A Principled Approach to ESP Course Design

A Principled

Approach to ESP Course Design

Chris Offord-Gray and Deborah Aldred The University of Hong Kong

Introduction For an ESP/EAP writing course to be directly relevant and useful to the learners of a specific discourse community, it needs to have certain theoretical and practical principles underpinning it. Such principles should not only reflect a theory of language learning and the kind of methodology that it implies but should also be grounded in research into the learner needs as perceived by the discourse community, and a linguistic analysis of the texts produced by that community, together with knowledge of the learners previous language learning experience in the wider educational context. Although the principles adopted here are discussed in relation to a research and materials development project that was undertaken to address the written business communication needs of the accountancy profession, it is argued that such principles could have a wider application.

Seven principles underlying

course design

Written Business Communication: A Course for Accountants, (Aldred and Offord-Gray 1998), was the outcome of the above research and materials development project. This project was divided into two phases; the first consisted of a needs analysis, the collection of a corpus of authentic documents from the accountancy profession and some discourse analysis of the corpus. The second phase consisted of further discourse analysis of the corpus and materials development using the documents as a source of reference, (the analysis to be discussed refers to the analysis in the second phase unless otherwise specified). The seven principles identified and explained in this section underpin the design of this twenty-hour English language course, in business communication. Each unit of the course contains interactive tasks, a grammar and communication focus, which was supported by a self-study grammar practice section, and an Independent Learning in the Workplace section.

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Principle I - Teaching and learning materials should reflect the needs as perceived by the discourse community.

Swales (1990) examines the concept of discourse community and points out that with the exception of advanced students already familiar with the subject material, most academic classes do not represent a discourse community. Thus one aim of a course is to enable the learners to form a discourse community and the role of the course developer is to identify the processes and input that will help the learners achieve their goals. Written Business Communication: A course for Accountants (Aldred and Offord-Gray 1998) was developed to deal with the needs of junior accountants who were familiar with the academic discourse of accountancy but needed to be able to transfer and use that knowledge in the professional context of the workplace. Thus the goal of developing such a course was to enable the second language writers to produce documents in English that would be considered acceptable to the professional discourse community. It was therefore necessary to identify the needs as perceived by senior accountants as well as the junior accountants perceptions of their own needs. Communication in the Professional Workplace, (Nunan and Forey, 1996) detailed the outcome of a needs analysis based on questionnaires and follow up interviews. The following is a summary of the needs identified by the informants, of the accountancy profession: . . . . . . to be able to address the audience appropriately to produce clear reader friendly documents to produce documents that enable the reader to be able to extract information easily to be clear about purpose of communication to help accountants to develop strategies to enable them to monitor their own writing to identify appropriate language to match the function of writing (Nunan and Forey, 1996)

Principle 2 - Teaching and learning materials need to be based on a knowledge of what is regarded as effective written communication in the discourse community. Once again the views of the informants of the accountancy profession were used as a basis for developing an understanding of what characterizes effective written communication in the discourse community and this is summarized in Nunan and Foreys (1996) report: 78

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... responses suggested that an effective document was commonly defined by many as: a concise document which has uncomplicated, simple sentences which are clearly related to purpose, leaving no ambiguous areas; the simple sentences are grouped together in coherent, short paragraphs or point form; the paragraphs and documents are presented in a logical structure which is user-friendly; the structure of the document is signalled with clear headings and sub-headings guiding the reader to relevant issues. (p. 6) Ineffective documents were characterized as having: . . .poor layout, lack of point form, poor logical structure, being too concise or in some cases not concise enough, ambiguous and with use ofjargon. (p. 6) Whilst it was valuable to collect data based on the needs as perceived by the members of the discourse community, it has to be acknowledged that the linguistic needs were expressed in very general terms. Consequently, it became necessary to draw on research in the field of linguistics and through discourse analysis of the corpus. Interpretation of the findings enabled the identification of the more specific written communication needs. From this and other sources (see below), it was found that effectiveness in written business communication could be characterized by the writers ability to:
.

. . .

. . .

organize information in a way that is logical for the native and non-native reader of English produce low context embedded discourse with meaning clearly encoded so that the reader does not have to infer from a wider context choose a discourse and sentence structure that assists information structuring produce discourse where the purpose of writing is in the primary position, followed by supporting evidence, background information, comments, statement of action required etc. accurately identify and address audience, selecting appropriate language write with clarity, conciseness and accuracy select and use cohesive devices so that they contribute to coherence

The above criteria are based on information from the informants in Nunan and Foreys report (1996), knowledge of the organization of texts in Halliday 79

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(1989), and insights offered by Scollon and Scollon (1995) and Du-Babcock and Babcock (1995) into cultural differences affecting communication such as the issue of producing low context rather than high context embedded discourse. The idea of what Hinds (1987) refers to as English being a writer responsible rather than a reader-responsible language is also reflected in the criteria. Principle 3 - Teaching and learning materials need to reflect the communicative purposes for which the discourse community produces written texts. In the analysis of the corpus a set of communicative purposes were identified. According to Bhatia (1993:14), genre and sub-genres are characterized by communicative purpose(s). While the content upon which accountants draw may be specific to the accountancy profession, the communicative purposes may, however, be part of the discourse of the wider business community and probably do not solely represent a genre of the written business communication of the accountancy profession. Further research into the written discourse of a wider section of the business community might well reveal similar communicative purposes. However, the course that was developed not only reflected the communicative purposes identified in the corpus but was also deeply contextualised in the accountancy world and based on authentic sources of information. The course assumed that the learner had a specific body of academic knowledge, which could be referred to in order to respond to the more general communicative needs in the professional workplace of the wider business community. It should be noted here, that although the collection of a corpus of texts is essential for identification of specific linguistic features and for the contextualisation of the materials, the results and findings of corpus analysis should be regarded as tentative for a number of reasons. While the authenticity of the texts is verified by the fact that the documents were identified and submitted by the accountancy profession, it cannot be assumed that the sample is representative of the complete spectrum of documents that are frequently written within the discourse community. In this particular project, confidentiality would have been one of the issues affecting decisions about which documents to submit. It is important therefore that any factors that might contribute to the corpus being not entirely representative of the range of communicative purposes in writing should be offset through the process of evaluation. In that process, the views of the informants need to be sought in order to be sure that the materials produced are relevant to their needs. 80

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Quantifiable information regarding the relevance of piloted learning materials to the needs of the workplace should be obtained. This information would be one of several sources affecting the revision and further development of the materials.

Principle 4 - The forms and functions that characterize the internal linguistic structure of the texts need to be made explicit in the course materials. The research into the discourse of written business communication in the accountancy profession was driven by the need to produce materials that would be relevant and appropriate to the needs of accountants. It needed to be based on authentic language input and structured in a way that would help second language learners to write effectively in English. Once the communicative purposes had been identified, further discourse analysis was carried out to identify the rhetorical moves that enable the writers of the discourse community to achieve those purposes. However, in order for the analysis to inform decisions concerning the structuring of language input, the research needed to go beyond identifying the moves in the discourse. Further analysis provided knowledge of the grammatical and lexical choices by which proficient writers create discourse in which they use language effectively to execute the moves and make their meanings clear to their readers. Paltridge (1996) suggests a variety of practical activities that help learners to explore the relationship between text type and genre in the classroom. Whilst it is valuable for learners to be able to identify these features through reconstruction and deconstruction of texts, it leaves the second language learners far from their goal of being accepted as part of a discourse community. Such genre-based views of language incorporated into the ESP classroom can only be effective if they go beyond helping the learner identify what the writer does and develop the learners understanding of how language choice facilitates or prevents the writer from achieving communicative goals. Thus the relationship between form and function in written business communication and the purposes underlying the use of cohesive devices were a focus for the analysis. The notion of identifying the choices that writers make is an important dimension which contributes to a dynamic view of written language that involves the writer making choices based on the relationship of the reader and writer together with the purpose of communication. The forms and functions that characterized the internal linguistic structure of texts were made explicit in the course materials in a grammar and 81

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communication section in each unit of the course. The focus was on how grammatical choices help or hinder effective communication in writing. The issue of grammar and appropriacy were considered to be inseparable. Matters relating to appropriacy, such as the use of tentative language and developing tone, meant raising the learners awareness of the communicative dimension underlying the writers choices. principle 5 - The course materials need to go beyond making the language explicit but provide a means by which learners can engage in a process of reconstruction It was important that the corpus documents and the language identified did not become static models for learners to simply emulate. In order to reflect the authenticity of task and text within a dynamic view of writing, written language needed to be seen in the wider context of communication in the workplace. Since writing cannot be regarded as an isolated activity, the learner needed to be involved in processes reflecting the kind of communicative context in which letters, memos, reports and minutes were written in the accountancy profession. The processes were simulated through a task-based interactive approach to the development of writing skills. Within the tasks, the accountants needed to discuss and resolve issues before producing a written document in response. Thus processes such as evaluating the situation, identifying problems and finding solutions often preceded writing activities and sometimes required the learners to synthesize information from a variety of sources. The need to communicate events and outcomes to the reader involved the learner in making decisions about the communicative purpose of writing, together with the identification of the functional moves that would enable them to achieve that communicative purpose. A simulation of the specific elements of the communicative context in which the texts are produced cannot necessarily be gained from an analysis of the corpus documents since the documents represent snap shots in the process. It is suggested that one way of finding out more information about where some of those snap-shots fit into the overall communicative context, would be to carry out an ethnographic study in conjunction with the collection of a sub-corpus.

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Principle 6 - Teaching and learning materials need to engage the learners in a process of developing skills for evaluating their own writing and becoming independent learners in the workplace. Nunan and Forey (1996) identified a tendency amongst junior accountants for finding models for writing in filing cabinets and simply changing words to suit the new purpose of writing. The written outcome was often ineffective because, as the research indicated, there was a need to adapt to different audiences. An interactive view of language (Johns, 1994) was reflected in the task-based approach whereby writers were encouraged to make meanings explicit to the reader and adapt to different audiences, thus raising their awareness of English as a writer- responsible language. Nunan and Forey (1996) established that a lot of editing and rewriting was carried out in the workplace but the junior accountants who produced the drafts did not receive the sort of feedback that would enable them to evaluate and improve future drafts. The need for writers to become their own evaluators is highlighted by White and Arnt (1997) who point out that without a sense of what is wrong with a text, there is little hope of being able to put it right. (p. 116) Thus developing criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of memos, reports and letters was incorporated into the task process. The opportunity to apply the criteria was provided in a section in each unit that became known as Independent Learning in the Workplace. It was important for course participants to develop good learning strategies for obtaining useful formative feedback on their drafts from senior staff, thereby encouraging a more effective form of autonomous learning in the workplace. Principle 7- The methodology and content of the teaching and learning materials need to be sensitive to learners previous learning experience It is important to draw on the learners broad but often fragmented knowledge of grammar and build on it. Giving the learner the opportunity to explore the forms that they have given so much attention to at school and enabling them to identify how such forms were related to the kind of meanings expressed in the documents of the accountancy profession, was an important aspect of both the methodology and content of the course. For many of the learners, the methodology of the course materials represented a shift from an essentially product- focused approach to a more process orientation. Becoming evaluators of their own and others writing was an aspect of the writing process that required sensitive handling. Therefore tasks that were Onon-threatening and were conducive to cultivating a collaborative learning 83

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culture needed to be developed. This was achieved in one unit by asking for comments on a memo. As comments are often difficult to elicit for various reasons, a list of typical comments that may be heard in the office was given. This enabled course participants to discuss these without feeling vulnerable to criticism or that they were getting it wrong.

From Principles to Practice Appendix 1 illustrates how the principles identified above can be applied in the process of developing an ESP/EAP writing course.

Conclusion Although it is questionable whether or not taught language enhancement courses of twenty hours can really bring about any real improvement, it is likely that in the future budget constraints will result in shorter rather than longer courses. It is important, therefore, that learners are maximizing their learning potential by being engaged in a process of reconstructing knowledge that is relevant and useful to their present and future needs. This knowledge is not something that can be guessed and then incorporated into a methodology and called a course. The language needs and the linguistic structure should be well researched and developed into a meaningful course. If this research element is missing, then the communicative methodology may be evaluated in the light of irrelevant content and come under attack. The learning theories that underpin communicative methodology can only bring about effective learning if the level and content of the materials are appropriate to the needs of the learners. Finally, no matter how short or how long a course, it will never be enough, for as Rogers (1969:103), reminds us, the goal of education, if we are to survive, is the facilitation of change and learning. Although developmental research may have a language-specific focus, the resulting course should not restrict the learners, but enable them to engage in a process of learning how to learn, thereby working towards autonomy and independence.

References Aldred, D. and Offord-Gray, C. (1996). Written Business Communication: A course for Accountants. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press 84

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hatia, V. K. (1993). Analysing Genre: Language use in professional settings. London: Longman Ou- Babcock, B. and Babcock, R. D. (1995). An analysis of intercultural in multinational corporations. In: organisational communication Daruthiaus, P. (Ed) Working Papers of the Department of English Vol. 7/1 Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong, 1-21 Halliday, M. A. K. (1989). Spoken and Written Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press Hines, J. (1987). Reader vs. writer responsibility: A new topography. In: U. Connor and R.B. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text. Reading, Ma: Addison - Wesley, 141-152. Johns, A. M. (1994). L1 composition theories: implications for developing theories of L2 composition. In: Kroll, B. Second Language Writing . Research insights for the classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 24-36 Nunan, D. & Forey, G. (1996). Communication in the Professional Workplace Project: Research Report Phase I. (Report submitted to the Hong Kong Society of Accountants and The Language Fund) Paltridge, B. (1996). 50:3, 237-243 Genre, text type, and the language classroom. ELTJ,

Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Merill Scollon, R. and Scollon, S. W. (1995). Intercultural Blackwell Communication. Oxford:

Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press White, R. and Arnt, V. (1997). Process Writing. London: Longman

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Appendix

1 Application

of Principles in Designing a Writing Course

Analysis of target texts /corpus ro identifjr languagefocus 1 Deiinition of effectivenessin writing in the discourse community I
Language and

language learning
theories

Principles underlying * materials design 1

Knowledge of the
teaching

I learning

context

Awarenessof appropriacy / 1 U~mtandingoff0l-m c_+ and finchon relationships I

1 Lkvelopnlent of writing &ills t~wghch()m approachi.e. collaborativetask basedlwming

Lamwse upon Gmnmafandlexis madeexplicit Self-studygrammar practice component

Developing criteria for evahating effbctveness of writing

Application and extension skiUs of i.e. indepctxJent learning in the workplace t autonomy

I , Evaluation andfeedback I

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