reviewed Entso-e Requirements for Grid Connection Applicable to all Generators [entsoe] (58 pages) The Grid Code [NGC] (balancing code and connection code 104 pages) Grid Code High and extra high voltage [EON H&EHV] (36 pages) Requirements for Offshore Grid Connections in the E.ON Netz Network [EON Offshore] (8 pages) Wind Turbines Connected to Grids with Voltages above 100 kV [ELTRA] (31 pages) Controllable Wind Farm Power Station Grid Code WFPS1 (from EirGrid Code Version 3.3) [EIR] (24 pages) Country/Area Europe / Entire Synchronous Area (See Map) Comprising six in total British Version in force Working Draft 19/08/2010 (see note1) Issue 4 Rev 5, 31st Dec 2010 Status 1. April 2006 1st April 2008

NGC

UK / Entire

E-ON Netz E-ON Netz (Annex) Elkraft Eltra (Annex) EIR (Annex)

Germany / Continental Central Corridor European Germany / Continental Central Corridor European Western Denmark / Ireland Continental European Irish

3rd Dec 2004

30th January 2009

Note1 entsoe code is now superseded by ENTSO-E Draft Requirements for Grid Connection Applicable to all Generators published 22nd March 2011 (78 pages)

Comparison Format Since there is large quantity of technical detail to review, for simplification, the most common aspects of the requirements are summarised in a box as shown below in each section. Further comments or figures follow beneath each box. Requirement Terminology used in the relevant grid code [X.X.X general paragraph reference from code] Technical Requirement [ X.X.X specific paragraph in code]

2.1 Overview
All transmission system connection requirements share a common overall format. This is shown below, only the first four of these are considered for the review : Voltage and frequency ranges Active power frequency response Reactive power and voltage control Fault ride through (including fast acting voltage control) Islanding, black start and other ancillary services. Data communication and documentation (including simulation models) Capability testing and voltage quality Operational procedures and division of responsibilities

Entsoe This code applies to all generators above 400W regardless of voltage connection. In keeping with its stated aims of equality of treatment for all connectees [entsoe,4], it is clearly structured into three main areas of requirements which apply to General (all plant), Synchronous Generating Units and Power Park Modules. Plant is divided in to type A, B, C or D plant, the latter two being reviewed here and equivalent to plant greater than 50MW or connected at 110kV or above respectively. There is a special section set-aside in the document to cater for offshore power generating facilities. To cater for different synchronous areas of the European electricity system, ranges of parameters are specified which apply to each synchronous area or are selectable by the relevant TSO. NGC This code covers transmission system connections in England and Wales at 400kV / 275kV and connections in Scotland at 132kV. Large plant from 50-100 MW on the distribution system is licence exempt but is subject to Distribution Network Code restrictions [DCode,5.4.5]. Possible overlap between Transmission and Distribution system requirements is illustrated in appendix 6.1. Requirements applicable to Scotland are largely ignored in this review. The NGC code does not make any major distinctions between synchronous and non-synchronous plant except for a section on offshore fault ride through [CC6.3.15.2].

EON HV&EHV This code covers all plant (except offshore) which is connected to the transmission system. It makes a clear distinction between Fault Ride Through (FRT) requirements applicable to synchronous plant and FRT applicable to non-synchronous plant. It names these Type 1 and Type 2 plant respectively. The second distinction it makes is that of active power over-frequency response to REA plant (see section 2.4). Lastly an annex exists to cover offshore grid connections (see below). EON Offshore This code applies to Offshore Wind Parks in Seas and simply includes updated specifications which include some minor differences from the EON HV&EHV code. These are mainly due to the operating voltage offshore, of 155kV, lying in-between the onshore ranges of 110kV and 220kV. ELTRA and EIR Both of these codes are annexes to their transmission connection codes (which are not reviewed). The ELTRA code applies to wind farms at above 100kV and notably contains a comprehensive range of active power regulation functions. The EIR code is a subsection of the standard transmission connection codes document and applies to transmission system connected Controllable Wind Farm Power Stations (WFPS).

10

2.2 Voltage and Frequency ranges

Plant operation ranges where continued operation is required can be specified individually or in a combined Voltage and Frequency range diagram. Plant must not automatically disconnect during these minimum time periods. Reductions in active power output are often specified at the extremities of voltage and frequency ranges.

entsoe

Specifies for GB, automatic disconnection prohibited inside the ranges illustrated in Figure 2.1. Applies to 300 to 400 kV and 110 to 300 kV. [R5.1 &R5.2]
1.10 Vpu 20 sec 0.9 Vpu. 90 min unlimited 90 min 15 min

47Hz

47.5

48.5

51

51.5

52

Fig 2.1 illustration of entsoe voltage and frequency requirements

NGC

Frequency Ranges Plant should be designed to enable operation as illustrated in Figure 2.2 [CC6.1.3] :
20sec unlimited

47Hz

47.5

52

Figure 2.2 illustration of NGC frequency range plant operation capability Voltage Ranges Normal values of voltage on system are as shown in Figure 2.3 below [CC6.1.4]. Plant should not be affected by the specified voltage changes [CC6.3.4] 400kV 275/132 kV less than132 kV
-10% -6% -5%

15 min

unlimited continuous continuous +5% +6%

15 min

+10%

(deviation from nominal V)

Figure 2.3 illustration of NGC voltage ranges

11

EON H&EHV and EON Offshore

Combined Voltage & Frequency Ranges Basic requirements for operation outside of normal voltage and frequency are shown in Figure 2.4a. Time limits on figures show maximum lengths of time for which continuous operation is required. For offshore plant Figure 2.4b replaces the lower part of Figure 2.4a. Minimum active power reduction is shown in the upper part of Figure 2.4a. (This requirement is also reviewed in considered in section Active Power Response to Frequency Changes)

max2 max1

min2

Figure 2.4a EON high voltage connected plant combined requirements of voltage and frequency [EON H&EHV]

max2 max1

min2

Figure 2.4b EON Offshore combined requirements of voltage and frequency [EON Offshore] 12

For the voltage ranges shown in Figure 2.4a & b these are converted to percentage changes from the nominal and are shown in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 EON transmission system voltage range deviations UNom 380kV 220kV 155kV (Offshore) 110kV max2 (% dev) max1 (% dev) +15.8 +15 +9.7 +15.5 +10.5 +11.4 Not shown +11.8 min2 (% dev) -7.9 -12.3 -9.7 -12.7

ELTRA

Combined Voltage & Frequency Ranges Operation capabilities verses voltage and frequency are shown in Figure 2.5 along with maximum permissible production decreases in the time-limited ranges. Voltages for these ranges are shown in table 2.3.

Figure 2.5 ELTRA combined requirements of voltage and frequency [ELTRA]

Table 2.3 ELTRA transmission system voltage ranges [ELTRA]

13

For the voltage ranges shown in Table 2.3 these are converted to percentage changes from the nominal UN and are shown in table 2.4. Voltage 400kV 150kV 132kV UL % dev -20 -10 -9.8 ULF% dev -10 -2.7 -5.3 UHF% dev +5 +13 +9.8 UH% dev +10 +20 +17.4

Table 2.4 ELTRA transmission system voltage range deviations

EIR WFPS

Frequency Ranges Wind Farms must be able to operate at normal rated output in the cont range ilustated in Figure 2.6a. Outside of this they must remain connected as shown with no additional starts above 50.2Hz [1.5.1].
20sec 60 min Contin. 60 min

47Hz

47.5

49.5

50.5

52

Figure 2.6a illustration of EIR frequency range wind farm operation capability Voltage Ranges Wind Farms must remain continuously connected for up to 10% step changes of voltage on the transmission system and the ranges illustrated in Figure 2.6b during disturbances or following faults [1.6.1]. 400kV 220 kV 110 kV
-12,-10% continuous continuous continuous +5% +11% (deviation from nominal V)

Figure 2.6b illustration of EIR wind farm voltage ranges

14

2.3 Active Power Controllability

These requirements specify capability to change active power output in response to commands from the system operator. entsoe [R5.4] NGC Range : Maximum to minimum operating level Ramp Rate : Adjustable and specified by NO Delay : Adjustable and specified by NO Range / Ramp Rate / Delay : (Not specified) NGC plant operating range and ramp rates appear only to be specified in the context of frequency response requirements [CCA3] Range : minimum to continuous Ramp Rate : capable of 1% rated power per minute Delay : (not specified)

EON H&EHV [3.2.2]

ELTRA Range : 20 to 100% [7.2] & [Appendix Ramp Rate : adjustable between 10 and 100% rated per minute 2.1] Delay : (Not specified) EIR Range : (Unclear, likely to be similar to Frequency Response mode) [1.5.3] & [1.5.2.1] Ramp Rate : Adjustable between 1MW and 30MW per minute Delay : less than 10sec

15

2.4 Active Power Response to Frequency Changes

Specifications for changes in active power output under changing system frequency can broadly be classified into two areas. Firstly that of continuous control which provides a second by second balancing of demand and supply to maintain frequency within a narrow tolerance. Secondly that of Over Frequency and Under Frequency which either provides a further change up or down in output to aid balancing the system or alternatively in the case of under-frequency specifies minimum allowable reductions in active power (due to plant technology power-verses-frequency characteristics). The characteristics of droop and deadband are highlighted in Figure 2.7 below.

entsoe

No distinction is made between synchronous and non-synchronous plant active power requirements with respect to frequency response control modes. Continuous Control Frequency Sensitive Mode [R5.8] Active Power Range : 2 to 10% of P nominal Deadband : +/- 10 to 15 mHz Droop : 2 to 20% Delivery : in full by 6 to 30 sec, for 15 to 30 min duration Reactivation : not specified

Droop and deaband for continuous control are shown in Figure 2.7. Droop requirements for extremities of frequency operation when the frequency is outside of normal continuous control limits are shown also. This is identical to requirements of the Limited Frequency Sensitive Mode shown in the OverUnder frequency section.
Deadband Droop characteristic

Figure 2.7 entsoe frequency sensitive mode active power verses frequency [entsoe R5.8] Over Frequency and Under Frequency Limited Frequency Sensitive Threshold : adjustable from 200 to 500mHz Mode (Over Frequency) Droop : 2 to 12% [R5.9] Limited Frequency Sensitive Threshold : adjustable from 200 to 500mHz Mode (Under Frequency) Droop : 2 to 12% [R5.10] 16

Power system support during extreme system frequencies is demonstrated by the requirements illustrated in Figures 2.8 and 2.9.

Figure 2.8 & 2.9 entsoe limited frequency sensitive mode active power ver. frequency [entsoe R5.9 & R5.10]

NGC

These technical requirements span across two parts of the grid code document, the Connection Codes (CC) and the Balancing Code (BC). Continuous Control Frequency Sensitive Mode Active Power Range : 100% to less than 65/55%, also dependent on loading, see Figure 2.10. Frequency Range : adjustable, to at least +/- 0.1Hz Deadband : less than +/- 15mHz Droop : 3 to 5 % Delivery : within 10 sec, see Figure 2.13 Reactivation : within 20minutes [CCA3.5]

[CC6.3.7]

Plant size generally above 50MW [CC6.3.7] must be fitted with a fast acting proportional frequency control device. The frequency control device (or speed governor) must be designed and operated to the appropriate European Specification or such other standard which is in common use in the EC. Existing Gas Cooled Reactor Plant other than Frequency Sensitive AGR Units are not required to have continuous control and must run in Limited Frequency Sensitivity Mode (See over-frequency section) [BC3.5.3] The effect of plant loading on the minimum required response capability is shown in Figure 2.10 [CCA3.3]. Deviations less than 0.5Hz require a response in proportion to the frequency deviation (i.e droop remains same as specified in 0.5Hz case). For a high frequency response plant operating at Minimum Generation (MG) is expected to reduce output to Designed Minimum Operating Level (DMOL). In the shaded dynamic zone indicated in the figure, MG is never commanded below but if operating at MG(max 65%) output reduction in the area to DMOL (max 55%)is expected after a freq event.

17

Figure 2.10 NGC plant frequency response verses loading (x0.1) for 0.5Hz deviation [NGC CCA3.4] Note that the minimum droop in Figure 2.10 can be calculated as : Droop % = 100% x (p.u change in freq )/(p.u change in power) = 100 x (0.5/50) / (0.1) = 10 % Levels for primary and secondary response attained are measured by plant tests and the method of classification is demonstrated in Figure 2.11 by point P and the minima S respectively. [CCA3.4]

Figure 2.11 NGC plant frequency response primary and secondary method of classification [NGC CCA3.4]

18

Under Frequency Under-frequency [CC6.3.3] & Low Frequency Relay Initiated Response [BC3.6.1 & CCA5.5.1] Threshold : 49.5 Hz, and 48.8Hz for relay initiated response Droop : (2.5/50) / -0.05 = 0.05 / -0.05 = -100%, For relay initiated response which can include increase in generated output no minimum requirements are stated for response.

In the mode referred to as Limited Frequency Sensitivity Mode [BC3.5.2.], plant should maintain normal active power between 49.5 and 50.5Hz, then reduce by up to max 5% for negative frequency excursions. For CCGTs, after 5 minutes, they can trip below 48.8Hz if necessary.

Figure 2.12 NGC allowed active power reduction for under-frequency [NGC CC6.3.3]

Over Frequency High Frequency Response [BC3.7.1] & Limited High Frequency Response [BC3.7.2]

Threshold : 50.5 Hz and 50.4Hz Droop : (0.1/50) / 0.02 = 0.002 / 0.02 = 10% (calculated on output as opposed to maximum capacity) Delivery : variously specified between 10 sec and 5 minutes

Plant operating in the continuous control mode known as Frequency Sensitive mode are required to provide (if instructed) a high frequency response which is specified in [BC3.7.1]. In the case of plant operating in Limited Frequency Sensitivity mode this provision is referred to as Limited High Frequency Response and is specified in [BC3.7.2]. Both these are minimum power reduction requirements and are very similar. Measurement of high frequency response capability is illustrated in Figure 2.13.

19

Figure 2.13 NGC Testing of High Frequency Response Capability [NGC CCA3.4]

Continuous Control Primary Control

EON E&EHV

[3.2.3]

Active Power Range : minimum of +/- 2% of rated power Deadband : less than +/- 10mHz Droop : Adjustable Delivery : total activated within 30sec, and supplied for minimum of 15 min. Reactivation : within 15 min

All plant greater than 100MW capacity must be capable of providing primary control. Over Frequency Over-frequency [3.3.2] & [Offshore 4.6] Threshold : 50.2 Hz, Offshore - 50.1Hz Droop : (1/50) / 0.4 = 0.02/0.4 = 5%, Offshore - (1/50) / 0.98 = 0.02/0.98 = 2%

REA plant must respond as indicated in Figure 2.14. REA plant : The Renewable Energy Sources Act (REA) of 01.08.2004 relates mainly to Feed in Tariffs. In Germany it is called the Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz (EEG). Among the types of plant included are onshore wind and offshore Wind [Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety].

20

Figure 2.14 EON REA (Offshore) plant response to over frequency [EON Offshore 4.6] Interaction of this over-frequency response with that of any response due to the primary control mode is not mentioned. Under Frequency Under-frequency [3.2.2] Threshold : 49.5 Hz, Droop : (2/50) / 0.2 = 0.04 / 0.4 = 10%,

Plant must continue to provide active power output no less than according to Figure 2.15 for quasistationary frequency changes. Presumably this is for plant not providing primary control.

Figure 2.15 EON requirement for active power for quasi-stationary frequency changes [EON H&EHV 3.2.2]

21

Other Requirements Active power must not be reduced for frequency deviations shown above the line in Figure 2.16. [3.2.2]

Figure 2.16. EON active power frequency time withstand curve [EON E&EHV 3.2.2]

Continuous Control Frequency Control Regulation [5] & [Appendices 2.7]

ELTRA Wind

Active Power Range : 100% to 20% Deadband : +/- 0.150Hz default Droop : adjustable Delivery : 10% rated power per sec default Reactivation : not specified (presumably because of plant type)

All wind farms connected above 100kV are required to have frequency control regulation capability as demonstrated in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.18 ELTRA frequency control regulation [ELTRA A2.7]

22

Other notable requirements are frequency measurement error shall not exceed +/- 10 mHz even under distorted conditions and that phase jumps of up to 20 degrees shall not influence the regulation. Over Frequency and Under frequency Reduction of active power by 15% is allowed after 30 min at 47.5Hz according to Dimensioning Voltages and Frequencies [7]

Continuous Control Frequency Response System [1.5.2.2]

EIR

Active Power Range : 100% to 20% Deadband : Adjustable, located anywhere between 50 and 100% active power output Droop : Adjustable Delivery : min 1% rated per sec Reactivation : not specified (presumably because of plant type)

All plant greater than 10MW is required to have the above frequency response capability as illustrated in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19 EIR example power frequency response curve [EIR 1.5.2.2]

Over Frequency and Under frequency No dynamic requirements stated other than for the frequency response system considered above.

23

2.5 Reactive Power Capability at maximum active power

Generating plant must have the capability to operate between a stated maximum lagging and leading reactive power output whilst providing rated maximum active power. These capabilities are normally specified with attendant maximum and minimum voltage limits.

entsoe
Non-synchronous [R7.1] Synchronous [R6.1] Q/Pmax Range : 0.60 (i.e +/-0.954 PF) Voltage Range : 0.100 pu Q/Pmax Range : 0.95 Voltage Range : 0.100 pu

Non-synchronous : Each synchronous area has its range specified (UK is Q/Pmax 0.60, Voltage 0.1pu) and can be placed anywhere inside the outer box by the Network Operator. Figure 2.20a below demonstrates this (Continental Europe area is shown, 0.75, 0.225pu). Synchronous : Similar to non-synchronous i.e place-able by Network Operator. Figure 2.20b below shows Continental Europe area which has limits 0.95, 0.225pu

Figure 2.20a & b entsoe reactive power capability at max active power, synchronous and nonsynchronous [entsoe]

NGC
Non-synchronous [6.3.2c], [6.3.4] Synchronous [6.3.2a], [6.3.4] PF Range : 0.95 lagging to 0.95 leading Voltage Range : +/- 5% PF Range : 0.85 lagging to 0.95 leading Voltage Range : +/- 5%

For non-synchronous plant connecting at 33kV or lower the voltage verses power factor envelope of Figure 2.21 applies. This presumably will only be of significance to Scottish connections.

24

Figure 2.21 NGC non-synchronous reactive power provision at max active power at 33kV and below [NGC]

EON & EON Offshore Wind

All plant [3.2.4],Offshore Wind[4.4] PF Range : 0.925 lagging to 0.95 leading PF Voltage Range : see Figure 2.22a & b

This power factor range is subject to voltage range limitations shown in Figure 2.22a and b.

Figure 2.22a & b - reactive power provision at max active power, HV & EHV and offshore wind [EON]

ELTRA
Wind Turbines above 100kV [6] Range : (Not specified). Must notify Network Operator of capability Voltage Range : (not specified)

EIR
Wind Farm Power Stations [1.6.3.2] PF Range : 0.95 lagging to 0.95 leading (i.e Qmax/P range of 0.66), specified in the active verses reactive power capability diagram. Voltage Range : (not specified) 25

2.6 Reactive Power Capability below Maximum Active Power entsoe

Non-synchronous [R7.2] Synchronous [6.3.2a], [6.3.4] Must be able to operate anywhere within the inner area of Figure 2.23b. NO can demand additional facilities to be installed so operation in outer area possible too. Must be able to operate within a defined capability area. Typical capability chart is shown in Figure 2.23a.

Note : Figure 2.23b below would appear to show Basic Requirement limits using the Continental Europe parameters expressed in [R7.1]. Also the top axis cos phi scaling will be only correct for maximum active power.

Figure2.23a & b entsoe reactive power capability below max active power for synchronous and nonsynchronous (Continental Europe) [entsoe]

NGC
Non-synchronous [6.3.2c] Synchronous [6.3.2a] Required to provide reactive power according to limits shown in Figure 2.24 where A,B are equivalent to 0.95 lead and 0.95 lag respectively. E,C,D are -12, -5, +12 % of rated MW respectively. must be capable of continuous operation at any point between the reactive power capability limits identified on the generator performance chart.

For non-synchronous plant, operation in the cross-hatched area below 20% active power output shown in Figure 2.24 is optional [6.3.8a iii].

26

Figure 2.24 NGC non-synchronous reactive power capability below max active power [NGC]

EON HV&EHV and Offshore Wind

Offshore Wind [4.4] Synchronous Must be able to operate anywhere within area enclosed in Figure 2.25. (Not specified)

Figure2.25 EON Offshore Wind reactive power capability below max active power [EON Offshore]

27

ELTRA
Wind Turbines above 100kV [6] Plant owner to supply P-Q diagram showing regulation capability for reactive power

For plant which cannot participate in reactive power control the mean value of reactive power over 10 seconds must be kept in the control band shown in Figure 2.26.

Figure2.26 ELTRA Wind Turbine reactive power capability below max active power for non-controlled plant [ELTRA]

EIR Wind
Offshore Wind [1.6.3.2] Must be able to operate anywhere within area enclosed in Figure 2.27a & b.

The shaded area below active power of 10% relates to an optional area of operation which can be negotiated depending on charging voltage and its effect on the connection voltage.

Fig.2.27a&b EIR Wind reactive power capability below max active power expressed in VAr and PF [EIR]

28

2.7 Reactive Power Control

Three main control modes are possible. Of them only Voltage control mode constitutes a regulating function. The other two Reactive Power and Power Factor do not interact to external changes on the system.

entsoe
Non-synchronous Control Modes : (3) in total Voltage, Reactive Power, Power Factor Droop : 2 to 7% in max 1% steps Max Step : 0.01Vpu, 5% rated or 5MVA whichever smallest, 0.01PF Deadband : 0 to +/-10%V in 0.1 steps, - +/-5MVA or 5%rated VA Regulation settling times : Voltage : 90% of output change occur within 1sec and settle to 5% steady state within 5 sec. Reactive Power : (not specified) Power factor : set by Network operator Control update time: (not specified) Extensively specified in terms of excitation system

[R7.5] Synchronous [R6.7 to 6.12]

For the Voltage control mode the envelope for droop settings are shown in Figure 2.28.

Figure 2.28 entsoe voltage control droop envelope [entsoe]

29

NGC CC

Note this part of the NGC codes is quite complicated to read so individual references are included as an aid where appropriate. In addition to the control modes listed below, unity power factor operation mode is also required for all non-synchronous generating plant and this must operate to a tolerance of +/-5% MVAr at rated MW [CC6.3.2b]. Non-synchronous Control Modes : (1) in total Voltage [CC.6.3.8a(v)] Droop : 2 to 7% in max 0.5% steps Max Step : 0.25Vpu Deadband : (not specified) Regulation settling time : 5 sec [CCA7.2.2.5] Control update time: (not specified) Control Modes : (2) in total Voltage, Reactive Power [CC.6.3.8b] All other settings specified in a Billateral agreement [CC.6.3.8b] Extensively specified in terms of excitation system

[CC.A.7] Offshore Non-synchronous Synchronous [CC.A.6]

For the Voltage control mode the droop and envelope for the droop shown in Figure 2.29a & b.

Figure 2.29a & b NGC voltage control droop and droop envelope [NGC CC.A.7.2.2a&b]

30

EON E&EHV & EON Wind

All Plant

No distinction is made between synchronous and non-synchronous plant. Control Modes : (3) in total - Voltage, Reactive Power, Power Factor Droop : not specified Max Step : 2.5% of rated on HV, 5% of rated in EHV Regulation settling time : (not specified) Control update time : within 1 minute

[3.2.4]

ELTRA

Details of reactive power regulation are to be agreed with the System Operator. Wind Turbines above 100kV Control Modes : (2) in total Voltage, Reactive Power Droop : (not specified) Max Step : installation must meet IEC 61000 [10.1] Regulation settling time : (not specified) Control update time: (not specified)

[6]

EIR WFPS

Should have similar response characteristics to a conventional AVR generally as described in BS4999 part 140 TSO connected controllable Wind Farm Power Stations [WFPS 1.6.2] Control Modes : (1) in total Voltage Droop : between 1 and 10% Max Step : not violating step emissions of IEC 61000 Regulation settling time : to 90% of steady-state within 1 sec. Control update time: 20 sec

31

2.8 Fault Ride Through

Capability to remain connected during short-term, large reductions in terminal voltage is normally specified in the format of limit curves. These curves define a voltage-time area where plant must remain connected. If the voltage remains too low for too long and crosses to the right hand side of the limit curve, disconnection of the plant is allowed.

entsoe

Common requirements Active power recovery : recovery to 85% of the pre-fault value to be attained between 0.5 and 10 sec (specified by TSO) starting from voltage recovery at Point of Common Connection (PCC) above 85%. [R6.5, R7.8] Shall remain connected and stable for secured faults measured at the grid phase voltage with the highest drop at the PCC according to the overview of entsoe FRT classifications shown below. Synchronous at 110kV or above [R6.3] Synchronous below 110kV [R6.4] Non-Synchronous at 110kV or above [R7.3] Non-Synchronous below 110kV [R7.4] Limit curve : envelope shown in Figure 2.29a. Active Power/Reactive Power : Not clearly specified but appears to be in voltage/excitation control section [R6.7 to R6.12] Fast Valving allowed. Limit curve : envelope shown in Figure 2.29b. Active Power/Reactive Power : See above 110kV Fast Valving prohibited. Limit curve : envelope shown in Figure 2.29c. Active Power : Active power priority over reactive power during faults can be opted for. This must begin within 150ms from the fault inception. Reactive Power : See Fast acting voltage control. [R7.7] Limits are : 0.85 V pu, 0.15 to 0.25sec and 1.5sec and 3 sec. Limit curve : envelope shown in Figure 2.29d. Active Power/Reactive Power : Same as above 110kV Limits are : 0.85 V pu, 0.4, 1.5 and 3sec

32

Figure 2.29a entsoe sync FRT above 110kV [entsoe] Figure 2.29b entsoe sync FRT below 110kV [entsoe]

Figure 2.29c non-sync FRT above 110kV [entsoe]

Figure 2.29d non-sync FRT below 110kV [entsoe]

33

NGC CC

No major distinction is made between sync and non-sync plant, however two basic sets of requirements exist. Firstly a requirement for any type of plant, these requirements pertaining to short circuits and voltage dips on the supergrid. Secondly an alternative set of requirements, which can be chosen if so wished by offshore plant, which apply at the LV side of a platform. These are referred to here as Supergrid and LV Platform respectively. For each of the Supergrid and LV Platform requirements there is a further subdivision into requirements up to 140ms after the start of an event and requirements applied if the event continues past 140ms. For the first case of the four sub-requirements, supergrid up to 140ms, since the voltage is zero it is referred to by NGC as a short-circuit. The other three cases involve non-zero voltage minimums and are thus referred to by NGC as dips. Plant must remain transiently stable and connected as described below :Supergrid up to 140ms for close up three phase short circuit or unbalanced earth fault [CC6.3.15.1a] Supergrid over 140ms for balanced voltage dips Reactive Power : During fault must generate maximum reactive current. Active Power recovery : Within 0.5 sec of voltage restoration 90% of the original power must be restored.

[CC6.3.15.1b ] LV Platform up to 140ms for balanced or unbalanced voltage dips [CC6.3.15.2 a ] LV Platform over 140ms for balanced voltage dips [CC6.3.15.2 b]

Limit curve : shown in Figure 2.30a. Active Power : supply active power in proportion to the percentage voltage drop. Reactive Power : Must generate maximum reactive current whilst voltage is outside of nominal limits. Active Power recovery : Within 1 sec of voltage restoration 90% of the original power must be restored. Limit curve : shown in Figure 2.30b. Active Power : supply active power in proportion to the percentage voltage drop. Reactive Power : See fast acting voltage control. Active Power recovery : as per bi-lateral agreement Limit curve : shown in Figure 2.30b. Active Power : supply active power in proportion to the percentage voltage drop Reactive Power : See fast acting voltage control. Active Power recovery : Within 1 sec of voltage restoration 90% of the original power must be restored.

34

Figure 2.30a supergrid FRT requirement for over 140ms[NGC] Figure 2.30b Offshore Platform LV FRT req. [NGC]

EON H&EHV

The requirements are divided into those for synchronous plant and those for non-synchronous plant. EON Offshore Wind grid code does not specify different requirements for FRT. Synchronous Plant : This is referred to as Type 1 plant. A reduction in the fault clearance time from 150ms to 100ms is allowed if auxiliary plant requirements dictate this Non-Synchronous Plant : This is referred to as type 2 generating plant. Protection functions for these plant are referred to in this part of the EON requirements as automatic system when relating to the over-under-voltage-frequency. EON goes on to specify the FRT functions subsequent to the automatic system functions. Synchronous Plant for three phase short circuits [EON 3.2.6.1]. Non-Synchronous Plant for three phase short circuits or symmetrical fault related voltage dips. [EON 3.2.6.2] Limit curve : shown in Figure 2.31a. Reactive Power /Active Power recovery : loosely referred to in first paragraphs of [3.2.6] Limit curve : shown in Figure 2.31b. Active Power / Reactive Power : short circuit current must be fed into the grid which is determined by prior agreement depending on the generator technology Active Power recovery : on reconnection rate of 10% rated per second.

Non-synchronous FRT functions : Three areas are specified in relation to the limit curve of Figure 2.31b. Above limit line 1 Plant must remain stable and connected Below line 2 - A short term disconnection (loose translation of the German acronym KTE) is allowed with reconnection no longer than a nominal 2 seconds. (Presumably reconnection will not take place if the fault still exists after 1.5 sec due to the automatic system functions) Between lines 1 and 2 Agreement to disconnection here because of specific plant type may be allowed although a reduced resynchronisation time is required. Also, disconnection due to generator instability or generator protection is allowed here as long as resynchronisation occurs within 2 seconds.

35

Automatic system functions : a) Voltage Support Monitoring If voltage drops and remains below 85% of nominal whilst the generator is operating in an importing VArs condition then a disconnection must take place within 0.5sec. b) If voltage drops and remains below 80% of the lower voltage band then generators must disconnect in quarter blocks sequences at 1.5, 1.8, 2.1 and 2.4 sec respectively. This operation is indicated in the right-hand shaded area of Figure 2.31b. c) Overvoltage disconnection, over-frequency and re-synchronisation thresholds and ramp-rates are also variously described.

Figure 2.31a - type 1 plant FRT requirement [EON E&EHV]

Figure 2.31b - type 2 plant FRT requ. [EON E&EHV]

ELTRA

Three different limit curves are defined for three, two and single phase faults respectively and are shown in Figure 2.32a,b and c. Fault length in all cases is 100ms, however capability to remain connected for various sequences of multiple repetitions is required, varying from 300ms to 5 minute intervals and two to six repetitions. Wind Turbines above 100kV for all faults Active Power : no less than 0.4 x (Vfault / Vorig)2 Reactive Power : See fast acting voltage control Active Power recovery : Must produce rated power no later than 10 sec after voltage returns above 0.9p.u Reactive Power recovery : return to normal regulation no later than 10 sec after voltage is above 0.9pu.

[8.2]

36

Figure 2.32a ELTRA three phase short FRT requirement [ELTRA]

Figure 2.32b two phase FRT requirement [ELTRA]

Figure 2.32c single phase FRT requirement [ELTRA]

37

EIR WFPS

Controllable wind farms must remain connected to the Transmission system shown above the limit curve in Figure 2.33 on any or all phases for voltage measured at the HV transformer TSO connected controllable Wind Farm Power Stations for voltage dips [WFPS1.4] Active Power : Must be output in proportion to retained voltage Reactive Power : Must be maximised and continued for minimum of 600ms. Can end sooner if transmission voltage recovers to normal. Active Power recovery : Must recover to 90% of available within 1sec of return to normal transmission voltage.

Figure 2.33 - EIR wind farm power station FRT requirement [EIR]

38

2.9 Fault Ride Through - Fast Acting Voltage Control

This type of control function provides a proportional increase in reactive power in response to a voltage dip during a fault and applies to non-synchronous plant only. Irish and Danish wind codes do not have this proportional mode and simply require maximum reactive power output.

entsoe

Referred to as Fast Acting Voltage Control and applies as below. Nonsynchronous [R7.6] Deadband : specified by TSO up to 10% Droop : at least 2% rated current for each % voltage drop, up to at least 100% rated current Rise time : minimum 40ms Support time : specified by TSO

These requirements are illustrated in Figure 2.34.

Figure 2.34 - entsoe non-sync fast acting voltage control requirement [entsoe]

39

NGC
Referred to as transient voltage control and applies as below for an on-load step change in voltage. NonDeadband : (Not specified) synchronous Droop : Linear (value not specified) Rise time : commence within 0.2 sec, and rise at minimum of slope indicated attaining required MVArs by 1 sec. (Must be capable of up to 90% rated reactive if needed) [CCA 7.2.3] Support time : Not specified Rise time requirements are illustrated in Figure 2.35.

Figure 2.35 - NGC non-synchronous transient voltage control rise time requirement [NGC]

EON E&EHV and EON Wind

Referred to as Voltage Support and applies as below. High & Extra HV Connected plant [3.2.6.2] Offshore [4.5] Deadband : 10% Droop : 2% rated current for each % voltage drop, up to at least 100% rated current Rise time : minimum 20ms Support time : 500ms Deadband : 5% Other requirements same as above

These requirements are illustrated in Figure 2.36.

40

Figure 2.36 - EON Offshore Voltage Support requirement [EON Offshore]

ELTRA
During the voltage dip the wind farms regulation of reactive power shall change from normal regulation to maximum voltage support. This control mode shall contribute to re-establishing normal voltage as soon as possible [8.2.1c].

41

2.10 Islanding
Operation of protective circuit breakers and reconfiguration of network topology in response to faults or overloading may result in disconnection of generating plant from the main synchronous network. If sufficient demand exists in the isolated area alongside generating plant with suitable frequency control characteristics continued operation of the island may occur. Requirements for islanding operation, or control of, are shown below. entsoe [R5.16] NGC [CC6.3.7ci] EON H&EHV Mode Description : Isolated Network Operation Time : Sustainable for several hours but not exceeding 24 hrs. Within standard voltage and frequency limits. Other : Load drops should not cause frequency deviation above 1Hz. If isolated from the rest of the total system but still supplying customers should be able to control frequency to between 47 and 52Hz as long as generator is above is minimum designed operating level. Mode Description : Operation as a sub-grid for example due to result of fault, where generator supplies plant auxiliaries and sub-grid load. Time : Several hours, preferably unrestricted if possible. [Appendix A] Load Change : Max 10% of nominal (but no greater than 50MW) [3.2.8] Other : For REA plant, islanded operation of plant must be controlled and trip within 3 sec if outside of voltage and frequency limits [3.3.2] If the wind farm is isolated with part of the power system shall not give rise to over-voltages (Islanding or isolated operation not specified)

ELTRA [7.2] EIR

2.11 Inertial Response

For system frequency events the quantity of rotating synchronised plant on the system is an important factor in reducing the rate of change of frequency. Non-synchronous generators such as wind power plants will not naturally provide a rotational inertial response. However they can provide a temporary release of kinetic energy through appropriately implemented turbine controls. A common term for this response is Synthetic inertial response.

entsoe
NonSynchronous plant [7.10] ROCOF Deadband : adjustable 0.001 to 0.010 Hz Active Power Output : proportional to ROCOF (set by TSO) Delay : 200 ms max Recovery Period Start : related to length Recovery Period Length : related to start

42

The basic entsoe requirement is shown in Figure 2.37. Additional specifications relate to bandwidth limiting of the output signal to avoid unwanted possible interaction with other plant. Also provision of the synthetic inertia is not required if the plant is already operating in the continuous control frequency response mode, although the added inertial response is stated as beneficial if available.

Figure 2.37 entsoe non-synchronous inertial response [entsoe]

NGC
Non-Sync plant [NGC Frequency response technical subgroup ] No inerti al resp onse standards currently exist however the NGC frequency response working group have proposed use of the following response illustrated in Figure 2.38 below. ROCOF Deadband : 0.05 Hz, (possibly triggered on f also) Active Power Output : equivalent to inertia constant H=4 Delay : 200 ms max (subject to manufacturer capability) Recovery Period Start : at system frequency minima Recovery Period Length : (to be determined)

Figure 2.38 NGC proposed synthetic inertia from non-synchronous plant [NGC6]

43

2.12 Miscellaneous
All common parts of the codes have been compared in the previous sections. Many requirements also exist relating to stability, these are mainly detailed with reference to synchronous generator excitation controls. This area of power system operation is well documented and industry standards exist to specify requirements. Comparison of requirements relating to stability such as Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) controls and Power System Stabilisers (PSS) and their structural aspects of the grid codes is outside the scope of this review. Rates of change of frequency withstand capabilities are specified 6Hz maximum for entsoe [entsoe 5.3], no requirement in NGC and 0.5Hz max for EIR.

2.13 Offshore power generation facilities

As shown in Table 2.1 this review looks at the complete grid codes for the UK, the EON network in Germany and also the annexes for offshore connections for EON in Germany, and wind generator connections for ELTRA in Denmark and EIR in Ireland. Hence some review of offshore wind code has been covered already.

44

3 Review of the Codes

This section reviews the grid code requirements shown in the previous chapter in terms of their structure with reference to plant capability and some limited parameter comparison where appropriate. The format used for comparison is as below : Power System Operation : Explanation of the functioning and purpose of the requirement in terms of power system operation. Capability : How plant technology or other factors affect the performance or capability to meet the requirement. Structure : A comparison of how the grid codes specify the requirement in terms of format or layout. Parameters : Comparison of requirement parameters where thought appropriate. The ultimate combined capabilities of the generating plant on the system may change under different conditions due to plant mix and resource availability. Minimum capabilities are often specified in connection requirements thus actual delivered performance may exceed these minimum requirements in operation. Where non-synchronous plant is mentioned in the connection codes this may refer to Wind plant which is Induction Generator (IG) based, Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) or Full Power Converter (FPC) based. The other major generating source using non-synchronous based generating plant is solar farms which would be connected by Voltage Source Converters (VSC). A detailed review of voltage control, FRT and frequency response capabilities for DFIG and FPC based wind turbine technologies is given in [Ekanayake].

3.1 Voltage and Frequency Ranges

Power system operation : Voltage and frequency range requirements define the operating limits of the power system. In addition to generating plant and transmission system equipment, consumer loads are designed to operate within nominal voltage and frequency ranges also, some switch mode based supplies having a particularly wide range. Under-frequency and under-voltage both represent the most serious risk to operation. The first is a deficiency in active power input and the second a sign of voltage collapse due to lack of reactive power. Plant which is capable of remaining connected and controllable under wide variations in system frequency and voltage are thus available to maintain operation of the system or aid restoration to its normal operating range. Capability of plant : Voltage Range - Excessively high voltage/frequency ratio operation of transformers and synchronous generators can lead to thermal overloading due to high magnetic flux levels [IEEE],[Kundur]. Over-voltage operation of VSC based equipment may result in harmonic distortion. This is due to over-modulation since dc-link voltages are set at a certain voltage level to optimise capacitor sizing and limit device stress levels. [Kaura]. Tap-changing capabilities at step-up transformers would also affect the overall voltage range. Frequency Range - This is considered in the active power response to frequency changes section.

45

Structure : NGC and entsoe both specify separate requirements for voltage and frequency ranges. In contrast EON and ELTRA combine both requirements into one figure which thus apply simultaneously. ELTRA apply extended over- voltage and under-voltage operation when operation is within normal frequency ranges. In contrast the EON codes apply a 30 minute maximum operating requirement for the over-voltage condition within normal frequency ranges. Parameters : Voltage - In general most of the codes have voltage tolerances for normal operation between 0.05 to 0.10 pu. However EON and ELTRA both have tolerances up to around +0.20 pu although these come with reduced active power and/or time limits. Frequency - Most codes have a similar range between 47.5 and 52 Hz. EON offshore and ELTRA both have an extended high frequency ranges up to 53 and 53.5 Hz although this is only for 10 seconds maximum and 3 minutes maximum respectively. EON has an extended low frequency range down to 46.5 Hz.

3.2 Active Power Controllability

Power System Operation : In addition to continuous automatic balancing provided by frequency responsive plant, adjustment of active power output via system operator commands is necessary to manage primary control reserves, congestion and for energy balancing market operations. These operations can be classified as tertiary frequency control. For an overview of frequency control in terms of time-scales, functionality and nomenclature for a range of countries see [Rebours]. Capability of Plant : As an example the GE 1.5MW DFIG wind turbine has a cut-in power of 0.14 pu [Miller2], hence a wind farm consisting of these turbines would presumably meet the ELTRA active power range requirement. Obviously some renewable based plant has limitations on active power output due to its primary energy source and this is explicitly mentioned in some of the codes. Otherwise plant is expected to maintain a constant output within a specified tolerance (unless of course it is participating in frequency control). Dynamic capabilities of plant are dealt with in the Active Power response to Frequency Changes section. Structure : Minimum range capabilities for plant are not explicitly specified except in some cases for Wind Plant. Unlike the other codes, ELTRA demands a comprehensive set of active power regulating mode capabilities (See Appendices). Parameters : Ranges of active power and associated ramp rates are loosely specified. Wind farm power plants often give wider ranges for example ELTRA 20% to 100%. Ramp rates also vary widely EON H&EHV for example only requiring a 1% ramp rate whilst the ELTRA code requires up to 100% rated power per minute.

46

3.3 Active Power response to Frequency Changes

Power System Operation : Basics - Variation of plant active power output in response to system frequency changes is the principal method of balancing generation and demand on the system. Some reduction in demand may occur through load frequency sensitivity, for the UK system at 2% per Hz [Pearmine] [NGC5]. However operation outside of normal system frequency limits leads to reduced margins of system security. Thus response from generating plant by changing active power is required to restore system frequency to its normal operating value. Operation of these balancing services is illustrated in Figure 3.1 below for steady state and an underfrequency condition.
continuous service event 10 s 30 s O

50.2 Frequency (Hz) 49.8 49.5 49.2

60 s time

occasional services X primary response secondary response to 30 min

Figure 3.1 Frequency Service Quality Control [Erinmez] Three phases of operation are evident : Continuous Generators participating in continuous control services provide positive and negative changes in active power output in order to keep system frequency within tight tolerances. Primary Response For larger frequency excursions, in addition to possible further increased output from continuous control generators, other plant which has fast-acting reserve capabilities respond by increasing their output. This combined action limits the frequency excursion. Secondary Response Slower acting plant now starts to provide increased output to reduce the frequency excursion and finally return continuous control generators to their previous output, restoring their initial reserve operating levels. Terminology - Differences exist between the grid codes of individual countries in describing these services and their requirements. For an explanation of the operation of system frequency control for the Western European electricity system and its preferred terminology see [UCTE]. A global comparison of frequency control is given in [Rebours], for NGC see [Appendix 6.1].

47

Modes of operation - For this grid code review, frequency response requirements are partitioned into continuous control, under frequency and over frequency functions. As shown in Figure 3.1 continuous control provides positive or negative changes in active power in response to small frequency deviations on a second by second basis. Over-frequency functional requirements provide a response by reducing active power output to re-balance the power on the system. For under-frequency functions two requirements are possible. Firstly a positive increase in output in order to limit the frequency deviation, i.e. a similar support to that provided by continuous control. This is only possible if the plant has active power reserves. Secondly that of doing nothing and maintaining as far as possible active power output constant, with an allowable drop tolerated (See capability section for why this is so). When reading the codes, indication of this control partitioning is aided by noting the stated limits for nominal or normal frequency. For the UCTE area this was between 50 +/-20mHz and 50 +/-180mHz [UCTE P-1-A-C2&C3], for NGC and EON it is 50Hz +/- 0.5Hz [NGC CC6.1.2],[EON 3.1.7]. Capability of Plant : Active power range : This will be dependant on plant technology and also on the scheduled power output in relation to its maximum and minimum capability. Nuclear plant is an example of plant run at maximum efficiency with provision of reserve being of low importance. Utilisation of plant for frequency response can be inferred from load duration curves [Erinmez]. Ramp rates : Turbine governor response rates of steam plant with and without re-heat turbines verses hydraulic plant are shown in [Kundur] and are seen to vary between 2 to 5 seconds for a large step input. Complete boiler-turbine system responses are longer and depend on overall unit control strategies such as boiler-leading, turbine-leading or integrated approaches and can be of around 5 minutes for large load changes [Kundur]. Frequency ranges : Technical reasons for restrictions on over/under-speeding found in industry protection guidelines [IEEE] are summarised in Table 3.1.

Plant item Synchronous Generators & Transformers

Limiting Restriction Reduced ventilation for generators will reduce continuous load ratings. Similarly if operating at above rated whilst providing under-frequency reserve services, the short-term thermal rating will be reduced. Transformers during under-frequency conditions may overheat from eddy currents due to excessive flux. For steam plant, boiler feed, circulation, and condensate pumps constitute the most limiting items of auxiliary equipment. The performance is related to the margin of capacity of the auxiliary motor drives and shaft driven loads. Nuclear plant again has pumps for reactor cooling which will be affected by system frequency. Certain steam flow stimuli will combine with resonant characteristics of turbine blades producing destructive vibration or shortening of the life of the blades. These vibration bands occur close to the multiples of speed of operation of the turbine. Hence this results in prohibited and time restricted areas of operation, in some cases these can be as close as 0.5Hz either side of rated with operation generally prohibited below 57Hz. 48

Auxiliaries

Steam Plant Turbines

Combustion Turbine Plant

Reduction in airflow during under frequency operation can cause blade over-temperature. Built in protection systems will reduce fuel input in order to prevent this occurring.

Table 3.1 Technical reasons for restrictions of frequency operating range for conventional plant . Non-Synchronous plant capability : Site test results for GE 1.5 MW turbines for frequency response and ramp rate control demonstrated in [Miller] show that performance capabilities are comparable with those of conventional plant and can exceed them in the case of over-frequency by providing a quicker reduction in active power. This increased capability may be reflected in the EON grid code which requires offshore plant to provide over-frequency response from a low frequency threshold of 50.1 Hz which is still within normal system frequency. In order to participate in under- frequency response the wind plant must be operating at less than its maximum available power output. Wide frequency ranges specified in the EON offshore code are presumably there to take advantage of any extra capability from non-synchronous wind plant during extreme disturbances or black-start scenarios.

3.3.1 Continuous Control

Structure : All of the codes except NGC use figures to specify the continuous control mode. This mode requirement applies equally to all plant regardless of technology. The EIR code shows a droop which is non-symmetrical and has the possibility of a different droop setting depending which side of the deadband the frequency is. The entsoe code shows two droop values the second occurring after a second deadband. This would appear to be the non-continuous control over-under frequency requirements super-imposed on the same diagram. The NGC code uses a diagram to specify how operating levels are allowed to effect the minimum levels of active power response required. Other codes do not state how operating levels are allowed to effect plant response capability. Rather than specifying required ramp rates, the NGC code has diagrams showing how frequency response capability is measured at the generating station. Stated droop settings for continuous control and droop calculated from the response verses loading diagram are different and hence appear to represent conflicting requirements. Parameters : All of the grid codes specify the continuous control mode slightly different so exact parameter comparison is difficult. Expected durations of response are unclear, however this might be seen as a system operator scheduling problem and thus not a requirement which needs specifying for plant connection.

3.3.2 Over frequency and Under frequency

Structure : All codes except EIR include requirements for over and under frequency response when large frequency deviations occur outside of the normal continuous control range. EON includes the under-frequency requirements in the combined Voltage and Frequency operating ranges diagram. Some confusion does arise in use of terminology in this section the example being the NGC and entsoe codes. These both have modes called Limited Frequency Sensitive Mode and their operation during under frequency expects opposite responses in terms of active power output from the plant. In the entsoe case the required response is for stored reserves of active power to be released. In the NGC case the requirement is to maintain active output constant with an allowable drop tolerated. 49

Note that the entsoe limited frequency sensitive modes are specified individually as over and under frequency modes because smaller plant types A and B (400W to 10MW in the UK) do not require the Under- Frequency mode of operation. Other points of note are that EON uniquely includes a frequency ride through requirement and NGC include low frequency relay initiated response which in addition to load shedding includes increases in generator output although no exact specifications are stated for these. Parameters : Droop settings and thresholds for activation for over-under frequency response are all similarly specified although ramp rates vary in the extent of their detail. The EON E&EHV code specifies an over-frequency threshold of 50.2Hz for REA plant and 50.1Hz for offshore which constitutes operation well within normal frequency range unlike the NGC threshold of 50.4 and 50.5Hz. The EON codes also have lower droop compared to NGC.

3.4 Reactive Power Requirements

Power System Operation : Flows of reactive power are necessary to supply loads and also transmission system components such as over-head lines and transformers. Generators or compensation equipment is used to adjust these flows of reactive power. An important consequence of reactive power flow through transmission lines is that, due to their high X/R ratio, large voltage drops will occur. These are managed through use of transformer tapping arrangements. Regulation of voltage at a point of connection can also be achieved through continuous adjustment of reactive power supplied at that point by a generator or compensation equipment. Plant Capability : Synchronous generators inherently have a non-symmetrical capability for producing active power when operating at leading power factors. This is due to a combination of stator end region heating limits [Kundur] and reduction in angular stability margins (as reduced excitation leads to operation at a correspondingly increased machine load angle [Weedy]). As loads and equipment on the electrical power system is generally a net consumer of reactive power this is not a major problem. Non-synchronous generators conversely can provide active power independently from reactive power operation. These characteristics are reflected in the differences between capability curves for synchronous and non-synchronous generator plant in the different grid codes. Although not reflected in the grid codes, power electronic converter based plant such as DFIG and FPC wind turbines could potentially provide increased VArs with reducing active power. This is analogous to increasing active power whilst reducing VArs on a synchronous machine . i.e simply keeping the generator within its thermal MVA limits. Capability curves for a DFIG and an FPC wind turbine topologies are shown in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. Possibility of operation at zero active output for some manufacturers turbines is mentioned in [Gardner].

50

Figure 3.2 PQ capability for a 670kW DFIG at different voltage levels [Tapia1]

Figure 3.3 PQ capability for a direct drive synchronous generator at different voltage levels [Slootweg] An implication of the operation of wind farms is that their likely remote geographical location will, if displacing conventional plant near large load centres, reduce system capability to control voltage [Slootweg]. Investigation of some of the basic issues of wind farm voltage control are dealt with in [Tapia1] and demonstration of line drop compensation enabling a GE turbine equipped wind farm to control voltage at node remote from the wind farm is shown in [Miller]

3.4.1 Reactive Power Capability at Maximum Active Power

Structure : All codes with the exception of ELTRA specify capability ranges for reactive power whilst producing active power. Entsoe allows this capability range to be moved within a larger window. For EON H&EHV, EON offshore and NGC plant below 33kV (in Scotland) lozenge shaped capability envelopes are required indicating that operation at certain extremities is not needed. Parameters : It is notable that NGC non-synchronous plant has reduced power factor capability requirements compared to synchronous plant.

51

3.4.2 Reactive Power Capability below Maximum Active Power

Structure : In the codes typically, synchronous generator based plant requirements are not explicitly stated, instead its capabilities are to be supplied by the connectee. In contrast non-synchronous based plant must meet specific capabilities with regard to active power levels. The ELTRA code includes a wide deadband for constant power factor control which would likely apply to IG based plant. EIR specify their requirements graphically in terms of power factor and reactive power. Parameters : ELTRA does not state explicitly the requirements. At low levels of active power, all codes rapidly reduce reactive power requirements to zero. For NGC non-synchronous plant a non-symmetrical reduction in leading reactive power capability is shown in Figure 2.24 below 50% active power output. This presumably reflects the increased relative reactive power contribution from capacitive cabling local to the connection.

3.4.3 Reactive Power Control

Structure : entsoe and NGC both make a distinction between reactive power control requirements for synchronous plant and those for non-synchronous plant, the synchronous plant requirements being extensively specified in conjunction with excitation controls. EON requirements however make no separate distinction. Operation envelopes for voltage control of non-synchronous plant are specified using Butterfly diagrams for entsoe and NGC plant. Parameters : For non-synchronous plant entsoe and EON require operation under one of three control modes, either voltage, reactive power or power factor. NGC non-synchronous and EIR nonsynchronous plant appear to only require one control mode that of voltage. This makes comparison of parameters difficult.

3.5 Fault Ride Through

Power System Operation : Faults can be broadly classified as short circuits between the phases or combinations thereof to earth. These can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical (unbalanced) and cause possibly large currents to flow. Load flow analysis is used to calculate currents and voltages on a network for fault conditions [Weedy] A voltage dip (or less severe sag) will be seen at the generator connection and possibly across a wider area of the network. Voltage dips caused by faults on the distribution network will not appear higher up the voltage level whereas transmission faults may appear over a large geographical area and hence risk the loss of a large fraction of generation representing a system security risk [Bollen] FRT requirements demand that, within certain limits, plant remain connected and supply current to ensure over-current protection devices will operate near the fault location. Additionally reactive power supplied helps support the voltage and minimise the severity of the voltage dip. After the fault generators should quickly resume active power. Otherwise possible generation demand imbalances may cause the system to lose stability. Hence in addition to steady state automatic disconnection equipment a quick acting system is required to detect the fault and act appropriately. An overview of FRT system issues and simulation results for a study on high penetration levels of wind power in the EON Netz area in Germany is given in [Luther].

52

Through such system modelling it will be possible to obtain voltage time curves for different fault scenarios on a network and thus define a worst case limit curve where generators are expected to be able to remain connected. Obviously these limit curves obtained will be different depending on the network topology, the line impedances in the network (typified by the short-circuit ratio) and also on settings used by automatic protection equipment. The overall shape of the limit curve might be explained as below : Voltage minima A zero minima will indicate a high short circuit level. Thus plant connected to this (widely affected) area will be of significant capacity and will be crucial to system security. A non-zero minima indicates a more remote location with smaller plant size, thus a smaller area of propagation of the voltage dip with an altogether smaller risk to security. Length of minima All fault protection equipment will have operated by the end of this time. An example of a typical fault clearance is shown in [NGRID C.C.A.4.B]. Slope of rise - This period is an allowance for the voltage to recover on the network which according to [Abbey] is related to the short circuit ratio on the network. Sequential operation of breakers on multi-ended circuits also produces a staircase rise in terminal voltage as demonstrated in [NGRID C.C.A.4.B] Plant Capability : Reduction in voltage at the generator terminals leads to an increase in required current to supply the same real power. Thus if rated current levels are reached, a quick reduction in active power output, a partial load rejection, may be needed if the plant is to remain stably connected. Operation of steam plant boiler controls, steam-turbine bypasses and fast valving is under partial load rejection events is given in [Kundur] and [IEEE2]. For non-synchronous wind turbine plant operation of crowbar protection or brake choppers may be needed, capabilities for these are outlined in [Ekanayake]. Additionally certain items of generator auxiliary plant if operating from the ac supply at the generator connection may also be affected by the voltage dip. Capabilities for short-circuit current contribution also vary depending on generator type. Synchronous plant because of their wound stators possess a higher thermal mass and can supply larger amounts of current into a grid fault than a comparable size FPC wind turbine plant [Piwko]. Structure : The EON and entsoe codes make a clear distinction between synchronous and nonsynchronous plant, the entsoe code making a further distinction of voltage connection level. The NGC code has FRT requirements which apply to all plant equally with the exception of an optional alternative specification for offshore platform LV connected equipment. Active and reactive power output and recovery rates are commonly specified. The ELTRA codes are unique in specifying in addition to the three-phase short circuit requirement, ones of single and twophase un-balanced requirements also and capability to withstand repetitions thereof. Parameters : Comparing voltage minima for all of the codes shows that, except in the case of EON, FRT capability down to zero volts is not commonly required for non-synchronous plant. Looking at the slope of the limit curves, EIR is by far the shallowest and therefore most onerous, recovering to normal voltage at 3 seconds. Whilst EON type 1 (i.e synchronous) plant has a laxer limit curve than EON type 2, NGC in contrast requires less stringent limit curve for its non-synchronous plant compared to its synchronous plant. Limit curve boundaries in the entsoe code appear to be simply an overlay of those from the existing euro-codes where the TSO is now required to specify an appropriate limit curve which fits inside. 53

3.6 Other Requirements

Islanding All of the codes except EIR variously define islanding requirements although it is unclear as to whether the functionality is seen as a risk to system operation or a benefit. Inertia No actual inertial requirements exist in any live grid codes reviewed hence this is an example of grid code development. The entsoe requirement shows a near vertical step increase in torque which would likely be incompatible with wind turbine output capabilities. Additionally the entsoe requirement shows no net loss of generation output over the inertial support period which is un-realistic as operation off the maximum power point would lead to an overall loss of energy generation output. Offshore Additional information regarding entsoe and NGC regarding their offshore requirements are highlighted below entsoe : In its requirements for offshore section no information was included. (The latest version [entsoeb] does now include information in this section, essentially adding an explanation of offshore network configurations and separate definition of voltage and reactive power ranges) NGC : The main connection code document includes many requirements for both onshore and offshore plant. Specifications regarding offshore connections also appear in a section K of the System Operator Transmission Owner Code (STC) [NGC7]. These pertain to connection of offshore transmission systems rather than offshore generators. This boundary of between generator connection and transmission connection is illustrated in Figure 3.4 below.

Figure 3.4 NGC Connection structure under the offshore transmission regime [Johnson] Further information on the development of the offshore transmission network can be found in the NGC Offshore Development Information Statement [NGC8] and in [Johnson].

54

4 Discussion
System Integration Challenges : Before discussing the connection codes in detail it is worth noting that, due to CO2 emissions, concerns over sustainability and security of supply, the UK electricity generation infrastructure is planned to change significantly in the near future. Hence grid codes will need to change in order to accommodate new technologies, capabilities and requirements of system and plant operation. In the context of meeting obligated emission reductions for climate change NGC use a Gone Green for 2020 scenario which sets out a generation capacity mix for 2020. This is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 NGC Gone Green generation capacity mix 2020 (GW, % Capacity) [NGC3] In terms of percentage capacity, this future UK mix is actually comparable to many of those shown for the European countries in 2009 in table 1.1. However as highlighted in chapter 1, the UK system has limited cross-border connections compared to the other EU countries and thus this quantity of wind power will represent a challenge in terms of system operation. The EIR system, which has limited interconnections also, does notably integrate a large quantity (17% of total installed capacity) of wind power on its system already. Challenges of operating a future system with the significantly different generation mix of the Gone Green 2020 scenario are outlined in NGCs consultation [NGC4]. In moving to a system which will amongst other things have an increasingly variable output, in terms of control of the transmission network, need for increased capability in the following areas were highlighted : flexibility to cope with more variable flows and voltage conditions. operating points and controls on the network (e.g quad boosters & controllable DC links). automatic controls for dispatching generation (and demand) to assist in the greater number of energy balancing actions. stepwise increase in systems operational capability beyond energy dispatch, to include increased situational awareness for control centre operators, increased scope and frequency of network modelling and automatic switching of breakers and compensation equipment.

55

Format : In terms of understanding generator capability and operational requirements from an electrical power systems engineering viewpoint most of the codes are reasonably easy to understand. EON and entsoe codes are the clearest, the NGC code in contrast is the most difficult. This is in main due to the NGC code being comprehensive in its detail regarding the complete connection process and also, unlike the other codes, including many non-technical requirements such as procedures and definitions of responsibilities. Additionally where other codes use a relatively limited number of key words the NGC use many and the document is not written in a concise style. The entsoe code clearly shows using tables how requirements apply across a range of plant types. Capabilities : Differences between synchronous plant and non-synchronous plant are apparent in the requirements for provision of reactive power below maximum active power. Synchronous plant supplying capability charts to the TSO whereas non-synchronous plant must meet a minimum capability defined by the codes. This demonstrates how new technology plant may be being integrated into the power system for which their full capabilities are not known by system operators. This is a concern voiced by [Gardner] and [Miller]. FRT requirements demonstrate the diversity of capabilities required due to parameters particular to each transmission system operators own network. Also the possibly complex sequential requirements during fault occurrences. Failure to meet ramp rates and recovery time requirements for active and reactive power during fault events can be seen as a common reason for grid code non-compliance on the EIR system [EIR2]. Increasing quantities of variable wind power on the system will result in larger deviations in plant output forecasting and will increase dynamic demands on plant dispatch. Multiple active power regulation requirements specified in the ELTRA codes highlight the potential increased complexity of states of operation of plant and increases in active power controllability. These will bring attendant increased demands in terms of communication and sequential control. This additional plant controllability would be a good example of what NGC outline in their consultation as being needed [NGC4]. Although outside the scope of this review it is interesting to note how increased quantities of variable output renewable plant may affect the existing operation patterns of conventional fossil based plant. In [Bass] reductions in plant performance in terms of emissions and efficiency are measured for a CCGT plant under increased balancing operations. It might be postulated from this that future plant capability requirements may need subdivision to accommodate plant which might be optimised for variability of output verses efficiency. Current market mechanisms presumably make this distinction and reward operators appropriately. Grid Codes in Practice : It is interesting to note that operation at extremities of system ranges is very rare and full plant capability is not always demanded. However operation in these conditions effects how secure the system is. A good example of this is the frequency deviation of 27th May 2008 experienced on the UK system. The system was secured eventually by use of demand shedding. Analysis of the events using available data showed some unexpected shortfalls in frequency response from some plant and over-performance by others [NGC5]. Notably large amounts of embedded generation on the distribution network disconnected earlier than it should have contributing to the frequency drop. This event illustrates the role and importance of grid code requirements in practice.

56

Development of the grid codes : The Danish, German and Irish codes demonstrate some of the changes which have been needed to grid codes in order to successfully integrate large quantities of wind power. Analysis of the overall problem of integrating wind onto the Irish system from the power system operators point of view is given in [Dudurych]. Functioning of market incentives and its beneficial effect on the roll-out of FRT requirements regarding integration of wind onto the the Spanish electricity system is outlined by [Abbad]. This is also describes market incentives for retrospective upgrade of FRT. Concerns regarding future developments of the grid codes with respect to the connection of wind energy are included in an international grid code review given by [Tsili]. It is interesting to note that draft Spanish grid code for non-synchronous plant now includes mention of recommended functionality which although not compulsory will likely be enforced in the future. These are contribution to negative sequence current during FRT, synthetic inertia and Power System Stabilisers [Altin], [REE].

57

5 Conclusion
This review of the UK grid connection code alongside those of high wind penetration European countries and the new generic grid code drafted by entsoe has proved a useful exercise in identifying differences and commonalities between the codes. The entsoe draft coding exercise, as highlighted by EWEA, in trying to produce a template grid code format with a common structure, terminology, parameters units and figures is a useful step towards producing harmonised requirements. Although cross-border trading and access to these markets is not a main issue for the UK, wider aims of the entsoe grid code harmonisation exercise should be beneficial to the UK. This being through clearer technical requirements for system operators, generators and equipment manufacturers. NGCs consultation on the operation of the transmission system for 2020 clearly states the need for increased flexibility in terms of plant operation and control in order to successfully integrate the expected new generation mix. Hence modification of the existing UK codes will be needed as part of this change. The existing NGC code is poorly structured compared with those of the other European countries reviewed and, it is felt, would not easily accommodate specification of the increased technical complexity NGC envisage for 2020. Experience in Ireland, Germany and Spain illustrate how integration of large quantities of wind power has been achieved. Incorporation of offshore wind is a new frontier and emergence of codes in this area will be particularly interesting. Offshore networks may span multiple national boundaries and include power converter based equipment with the possibility of being used in non-conventional configurations. Further increases in wind energy levels are planned in European countries and thus more advanced power system control functions are being explored. An example of this is testing of intentional islanding capabilities in Denmark [Chen]. Although this is for LV and MV networks this could be an example of the complexity which future grid codes will need to incorporate. Note : The second version of the entsoe draft code, which was not the used in this review, published 22nd March 2011 [entsoe2] unfortunately appears to have lost some of its original technical clarity. It is noted that preciseness is needed in any new grid code requirements to avoid unnecessary added work or inconvenience to any system operator or connectee.

58

6 Appendices
6.1 NGC Nomenclature for Frequency Response Services
The following excerpt is taken from the NGC Balancing Principles Statement [NGC9] and illustrates usage of terminology for automatic control of plant active power for management of system frequency:

59

60

6.2 Grid Code and Distribution Code Boundaries

The below figures illustrate how generating plant and demand is partitioned with respect to voltage boundaries and participation in the Balancing Market (BM).

Figure 6.1 & 6.2 Distribution and Transmission system code boundaries in England/Wales and for Scotland [DCode].

61

6.3 ELTRA Active Power regulation requirements

In addition to the frequency controlled regulating mode shown in section 2.4, the ELTRA codes include figures describing six requirements all related to active power regulation [ELTRA 5 & Appendix 2]. These are outlined in table 6.1 below and illustrated in the following figures. To avoid unintended interference they have a priority ranking being highest at the top of the table to lowest at the bottom.. Operation of these modes on the Horns Rev offshore windfarm is described in [Kristoffersen] System Protection Via an external signal, output should commence to be quickly regulated downwards at a predetermined ramp rate until a maximum power change has occurred or the external signal goes inactive. Whereupon the current output should then be maintained. Rapid automatic power control to support restoration to normal frequency. This mode holds the power setpoint at the existing value of output (except obviously when a wind speed drop forces output to drop also) Output is reduced by a commanded MW change at a desired gradient. (Second figure shows return to normal regulation) Limit on positive ramp rate of power output. This mode places an adjustable upper limit on power output. Output will follow maximum possible but is reduced by a set amount.

Frequency Control Stop Regulation Balance Regulation Power Gradient Constraint Absolute Production Constraint Delta Production Constraint

Table 6.1 ELTRA active power regulation modes

62

Figures for ELTRA active power regulation modes

Absolute Production Constraint

Delta Production Constraint

Absolute Production Constraint

Delta Production Constraint

Stop Regulation

Power Gradient Constraint

System Protection 63

6.4 Generating Plant Capacities for European Countries

Table 6.2 (Complete data for all of Europe) - Net generating capacity (MW) on Decemeber 31st 2009 [entsoe dataportal - https://www.entsoe.eu/db-query/miscellaneous/net-generating-capacity/
country year Hy (hydro) MW storage run of river pumped storage tn (thermo nuclear) Regen (Renew Genera) wind solar Fossil fuels others repr

AT BA BE BG CH CY CZ DE DK DK_W ES FI FR GB GR HR HU IE IS IT LT LU ME MK NI NL NO PL PT RO RS SI SK UA_W

2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009

2064 1413 2993 13464 0 2180 10400 9 9 19032 3074 25341 4044 3200 2086 50 512 1883 21371 850 1128 503 4 37 29617 2327 4973 5903 2846 879 2478 27

1821 8200 0 1040

105 118 3700 0 9 9 3386 3074 7564 1045 0 379 50 220 24 7642 90 15 0 4 37 371 2577 2341 1874 1

1308 1054 1600 0 1135

12978 13514 100 2629 1707 0 1859 4567 17 503 0 28281 170 2157 3562 372 26

2667 4263 2899 571 276 0 292 9162 760 1096 0 0 1336 1413 240 0 600 0

0 5902 2000 3220 0 3597 20300 0 0 7465 2646 63130 10612 0 0 1822 0 0 0 1183 0 0 0 480 0 0 0 1300 0 700 1820 0

0 1758 361 328 0 658 37500 4151 3123 23329 2054 5606 1553 1144 107 549 1260 575 6716 89 80 0 320 3031 442 719 3945 22 0 0 61 0

500 360 12 0 193 24900 3482 2728 18879 147 4396 1553 917 70 169 1260 4879 89 43 0 310 2220 442 649 3357 14 3 0

339 1 34 0 465 7900 0 0 3550 185 46 0

1142 25 0 0 55 95 0 0 0

1957 8590 6523 355 1335 10647 71300 9159 5063 42603 8815 26158 59918 8284 1810 6154 5461 121 73360 2539 498 907 2286 22902 900 29728 7743 8772 5115 1315 2742 2225

0 0 212 0 0 44 23 131 85 0 45 0 0 0 186 0 0 62 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 100 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 89 100 100 100 100 100 100 98 100 100 100 100 100 100 97 100 100 100 100 100

64

6.5 EWEA Code Harmonisation Process

Figure 6.3 EWEA code harmonisation process [EWEA3]

65

7 References
7.1 General
[Abbad] Electricity market participation of wind farms : the success story of the Spanish pragmatism, J Abbad, Energy Policy 38, 2010 [Altin] Altn, M.; Goksu, O.; Teodorescu, R.; Rodriguez, P.; Jensen, B.-B.; Helle, L.; , "Overview of recent grid codes for wind power integration," Optimization of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (OPTIM), 2010 12th International Conference on , vol., no., pp.1152-1160, 20-22 May 2010 [Bass] Robert J. Bass, Weeratunge Malalasekera, Peter Willmot, Henk K. Versteeg, The impact of variable demand upon the performance of a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power plant, Energy, Volume 36, Issue 4, 5th Dubrovnik Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water & Environment Systems, April 2011, Pages 1956-1965, ISSN 0360-5442, DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2010.09.020. [Bollen] M. H. J. Bollen , G. Olguin and M. Martins "Voltage dips at the terminals of wind power installations", Wind Energy, vol. 8, p.307 , 2005. [Chen] Yu Chen; Zhao Xu; Ostergaard, J.; , "Control mechanism and security region for intentional islanding transition," Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2009. PES '09. IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-6, 26-30 July 2009 [Dudurych] Dudurych, I.M.; Holly, M.; Power, M.; , "Wind farms in the Irish Grid: Experience and analysis," Power Tech, 2005 IEEE Russia , vol., no., pp.1-7, 27-30 June 2005 [EIR2] Register of granted Grid Code Derogations, EIR - http://www.eirgrid.com/renewables/gridcodeforwind/ [Ekanayake] Ekanayake J.B, Jenkins N., Moore I.F, Control & Dynamics of Wind Turbine Generators for Existing and Future Grid Code Compliance, January 2009, Centre for Distributed Generation and Sustainable Electrical Energy, Cardiff University http://energy.engineering.cf.ac.uk/images/publications/technologyreviews/comparison%20of%20grid%20codes.pdf [Energy Networks] DCode version 14 1st Feb 2011 - http://www.energynetworks.info/dcode-homepage/ [entsoe2] entsoe factsheet - https://www.entsoe.eu/resources/publications/entso-e/factsheet/ [Erinmez] Erinmez, I.A.; Bickers, D.O.; Wood, G.F.; Hung, W.W.; , "NGC experience with frequency control in England and Wales-provision of frequency response by generators," Power Engineering Society 1999 Winter Meeting, IEEE , vol.1, no., pp.590-596 vol.1, 31 Jan-4 Feb 1999 [EWEA1] EWEA position paper - EWEA Working Group on Grid Code Requirements Position Paper, European Grid Code Requirements for Wind Power Generation - http://www.ewea.org [EWEA2] EWEA position paper - Harmonising Europe's Grid Codes for the Connection of Wind Power Plants to the Electricity Network Dec 2009 - http://www.ewea.org [EWEA3] Generic Grid Code Format for Wind Power Plant, EWEA, 27th November 2009 http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/091127_GGCF_Final_Draft.pdf [Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety] - The main features of the act on granting priority to renewable energy sources (Renewable Energy Sources Act) of 21 July 2004 [Gardner] Technical Requirements for high-penetration wind : what system operators need, and what wind technology can deliver, P. Gardner, et al , CIGRE 2009 [IEEE1] IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection for Power Generating Plants, ANSI/IEEE C37.106-1987 [Kristoffersen]The Horns Rev Wind farm and the Operational experience with the Wind farm main Controller, Jesper Runge Kristoffersen, Elsam Engineering A/S [IEEE2] Response, P.P.; , "Guidelines for Enhancing Power Plant Response to Partial Load Rejections," Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE Transactions on , vol.PAS-102, no.6, pp.1501-1504, June 1983

66

[Johnson] The Development of Connection Requirements for Offshore Generation and Transmission in Great Britain (GB), A. Johnson,Dr. N. Tleis and J. Greasley, 8th International Workshop on Large-Scale Integration of Wind Power into Power Systems as well as on Transmission Networks for Offshore Wind Farms, October 2009 [Kaura] Kaura, V.; Blasko, V.; , "Operation of a voltage source converter at increased utility voltage," Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 1995. PESC '95 Record., 26th Annual IEEE , vol.1, no., pp.523-528 vol.1, 18-22 Jun 1995 [Kristoffersen]The Horns Rev Wind farm and the Operational experience with the Wind farm main Controller, Jesper Runge Kristoffersen, Elsam Engineering A/S [Kundur] Kundur P., Power System Stability and Control, EPRI, McGraw-Hill, 1994 [Luther] Luther M., Radtke U., Winter W., Wind Power in the German Power System : Current Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply, from Wind Power in Power Systems Edited by T. Ackermann, 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [Miller] Miller, N.; Marken, P.E.; , "Facts on grid friendly wind plants," Power and Energy Society General Meeting, 2010 IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-7, 25-29 July 2010 [Miller2] Miller, N.W.; Sanchez-Gasca, J.J.; Price, W.W.; Delmerico, R.W.; , "Dynamic modeling of GE 1.5 and 3.6 MW wind turbine-generators for stability simulations," Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2003, IEEE , vol.3, no., pp. 19771983 Vol. 3, 13-17 July 2003 [NGC2] NGC Frequency response technical subgroup http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/Codes/gridcode/workinggroups/freqrespTSG/ [NGC3] NGC Gone Green for 2020 Scenario, 26th June 2008, http://www.nationalgrid.com/corporate/Our+Responsibility/Our+Impacts/ClimateChange/Seealso/gonegreen2020.htm [NGC4] Operating the Electricity Transmission Networks in 2020 Update June 2011, National Grid PLC [NGC5] report of the National Grid Investigation into the Frequency Deviation and Automatic Demand Disconnection that occurred on the 27th May 2008, issued Feb 2009, NG [NGC6] NGC Frequency response technical sub-group, Slide pack from meeting on 3rd December 2010 http://www.nationalgrid.com/NR/rdonlyres/F0793C0C-9617-49B1-98D4-FAC711F344ED/44455/Meeting2Presentation.pdf [NGC7] Section K : Technical Design & Operational Criteria & Performance Requirements for Offshore Transmission Systems v1 http://www.nationalgrid.com/NR/rdonlyres/DE34BA62-ACE8-4E88-A038-0CC138181843/35311/STC_SectK_GoActive.pdf [NGC8] Offshore Development Information Statement, NGC http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/ODIS/CurrentStatement/ [NGC9] Balancing Principles Statement, NGC, 1st April 2008, http://www.nationalgrid.com/NR/rdonlyres/03A5FB8B-D6B9450A-AB7D-11021233BB30/24545/BPSv80effectivefrom1apr08.pdf [Pearmine] R. Pearmine, Y.H. Song, A. Chebbo, Experiences in modelling the performance of generating plant for frequency response studies on the British transmission grid, Electric Power Systems Research, Volume 77, Issue 12, October 2007, Pages 1575-1584, ISSN 0378-7796, DOI: 10.1016/j.epsr.2006.11.004. [Piwko] Piwko, R.; Camm, E.; Ellis, A.; Muljadi, E.; Zavadil, R.; Walling, R.; O'Malley, M.; Irwin, G.; Saylors, S.; , "A whirl of activity," Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.7, no.6, pp.26-35, November-December 2009 [Rebours] Rebours, Y. G.; Kirschen, D. S.; Trotignon, M.; Rossignol, S.; , "A Survey of Frequency and Voltage Control Ancillary ServicesPart I: Technical Features," Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on , vol.22, no.1, pp.350-357, Feb. 2007 [REE] Instalaciones conectadas a la red de transporte y equipo generador : resquisitos minimos de diseno, equipmiento, funcionamiento, puesta en servicio y seguridad, P.O.12.2, Red Electrica Espanol, November 2009, http://www.ree.es/operacion/pdf/Doc_Trabajo_Req_Tec_Eolicos_y_Fotovoltaicos_web_propuesta.pdf

67

[Slootweg] Wind Power and Voltage Control, J. G. Slootweg, S. W. H. de Haan, H. Polinder and W. L. Kling, from Wind Power in Power Systems Edited by T. Ackermann, 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd [Tapia1] A. Tapia, G. Tapia, X. Ostolaza, E. Fernandez and J.R. Saenz, Modeling and dynamic regulations of a wind farm. In: IEEE VII International Power Electronics Congress (CIEP), Acapulco (2000), pp. 293297. [Tapia2] A. Tapia, G. Tapia, J. X. Ostolaza, Reactive power control of wind farms for voltage control applications, Renewable Energy, Volume 29, Issue 3, March 2004, Pages 377-392, ISSN 0960-1481, DOI: 10.1016/S0960-1481(03)00224-6. [Tsili] Tsili, M.; Papathanassiou, S.; , "A review of grid code technical requirements for wind farms," Renewable Power Generation, IET , vol.3, no.3, pp.308-332, Sept. 2009 [Weedy] Weedy B.M, Cory B.J, Electric Power Systems 4th edition

7.2 Grid Codes

[DCode] The Distribution Code and The Guide to the Distribution Code of licensed distribution network operators of Great Britain Issue 14 February 2011 [EIR] EIR EirGrid Code Ver 3.3 Jan 30th 2009 (Downloadable as separate WFPS Wind grid Code only) http://www.eirgrid.com/operations/gridcode/ [ELTRA] Elkraft Eltra Wind Turbines Connected to Grids with Voltages above 100kV (TF 3.2.5) 3rd Dec 2004 https://selvbetjening.preprod.energinet.dk/www.energinet.dk/en/menu/System+operation/Technical+Regulations+for+electrici ty/Regulations+for+grid+connection/Regulations+for+grid+connection.htm [entsoe] Requirements for Grid Connection Applicable to all Generators working draft, entsoe, 19/08/2010, https://www.entsoe.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/_library/news/SDC_Workshop/101020_Draft_Network_Code_-_NEW.pdf [entsoeb] ENTSO-E Draft Requirements for Grid Connection Applicable to all Generators, 22 March 2011 https://www.entsoe.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/_library/news/110322_Pilot_Network_Code_Connections.pdf [EON E&EHV] E-ON Netz Grid Code High and extra high voltage (1st April 2006) - http://www.eonnetz.com/pages/ehn_de/Veroeffentlichungen/Netzanschluss/Netzanschlussregeln/ENENARHS2006eng.pdf [EON Offshore] E-ON Netz Requirements for Offshore Grid Connections in the E.ON Netz Network (1 April 2008) http://www.eonnetz.com/pages/ehn_de/Veroeffentlichungen/Netzanschluss/Netzanschlussregeln/080702ENENAROS2008eng.pdf [NGC] The Grid Code NGC issue 4 rev 5 31st Decemeber 2010 - http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/Codes/ [UCTE] UCTE operation Handbook, version 2.5, level E, dated 24.06.2004, Brussels, Belgium

68