PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence is primarily intended for use in an undergraduate course.

Due to its comprehensive coverage and a number of detailed algorithms, it is useful as a primary reference volume for Artificial Intelligence (AI) graduate students and professionals wishing to branch out beyond their own subfield. The only prerequisite is familiarity with basic concepts of computer science (algorithms, data structures, complexity, etc.) at a sophomore level. AI is a big field; the main unifying theme is the idea of an intelligent agent. In this book AI is defined as the science and engineering of making intelligent agents. Each such agent implements a function that maps percept sequences to actions. The book is divided into five chapters. Chapter one which introduces the course offers an overview of AI and traces the history, from the gestation through the emergence of intelligent agents. Chapter two centred on intelligent agents: systems that can decide what to do and then do it, and compares the two approaches human centred and rationalist in determining the intelligence of and intelligent agent. Chapter three focuses on the essential concepts of expert systems and knowledge engineering as it relates to AI while chapter four considers the commonly used programming languages for AI: Prolog and Lisp; stating the basic concepts and essentials of programming through the use of carefully chosen sample programs. The sample programs are arranged to guide the student through the development of Lisp and Prolog programs that are constructed in a top-down, declarative fashion which also gives an outlined view of the major built-in predicates.

ii

Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence Chapter five describes that part of the intelligent agent responsible for reaching decisions, ways to represent knowledge about the world--how it works, what it is currently like, and what one's actions might do--and how to reason logically with that knowledge; examining the fundamental concepts of logical representation and reasoning. It also considers constraint satisfaction problems, which provides a natural connection to the material on logic; propositional logic, which was presented as a stepping-stone to first-order logic as well as the natural language processing

M. S. Okundamiya
February, 2009.

M. S. Okundamiya PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION As a result of further research undertaken by the author it has now been found possible to provide a new edition of Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence incorporating additional topics and three new chapters for wider undergraduate course coverage in science and engineering. The additional topics and three new chapters in this second edition are as follows: the inclusion of classes of intelligent agents and problem solving as search for goal-based agents, and symbolic and non-symbolic representations respectively to existing chapter two and three. Chapter six considers fundamental concepts, methods and algorithms of constraint satisfaction problems, which provide a natural connection to the material on logic. Chapter seven deals with natural language processing while chapter eight presents general overview of genetic programming comparing, its attributes with other approaches of artificial intelligence. Advantage has also been taken during the revision of the book to a number of minor points in other parts of the text as well as changing the format and resetting of the whole pages of the text to provide improved learning potential for the reader. I sincerely appreciate God Almighty for His infinite mercy, wisdom, favour and protection over my family. I would also express my gratitude to the reviewer(s) for their inputs to this edition. The author would welcome your suggestions, feedback, criticism or any other comments that will enable me improve the next edition of Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence. Please, send your comments to st_mico@yahoo.com M. S. Okundamiya
May, 2011.

iii

iv CONTENTS Preface Dedication Contents CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Overview

Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence

iii vi vii

1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 12 21

1.1.1 Artificial Intelligence as Science 1.1.2 Artificial Intelligence as Engineering 1.2 1.3 Goals of Artificial Intelligence History of Artificial Intelligence

1.3.1 The Gestation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1956) 1.3.2 Early Enthusiasm, Great Expectations (1952-1969) 1.3.3 A Dose of Reality (1966-1974) 1.3.4 Knowledge-Based Systems: Key To Power (1969-1979) 1.3.5 Ai Becomes an Industry (1980-Present) 1.3.6 Ai Becomes A Science (1987-Present) 1.3.7 The Emergence of Intelligent Agents (1995 - Present) 1.4 1.5 Branches of Artificial Intelligence Applications of Artificial Intelligence

CHAPTER TWO: INTELLIGENT AGENT 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Overview Acting Humanly: The Turing Test Approach Thinking Humanly: The Cognitive Modelling Approach Acting Rationally: The Rational Agent Approach 24 28 29 30

M. S. Okundamiya 2.5 2.6 Thinking Rationally: The Laws of Thought Approach Agents and Environment 31 33 33 35 37 37 37 38 39 41 41 46 EXPERT SYSTEMS 49 50 51 53 53 55 58 59 59 61 62 62

2.6.1 General Assumption 2.6.2 Properties of Task Environments 2.7 Classes of Intelligent Agents

2.7.1 Simple Reflex Agents 2.7.2 Model-Based Reflex Agents 2.7.3 Learning Agents 2.7.4 Goal-Based Agents 2.7.5 Utility-Based Agents 2.8 2.9 Problem Solving as Search State of the Art

CHAPTER THREE: 3.1 3.2 3.3 Overview

Knowledge Engineering Expert System Shells

3.3.1 Tree-Based Logic 3.3.2 Forward Chaining 3.3.3 Backward Chaining 3.3.4 Bayesian Belief Networks 3.3.5 Neural Networks 3.3.6 Fuzzy Logic 3.3.7 State Machines 3.3.8 Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) 3.3.9 Object Oriented Design

vi 3.4

Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence The Building Blocks of Expert Systems 63 63 64 64 65 67

3.4.1 Knowledge Base 3.4.2 Inference Engine 3.4.3 Interface 3.5 3.6 Applications of Expert Systems Benefits to End Users

CHAPTER FOUR:INTRODUCTION TO LISP AND PROLOG 4.1 List Processing 69 69 70 72 73 77 81 83 86 87 88

4.1.1 Definitions 4.1.2 Basic Functions 4.1.3 How to Write Functions 4.1.4 The Logic of Functions 4.1.5 Built-In Functions 4.2 Programming in Logic

4.2.1 PROLOG Data Structures 4.2.2 Unification 4.2.3 Operators 4.2.4 Applications of PROLOG CHAPTER FIVE: LOGICAL AGENTS 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Introduction Knowledge-Based (KB) Agents Logic Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Representations Propositional Logic

89 90 96 102 104

M. S. Okundamiya 5.5.1 Syntax 5.5.2 Semantics 5.5.3 Inference 5.5.4 Equivalence, Validity, and Satisfiability 5.5.5 Effective Propositional Inference CHAPTER SIX: 6.1 Introduction CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEMS 118 118 119 120 122 122 123 123 125 126 127 104 107 110 111 114

vii

6.1.1 Standard Search Formulation 6.1.2 Varieties of Constraint Satisfaction Problems 6.1.3 Varieties of Constraints 6.1.4 Real-World Constraint Satisfaction Problems 6.2 Algorithms for Constraint-Satisfaction Problems

6.2.1 Constraint Propagation 6.2.2 Backtracking 6.2.3 Local Search 6.3 6.4 Intelligent Backtracking and Truth Maintenance Variable Ordering and Value Instantiation NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING

CHAPTER SEVEN: 7.1 7.2 Introduction Natural Language

131 131 132 133 134 134

7.2.1 Significance of Natural Language Study 7.2.2 Areas of Natural Language 7.2.3 Minimality of Natural Language 7.3 Computer Language Understanding

viii 7.4 7.5 7.6

Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence Problems in Understanding Language Natural Language as Artificial Intelligence Problem Applications 135 136 136 INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC PROGRAMMING 138 139 139

CHAPTER EIGHT: 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Introduction Genetic Operators

Operational Principles Differences between Genetic Programming and other Approaches to Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence

140 150 153

8.5 8.6

Attributes of a system for Automatic Programming The Human-Competitive Results

8.6.1 An Automatically Created Solution to a Problem is Competitive with Human-Produced Results 8.6.2 Criteria for an Automatically Created Result to be Human-Competitive 154 154

References Index

156 170

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