New 7-7-2011

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
Chapter 1.Introduction
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1.1.Face recognition
1.1.1.Face Recognition Methods 1.1.2.Face Recognition Robustness
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1.2.Resolution
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1.2.1.Factors Affecting the performance of Face Recognition Systems 1.2.2.Image Resolution Enhancement Techniques: 1.2.3SUMMARIZING: Chapter 2.Face Image Resolution Analysis
2.1.Image Pyramids 2.2.Gaussian Pyramid 2.3.Bicubic Interpolation

2.3.1.Conventional Bicubic Interpolation Chapter 3.Principal Component Analysis
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3.1.Details 3.2.Computing PCA Using The Covariance Method

3.2.1.Organize the data set 3.2.2.Calculate the empirical mean 3.2.3.Calculate the deviations from the mean 3.2.4.Find the covariance matrix
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3.2.5.Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the covariance matrix 3.2.6.Rearrange the eigenvectors and eigenvalues 3.2.7.Select a subset of the eigenvectors as basis vectors 3.2.8.Convert the source data to z-scores

3.2.9.Project the z-scores of the data onto the new basis 3.2.10.Derivation of PCA using the covariance method 3.2.11.Computing principal components iteratively .......... 27 .......... 27 .......... 28
3.3.Summarizing:
3.3.1.Mathematics of PCA 3.3.2.Eigenfaces in Face Recognition . 3.3.3.Face Recognition using PCA
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I hope from Allah to success in discussion with the department staff. I would like to exprsss my deep gratitude and thanks to my supervisor:
Dr / Mohamed Elsayed Ghoneim
For his valuable discussion with me guidance continuous encouragement and providing many facilities through this work . Special thanks to my parents for supporting me to complete this work. Last but not least thanks for every one help thorough this work to emerge on this way.
Mohamed Moneir El-Beidak
ABSTRACT
Images containing faces are essential to intelligent vision-based human computer interaction, and research efforts in face processing include face recognition, face tracking, pose estimation, and expression recognition [1].To build fully automated systems that analyze the information contained in face images, we require robust and efficient face detection algorithms. Researchers have proposed different recognition methods under the various conditions such as different pose, illumination and expression. The goal of face detection is to identify all image regions which contain a face regardless of its threedimensional position, orientation, and lighting conditions. Such a problem is challenging because faces are non stable and have a high degree of variability in size, shape, color, and texture. In this paper, we conjecture that the face recognition rate will level off when face image resolution arrives at one certain resolution threshold. We presents PCA based face recognition experiments and show statistical results to depict how face recognition rate changes with face image resolution. After analyzing this method and identifying its limitations, we conclude with several promising directions for future research.
Chapter 2.
INTRODUCTION
If youve ever watched hi-tech spy movies, youve most likely seen biometric technology. Several movies have depicted biometric technologies based on one or more of the following unique identifiers: (keystroke - Face Fingerprint Handprint Iris- Retina Signature Voice) They refers to authentication techniques that rely on measurable physiological and individual characteristics that can be automatically verified. Many forms of biometric systems exist for identification and verification purposes; each has a different price range with associated crossover error rates and user-acceptance levels.
Figure 2.1 Comparison of various biometric features: (a) based on zephyr analysis [ ]; (b) based on MRTD compatibility [
2 3
With the spreading of new information technology and media, more effective and friendly methods for human computer interaction
(HCI) are being developed which do not rely on traditional devices

such as keyboards, mice, and displays. Face recognition is an important research problem spanning numerous fields [4] because in additional to having many practical applications it is a fundamental human behavior that is essential for effective communications and interactions among people . The rapidly expanding research in face processing is based on the assumption that information about a users identity, state, and intent can be extracted from images, and that computers can then react accordingly (e.g., by observing a persons facial expression.) [5] [6] [7].
FACE RECOGNITION
It is a popular topic in computer vision and object recognition. It has a number of real-world applications such as surveillance, secure access and human/computer interface, access control, security monitoring [8].
Figure 2.2 Access Control System Based on Face Authentication Model
Recognize a person's identity is important to obtain quick access to any type of records. Solving this problem is important because it
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could allow personnel to take preventive action, provide better service in the case of a doctors appointment, or allow a person access to a secure area. Also, many methods successfully applied in face recognition can be eventually transferred to other object recognition problems. Face detection from a single image is a challenging task because of variability in scale, location, orientation (up-right, rotated), and pose (frontal, profile). Facial expression, occlusion, and lighting conditions also change the overall appearance of faces. We now give a definition of face detection: the goal of face detection is to deter mine whether
or not there are any faces in the image and, if present, return the image location and extent of each face.
The challenges associated with face recognition can be attributed to the following factors: [9][10] y Pose: The images of a face vary due to the relative camera-face pose (frontal, 45 degree, profile, upside down). y Presence or absence of structural components: Facial features such as mustaches, and glasses may or may not be present. y Facial expression. The appearance of faces are directly affected by a persons facial expression. y Occlusion. Faces may be partially occluded by other objects y Imaging conditions. When the image is formed, factors such as lighting (spectra, source distribution and intensity) and camera characteristics (sensor response, lenses) affect the appearance of a face.
2.0.1. Face Recogni ion Methods

Face recognition techni es are di ided roughl into t o categories: a) b) t l al approach
The input to a classi ier in the global approach is a single feature vector that represents the whole face i age. The classifier is minimum distance classification in the Eigen-space based on PCA [11][12] " a shown
in chapter 3 ",
views of face. The correspondences between two face images are first built by labeling some key points and then an affine transform is computed to warp an input image into a reference face image [13]. Active morphable model is adopted to match the input face with the reference face [14]. Active shape models are used in to align the input face with the model face[15].
Figure 2.3 2D Facial Scanners Record Identities through Recognizing Facial Features
EFFEC
F IM
RESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION
the component- ased approach.
This global techni ue work well for classifying frontal
While for the component based algorithms, the main idea is to compensate for pose changes by allowing a flexible geometrical relation between the components in the classification stage. In [16] face recognition was performed by independently matching templates of three facial regions (eyes, nose and mouth). The configuration of the components during classification was unstrained since the system did not include a geometrical model of the face.
2.0.2. Face Recognition Robustness

The general task of face recognition still poses a number of challenges with respect to the changes in illumination, facial expression and pose. Therefore currently researchers pay more attention to the study of the robustness against the changes in pose, illumination and expression.
Bernd Heisele et al. [17] presented a component based and two

global recognition methods with multi-class support vector classifier and evaluated them with respect to the robustness against the pose changes. Takeshi Shakunaga and Kaz-uma Shigenari proposed a decomposed eigenface based face recognition method for realizing robust face recognition under various lighting conditions when too few images are available for registration [18]. Geof Givens [19] and his collaborators considered 11 factors that influence PCA-based face recognition performance including race, gender, age, glasses, facial hair, bangs, mouth, eyes, complexion, makeup and expression . They built a system to analyze the relation between these subject covariates
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and the distance of the image pairs of the same subject . Some researchers are also concerned about how to optimize some specific face recognition methods, e.g. Wendy et al. [20] analyzed PCA-based face recognition algorithms and studied the relation between recognition performance and the selection of eigenvector and distance measures. When studying face recognition, researchers all run across one problem: what resolution face image is proper for face recognition. Fortunately, some researchers have done some related work. Simon Baker et al. thought that the enhanced information of the high resolution over the low resolution face could been decided by the low resolution face and built the corresponding face hallucination algorithm [21]. Ce Liu et al. [22] first constructed a "recognized" global model to the individual global face, then built a local model to enhance the local face feature. Motivated by their work, we divide face imag e information into two kinds of information: the discriminative information & the structure information. The former represents the individual information compared with other face images, the latter is the common information of all face images under the same resolution. Then one conjecture is given that face recognition rate will level off when the face image resolution arrives at one certain value. Finally, we perform PCA based recognition algorithms on the face database. The relation curves between face recognition rate and face resolution validate that the recognition rate will not increase until the face resolution arrives at some certain value.
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RESOLUTION
Resolution can be defined as " the ability of an imaging system to record fine details in a distinguishable manner ". The size of an image is measured in inches or centimeters [23] . In a digital device, like a monitor or a camera, the size of an image is measured in pixels. Pixels are the smallest basic units that compose a digital image. In fact, the term pixel is an abbreviation from "picture element". So, a lot of small pixels put together make up an image. Obviously, the more pixels an image has, the more resolution it has, and thus, more detail that can be seen. For instance, the average 14 inch monitor has an 11 inches wide x 8 inches high screen (approximately). When configured to display 72 ppi or "pixels per
inch", it creates 800 pixels wide x 600 pixels high images on screen. A
6" by 4" photograph scanned at 300 ppi will generate 1800 pixels on the wide side and 1200 pixels on the high side. An image shot with a 2 megapixel (MP) camera will usually have 1600 pixels wide x 1200 pixels high, making up 1.92 million pixels in total, or approximately "2 MP". Higher resolution images can let you crop in on part of an image and blow it up, and still get a good definition. In digital terms, each pixel is simply a piece of information regarding the specific color and brightness of that particular dot. For each pixel, this information is contained in three bytes representing each one these the particular shade of Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) that combined together make up the specific color and brightness of that pixel. Each RGB component or
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byte is represented by 8 bits , so it can have 256 possible values ranging from 0 to 255 . That means that 24 bit RGB color image pixels are capable of displaying 16.7 million different color combinations (256x256x256). This is also important because pixel quantity determines computer file sizes (some file formats such as JPEG allow for increasing levels of compression, and thus, decreasing file sizes).
2.1.1.
Factors Affecting the performance of Face Recognition Systems
Considerable progress has been made in face recognition research over the last Decade, especially with the development of powerful models of face appearance (e.g., eigen spaces). Despite the variety of approaches and tools studied, however, face recognition has shown to perform satisfactorily in controlled environments, but it is not accurate or robust enough to be deployed in uncontrolled environments. Illumination variation is one of the critical factors affecting face recognition rate which depend on capture device physical properties (e.g. resolution and contrast).
2.1.2.
Image Resolution Enhancement Techniques:
Depending on the presence of anti-aliasing filter, there are two ways of formulating the resolution enhancement problem for still images, that is, how to obtain a high-resolution (HR) image from its low-resolution (LR) version? When no anti-aliasing filter is used, we
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might use classical linear interpolation [24] , edge-sensitive filter [25] , directional interpolation [26] , POCS-based interpolation [27] , or edge directed interpolation schemes [28][29] . When anti-aliasing filter takes the form of low-pass filter in wavelet transforms (WT) [30] , there are a flurry of works [31][32] which transform the problem of resolution enhancement in the spatial domain to the problem of high-band extrapolation in the wavelet space.
2.1.3.
SUMMARIZING:
High image quality means high resolution, to achieve that we need high quality camera which is more expensive and then we need large storage space. But if we know the threshold of the resolution needed to implement the PCA algorithm we shall reduce cost for both storage space and camera quality.
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Chapter 3.
FACE IMAGE RESOLUTION ANALYSIS
In this section, we first introduce Image Pyramids, the generalized Gaussian Pyramid, which is used to generate the multi-resolution face images, and bicubic interpolation. Then, we analyze the face image information constitution and conjecture the relation between face recognition performance and face image resolution.
IMAGE PYRAMIDS
Goal: Develop filter-based representations to decompose images
into information at multiple scales, to extract features/structures of interest, and to attenuate noise. [33]
Motivation:
y redundancy reduction and image modeling for efficient coding. y image enhancement/restoration. y image analysis/synthesis.
Linear Transform Framework Projection Vectors: Let

(1)
denote a 1D signal, or a vectorized ), and let the transform be
representation of an image (so
=
Here, y
are the transform coefficients.
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y The columns of P = vectors; the
are the projection

.
coefficient,
is the inner product
y When P is complex-valued, we should replace conjugate transpose . ).
by the
Sampling: The transform

sampled when under-sampled (when
is said to be critically ) or
, Otherwise it is over-sampled(when
Basis Vectors: For many transforms of interest there is a

corresponding basis matrix B satisfying The columns B = they form a linear basis for
= .
are called basis vectors as
GAUSSIAN PYRAMID
It [34]is a technique used in image processing. The technique involves creating a series of images which are weighted down using a Gaussian average (blur) and scaled down.
Figure 3.1 Levels of Gaussian Pyramid

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EFFECTS OF IMAGE RESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION
When this techni ue is used multiple times, it creates a stack of successively smaller images, with each pi el containing a local average that corresponds to a pi el neighborhood on a lower level of the pyramid. Sequence of low-pass, down-sampled images, Usually constructed with a separable 1D kernel and a down-sampling factor of 2 (in each direction):

. ,
In matri notation (for 1D) the mapping from one level to the next has the form:
Typical weights for the impulse response from binomial weights

convol tion is a mathematical operation on two f nctions f and

g, producing a third function that is t picall viewed as a modified version of one of the original functions.
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3.2 Example of image and next four pyramid levels:
Figure 3.3 First three levels scaled to be the same si e:
Properties of Gaussian pyramid: y Used for multi-scale edge estimation. y Efficient to compute coarse scale images. Only 5-tap 1D filter kernels are used. y Highly redundant, coarse scales provide much of the information in the finer scales.
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BICUBIC INTERPOLATION
Image interpolation is a prime technique in image processing. It is used in many important applications such as digital high-definition television, big screen display, copy and print machine, medical imaging and so on. The bicubic interpolation, [35] which is linear and easy to be computed, is used widely in many interpolation applications. However, it has a blurring problem in the interpolated images, because it ignores the features of the image pixel data, such as the frequency features, the edge features, the features under multi-resolution and so on. For solving the blurring problem we use resolution enhancement (RE) interpolation methods. Some of the RE interpolation algorithms use multi-resolution pyramids and frequency features [36] of an image to calculate the interpolated image.
3.4 Bicubic Interpolation
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3.2.1.
Conventional Bicubic Interpolation
Figure 3.5 Original Pic
Figure 3.7 Photo was enlarged without using any interpolation
3.6 Photo was enlarged using interpolation
The conventional bicubic interpolation needs an up-sampling distance S to estimate the unknown pixels for the interpolation processing. At the position which is shown :
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the bicubic interpolation calculates the interpolated pixel as equ:
where

and
means the pixel value at
the position (i, j). The weights (S), (S), (S), (S) in conventional
bicubic interpolation are given as

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Chapter 4.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS
The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is one of the most successful techniques that have been used in image recognition and compression. PCA was invented by Karl Pearson in 1901 [37] . PCA is a statistical method under the broad title of factor analysis. The purpose of PCA is to reduce the large dimensionality of the data space (observed variables) to the smaller intrinsic dimensionality of feature space (independent variables), which are needed to describe the data economically. The jobs which PCA can do are prediction, redundancy removal, feature extraction, data compression, etc. PCA is a classical technique which can do something in the linear domain, applications having suitable linear models, such as signal processing, image processing, system and control theory, communications, and so on. The main idea of using PCA for face recognition is to express the large 1-D vector of pixels constructed from 2-D facial image into the compact principal components of the feature space. This can be called eigenspace projection. Eigenspace is calculated by identifying the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix derived from a set of facial images(vectors). PCA involves a mathematical procedure that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a number of uncorrelated variables called principal components. PCA can be done by eigenvalue decomposition of a data covariance matrix or singular value decomposition of a data matrix, it
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is the simplest of the true eigenvector based multivariate analyses. Often, its operation can be thought of as revealing the internal structure of the data in a way which best explains the variance in the data.
DETAILS
PCA is mathematically defined [38] as an orthogonal linear transformation that transforms the data to a new coordinate system [such that the greatest variance by any projection of the data comes to lie on the first coordinate called the first principal component, the second greatest variance on the second coordinate, and so on]
Define a data matrix, , with zero empiricalwhere each of :
y the n rows represents a different repetition of the experiment. y the m columns gives a particular kind of datum.
The PCA transformation is then given by: where the matrices W,
, and V are given by a singular value . is an m n diagonal matrix
decomposition (SVD) of X as W
with nonnegative real numbers on the diagonal. Since W (by definition of the SVD of a real matrix) is an orthogonal matrix, each row of is simply a rotation of the corresponding row of . If we want a reduced dimensionality representation, we can project X down into the reduced space defined by only the first L singular vectors, :
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The matrix W of singular vectors of X is equivalently the matrix W of eigenvectors of the matrix of observed covariance ,
, given a set of points in Euclidean space.
Each eigenvalue is proportional to the portion of the "variance" (more correctly of the sum of the squared distances of the points from their multidimensional mean) that is correlated with each eigenvector, so the sum of all the eigenvalues is equal to the sum of the squared distances of the points from their multidimensional mean. Mean subtraction is necessary for performing PCA to ensure that the first principal component describes the direction of maximum variance. If mean subtraction is not performed, the first principal component might instead correspond more or less to the mean of the data. A mean of zero is needed for finding a basis that minimizes the mean square error of the approximation of the data [39] . Assuming zero empirical mean (the empirical mean of the distribution has been subtracted from the data set), the principal component w1 of a data set
X can be defined as:

The
component can be found by subtracting the first
principal components from X: and by substituting this as the new data set to find a principal component in
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COMPUTING PCA USING THE COVARIANCE METHOD

The goal is to transform a given data set X of dimension M to an alternative data set Y of smaller dimension . Equivalently, we are
seeking to find the matrix Y, where Y is the KarhunenLove transform (KLT) of matrix X:
4.1.1.
Organi e the data set
Suppose you have data comprising a set of observations of M

variables, and you want to reduce the data so that each observation can be described with only L variables, L < M. Suppose further, that the data are arranged as a set of N data vectors with each
representing a single grouped observation of the M variables.

Write as column vectors, each of which has M rows.
Place the column vectors into a single matrix X of dimensions M N.
4.1.2.
Calculate the empirical mean

Find the empirical mean along each dimension
Place the calculated mean values into an empirical mean vector u of dimensions M 1,
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4.1.3.
Calculate the deviations from the mean
Mean subtraction is an integral part of the solution towards finding a principal component basis that minimizes the mean square error of approximating the data. Hence we proceed by centering the data as follows:
Subtract the empirical mean vector u from each column of the data matrix X.
Store mean-subtracted data in the M N matrix B :
4.1.4.
Find the covariance matrix
Find the M M empirical covariance matrix C from the outer product of matrix B with itself: where
is the expected value operator . is the outer product operator. is the conjugate transpose operator.
The covariance matrix in PCA, is a sum of outer products between its sample vectors, indeed it could be represented as B.B*.
4.1.5.
Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the covariance matrix
Compute the matrix V of eigenvectors which diagonalizes the covariance matrix C: where D is the diagonal matrix of
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eigenvalues of C. This step will typically involve the use of a computer based algorithm for computing eigenvectors and eigenvalues. Matrix D will take the form of an M M diagonal matrix, where for is the for eigenvalue of the covariance matrix C, and . Matrix V, also of dimension M M, contains M
column vectors, each of length M, which represent the M eigenvectors of the covariance matrix C. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are ordered and paired. The eigenvector. eigenvalue corresponds to the
4.1.6.
Rearrange the eigenvectors and eigenvalues

o Sort the columns of the eigenvector matrix V and eigenvalue matrix D in order of decreasing eigenvalue. o Make sure to maintain the correct pairings between the columns in each matrix.
4.1.7.
Select a subset of the eigenvectors as basis vectors

y Save the first L columns of V as the M L matrix W:
for p=1,,M and q=1,,L where
y Use the vector g as a guide in choosing an appropriate value for L.
The goal is to choose a value of L as small as possible while achieving a reasonably high value of g on a percentage basis.
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4.1.8.
Convert the source data to -scores
y Create an M 1 empirical standard deviation vector s from the square
root of each element along the main diagonal of the cova riance matrix
C:
for
. (divide element-by-
y Calculate the M N z-score matrix:
element)
4.1.9.
Project the -scores of the data onto the new basis

y The projected vectors are the columns of the matrix .
y W* is the conjugate transpose of the eigenvector matrix. y The columns of matrix Y represent the KarhunenLove
transforms (KLT) of the data vectors in the columns of matrix X.
4.1.10.
Derivation of PCA using the covariance method
Let X be a d-dimensional random vector expressed as column vector. Without loss of generality, assume X has zero mean. We want to find a orthonormal transformation matrix P such that is a diagonal matrix and . By with the constraint that
substitution, and matrix algebra, we obtain:

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We now have: Rewrite P as and as:

column vectors, so
Substituting into equation above, we obtain:

Notice that in
, Pi is an eigenvector of the covariance
matrix of X. Therefore, by finding the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix of X, we find a projection matrix P that satisfies the original constraints.
4.1.11.
Computing principal components iteratively
In practical implementations especially with high dimensional data (large m), the covariance method is rarely used because it is not efficient. One way to compute the first principal component efficiently [40] is shown in the following pseudo-code, for a data matrix XT with zero mean, without ever computing its covariance matrix. Note that here a zero mean data matrix means that the columns of XT should each have zero mean.
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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------P = a random vector do c times: T=0 (a vector of length m) for each row t = t +(x.p)x
return P
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------This algorithm is simply an efficient way of calculating
One way to compute the eigenvalue that corresponds with each principal component is to measure the difference in sum-squareddistance between the rows and the mean, before and after subtrac ting out the principal component. The eigenvalue that corresponds with the component that was removed is equal to this difference.
SUMMARIZING:
4.2.1. Mathematics of PCA
A 2-D facial image can be represented [41] as 1-D vector by concatenating each row (or column) into a long thin vector. Suppose we have M vectors of size N (= rows of image representing a set of sampled images. columns of image)
's represent the pixel values.
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The images are mean centered by subtracting the mean image from each image vector. Let m represent the mean image. let be defined as mean centered image and , our goal is to
find a set of of the
which have the largest possible projection onto each for
's. We wish to find a set of M orthonormal vectors
which the quantity orthonormality constraint
is maximized with the . It has been shown that the s
and is are given by the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the covariance matrix column vectors , where W is a matrix composed of the which
placed side by side. The size of C is
could be enormous. A common theorem in linear algebra states that the vectors and scalars can be obtained by solving for the matrix . Let and
eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the By
be the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of multiplying left to both
, respectively. sides by and . , W.
which means that the first of are given by W
eigenvectors respectively. W
and eigenvalues
needs to be normalized in order to be equal to
The eigenvectors are sorted from high to low according to their corresponding eigenvalues. The eigenvector associated with the largest eigenvalue is one that reflects the greatest variance in the image, that is, the smallest eigenvalue is associated with the eigenvector that finds the least variance. A facial image can be projected onto dimensions by computing where = ( , M) is
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the
coordinate of the facial image in the new space, which came to are also images, so called,
be the principal component. The vectors eigenimages, or eigenfaces [42] .
They can be viewed as images and indeed look like faces. So, describes the contribution of each eigenface in representing the facial image by treating the eigenfaces as a basis set for facial images. The simplest method for determining which face class provides the best description of an input facial image is to find the face class k that minimizes the Euclidean distance .
4.2.2. Eigenfaces in Face Recognition .

Eigenface is one of the most thoroughly investigated approaches to face recognition. It is also known as Karhunen Love [43] expansion.
Steps [44]
1) Obtain a set S with M face images. Each image is transformed into a vector of size N and placed into the set. 2) After you have obtained your set, you will obtain the mean image 3) Then you will find the difference between the input image and the mean image 4) Next we seek a set of M orthonormal vectors, un, which best describes the distribution of the data. The k th vector, uk, is is a maximum, chosen such that subject to
Note: and matrix . are the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the covariance
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5) We obtain the covariance matrix C in the following manner , 6) 7) Once we have found the eigenvectors, vl, ul: ,
4.1 set of images used to create eigen space
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4.2 the eigenfaces of our set of original images
4.2.3.
Face Recognition using PCA
Once the eigenfaces [45] have been computed, several types of decision can be made depending on the application. What we call face recognition is a broad term which may be further specified to one of following tasks:
o Identification where the labels of individuals must be obtained . o Recognition of a person, where it must be decided if the individual has already been seen. o Categorization where the face must be assigned to a certain class.
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Figure 4.3 Using PCA in Face Recognition Systems
PCA computes the basis of a space which is represented by its training vectors. These basis vectors, actually eigenvectors, computed by PCA are in the direction of the largest variance of the training vectors. As it has been said earlier, we call them eigenfaces. Each eigenface can be viewed a feature. When a particular face is projected onto the face space, its vector into the face space describe the importance of each of those features in the face. The face is expressed in the face space by its eigenface coefficients (or weights). Each face in the training set is transformed into the face space and its components are stored in memory. The face space has to be populated with these known faces. An input face is given to the system, and then it is projected onto the face space. The system computes its distance from all the stored faces.
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However, two issues should be carefully considered: 1. What if the image presented to the system is not a face? 2. What if the face presented to the system has not already learned, i.e., not stored as a known face? The first defect is easily avoided since the first eigenface is a good face filter which can test whether each image is highly correlated with itself. The images with a low correlation can be rejected. Or these two issues are altogether addressed by categorizing following four different regions:
1. Near face space and near stored face known faces unknown faces non-faces non-faces
2. Near face space but not near a known face 3. Distant from face space and near a face class
4. Distant from face space and not near a known class
Since a face is well represented by the face space, its reconstruction should be similar to the original, hence the reconstruction error will be small. Non-face images will have a large reconstruction error which is larger than some threshold . The distance determines whether the
input face is near a known face.
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REFRANCES :
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EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

2.1.Image Pyramids 2.2.Gaussian Pyramid 2.3.Bicubic Interpolation

................................ .... 14 ................................ .... 15 ................................ .... 18

................................ ................................ ....................... 21

3.1.Details 3.2.Computing PCA Using The Covariance Method

................................ .... 22 ................................ .... 24

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

Mohamed Moneir El-Beidak

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

(HCI) are being developed which do not rely on traditional devices

Figure 2.2 Access Control System Based on Face Authentication Model

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

2.0.1. Face Recogni ion Methods

RESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

the component- ased approach.

This global techni ue work well for classifying frontal

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

2.0.2. Face Recognition Robustness

Bernd Heisele et al. [17] presented a component based and two

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

Factors Affecting the performance of Face Recognition Systems

Image Resolution Enhancement Techniques:

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

FACE IMAGE RESOLUTION ANALYSIS

Linear Transform Framework Projection Vectors: Let

denote a 1D signal, or a vectorized ), and let the transform be

representation of an image (so

are the transform coefficients.

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

y The columns of P = vectors; the

are the projection

is the inner product

y When P is complex-valued, we should replace conjugate transpose . ).

Sampling: The transform

Basis Vectors: For many transforms of interest there is a

are called basis vectors as

Figure 3.1 Levels of Gaussian Pyramid

EFFECTS OF IMAGE RESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

Typical weights for the impulse response from binomial weights

convol tion is a mathematical operation on two f nctions f and

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

3.2 Example of image and next four pyramid levels:

Figure 3.3 First three levels scaled to be the same si e:

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

3.4 Bicubic Interpolation

EFFECTS OF IMAGE RESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

Conventional Bicubic Interpolation

Figure 3.5 Original Pic

Figure 3.7 Photo was enlarged without using any interpolation

3.6 Photo was enlarged using interpolation

EFFECTS OF IMAGE RESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

the bicubic interpolation calculates the interpolated pixel as equ:

means the pixel value at

bicubic interpolation are given as

EFFECTS OF IMAGE R ESOLUTION ON FACE R ECOGNITION

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS

, and V are given by a singular value . is an m n diagonal matrix

Find the empirical mean along each dimension

Store mean-subtracted data in the M N matrix B :

We now have: Rewrite P as and as: