Basic Reactor Theory and Reactions

Part 1 of 12
Navy Recruiting District Denver
CDR Mike Wenke XO
ET1 (SS) Matt Byron Nuke Coordinator
ENS Titus Reed
OC Kellan Downing
28 July 2011
The Atom
Electron Cloud
Composed of orbiting
electrons
Very little mass
Most of the volume
Nucleus
Composed of protons
and neutrons
Contains almost all of
the mass
Interact with each other
through forces
Strong Nuclear Force
Short range
Saturate quickly
Coulomb Forces
Long range
Repulsive
Stability of the Nucleus
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio
Forces
Strong Force (Attractive)
Attractive force exerted by
all nucleons
Short range
Exerted between neutrons
Electromagnetic (Coulomb)
Force (Repulsive)
A Repulsive force with
infinite range
Exerted between protons
Stability
Nucleus will only be stable
if Strong force is greater
than the Coulomb Force
Neutrons are needed to
increase the Strong Force
As atomic number A
increases, neutron to
proton ratio increases, and
nucleus becomes more
stable
Neutron to Proton Ratio:

Energy Range
The neutrons from the fission process of
235
U
possess energies in the fast energy range
Epithermal range is where resonance in the cross
section exist (We will discuss next time)
Neutrons in the Slow or Thermal range are in
thermal equilibrium with their surroundings
Nuclear and Atomic Terminology
Nuclide: The nuclear
species characterized by
the proton number, Z,
and the mass number,
A, is the nuclide:
Isotope: Atoms with the
same number of
protons, Z
Ion: Neutral atom that
gains or loses electrons
X
A
Z
Element: A substance
consisting of atoms all
having the same atomic
number, A
Compound: A substance
composed of two or
more elements
chemically combined in
a fixed ratio
Atomic and Isotopic Mass
gram
gram C
24
23 12
10 66604 . 1
12
10 9925 . 1
12
atom of mass
1amu

= =
Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1/12 the
mass of one neutral carbon-12 atom
Mass of a nucleon is similar to one atomic mass
unit:
Proton rest mass = 1.007276 amu
Neutron rest mass = 1.008665 amu
Photons
Energy of a photon
E=h
Momentum of a photon


Speed of light
c=


c
h

h
p = =
h = planks constant
6.63x10
-36
jules-sec
= frequency
= wave length
C = 3.0x10
10
cm/s






General Relativistic Principles
Mass and energy are equivalent and related through
speed of light
E=mc
2

Energy for particle of mass = 1 amu

is 931.5MeV
c
2
=931.5 MeV/amu
E represents the theoretical maximum energy a
particle can have
Mass Defect and Binding Energy
Mass Defect
Atomic mass of any
nucleus is less than the
mass of its constituent
parts
Each nuclide gives up mass
to be a part of the nucleus
Binding energy
Equal to the amount of
energy released from the
mass defect
Amount of energy required
to break nucleus into
protons and neutrons
X) M( H) ZM( Z)M (A M
A
Z
1
1 n
+ =
M = Mass Defect
M
n
= Mass of Neutron
= Mass of ordinary
Hydrogen
= Mass of nuclide
with Z protons and A
nucleons
H) M(
1
1
X) M(
A
Z
Stability of the Nucleus

Line of Stability
Lies in area where
neutron to proton ratio
is 1:1 to 1.6:1
Nuclei that are not on
the line of stability will
eventually decay to a
nucleus that is within
the line of stability range
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Decay:
Nucleus becoming more stable through the spontaneous emission of
radiation (either as particles or electromagnetic).
Radioactive Decay is governed by the following:
Probability of decay per unit time is independent of the age and
history of the nucleus
Probability of decay per unit time is the same for all nuclei of the same
type
Probability of decay per unit time is independent of external
influences
No way of predicting the exact time when a nucleus will
decay
dt = probability that a nucleus will decay in a very small
time interval, dt
= the decay or disintegration constant
Law of Radioactive Decay
N(t)= number
surviving after a
period of time t
N
0
= initial number of
unstable nuclei
= total decay
constant in units
of reciprocal time.
t
e

=
0
N N(t)
All decaying nuclei follow the law of radioactive decay
Alpha Decay
Alpha Decay
Emits particle
particle energy range 4-9 MeV
Occurs in heavy Nuclei beyond lead
Relieves Coulomb Repulsion
+ + =
+ =

Y X
Y X
4
2
4 A
2 Z
A
Z
4
2
4 A
2 Z
A
Z
Alpha particles
Gamma ray
Beta Decay
Beta Decay
Emits particle
Charge of nucleus changes
Total number of nucleons stays the same
Moves towards line of stability
Nucleus mass decreases slightly

Beta-Minus (-) Decay
Converts an excess neutron to a proton
Ejects electron (-) and antineutrino ( )

Beta-Plus (+) Decay
Converts an excess proton to a neutron
Ejects positron (+) and neutrino ()

u | + +

+
0
1 1
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
v | + +
+

0
1 1
Y X
A
Z
A
Z
Further Decay Methods
Electron Capture (EC)
Decay
Proton is converted to
neutron
Orbital electron is
captured (from inner K
or L shells)
Neutrino is emitted
X-ray is emitted as outer
shell electron moves to
fill space
v + +

Y e X
A
Z
A
Z 1
0
1
Gamma Decay
Process for excited
nucleus to shed energy
Number of protons and
neutrons does not
change
Possible after any decay
process that leaves
nucleus in excited state
+ X X
A
Z
A
Z
*
The General Reaction Equation
The entire collision process can be represented
by the general collision equation:



A = Incident Particle B = Target Nucleus
(C)* = Compound Nucleus
C = Product Nucleus D = Outgoing Particle

The general collision equation takes the following
form for an induced reaction:
Elastic Scattering
Simplest consequence of a neutron colliding with a nucleus
Occurs with all nuclei at all energies
Kinetic energy and linear momentum are conserved
Nucleus is left in same internal nuclear state, usually the ground state
Inelastic Scattering
Linear momentum conserved, kinetic energy is not conserved
Nucleus captures a neutron and forms a compound nucleus
Neutron departs the compound nucleus leaving energy
behind and a nucleus in an excited state
Nucleus sheds excess energy by emitting inelastic (scattering)
gamma rays
Inelastic Scattering (cont.)
For inelastic scattering to occur, incident
neutron must have kinetic energy greater than
that of the nucleus first excited state
Light mass nuclei (H, He, etc.) have a first
excited state of approximately 1.0 MeV
Heavy mass nuclei (U, Pu) have a first excited
state of approximately 0.1 MeV
Only a minor player in the slowing down
process in water
Radiative Capture
Type of induced reaction where the target
nucleus captures a neutron, emits a gamma
ray, and then becomes a compound nucleus in
the ground state
One of the simplest consequences of a
neutron colliding with a nucleus
Energy of the emitted gamma rays totals that
of the binding energy of the incoming neutron
to the product nucleus (~ 2.25 MeV)
Particle Emission
Nuclei that have captured an incident neutron
may decrease in energy by emitting different
types of particles
These usually consist of alpha and beta
particles
If the product nucleus retains any excitation
energy after releasing a particle, it may decay
by gamma emission
Fission
Process of an atomic nucleus splitting into two
lighter fragments of similar mass
Releases considerable amount of energy
Occurs easily among heavy mass nuclides
Fission occurs as a way to relieve coulomb
repulsion
Addition of a neutron or gamma ray supplies
enough energy to initiate nucleus breakup
Neutrons Released from Fission
Finite number of neutrons released in each fission
event
Some fission events release no fragments, while
some release 5 or 6
Average number of neutrons per fission is 2.43,
which means self sustaining chain reactions are
possible
Two types of neutrons from fission:
Prompt Neutrons
Delayed Neutrons
Prompt Neutrons
Emitted almost instantaneously (within 10
-14

seconds of nucleus breakup)
~ 99.35% of neutrons released from fission
events are prompt neutrons
Appear so quickly that they have little effect
on the time between successive neutron
generations
Delayed Neutrons
~ 0.65% of all fission neutrons
Dramatically increase the effective time
between successive neutron generations
Control the rate at which power can increase
or decrease
Ratio of delayed neutrons to all fission
neutrons is critical in controlling nuclear
reactions
Delayed Neutron Fraction
Number of delayed neutrons relative to all fission
neutrons
| = (# of delayed neutrons) / (all fission neutrons)
Travel shorter distances after release, and are thus
less likely to leak from the reactor
More likely to cause thermal fission because they are
more likely to stay in the reactor
Energy from Fission
About 90% of energy appears instantaneously
at nucleus breakup
The other 10% of energy is delayed, and how
long it is delayed depends on particle half life
Delayed energy can last thousands of years,
which is of large concern for reactor operation
and shutdown
Energy from Fission (cont.)
~ 200 million eV (200 MeV) released in a
single fission reaction
Comparably, a typical chemical combustion
releases ~ 4 eV (1 molecule of coal)
Almost all of the energy released comes in
the form of kinetic energy of these
particles, which is converted to heat as they
pass through and slow down in water