gHAPTER

WAVES
tn Understanding Waves
Wovefronts

1 An oscillating pendulum a system such a simple as or loaded spring swings andfro about fixedposition. to a (A) Amplitude is themaximum (inmeter) displacement of (T) theoscillation. Period is thetime(insecond) taken to complete cycle theoscillation. (f) one of Frequency is the number Hertz) oscillations occur oneperiod. (in of that in T h e r e f o r= Tf o r T = r e, 2 A wavemotionis the phenomenonenergy of transfer facilitatedtheoscillationmoleculesa medium.the by of of lf vibrationthemolecules of isperpendicular direction tothe of the wave motion, wave calledtransverse (such the is a wave wave). themolecules as water lf vibrate parallel the in to wave motion, waveis known a longitudinal the as wave (such sound wave). as graph 3 Graph shows displacement-distanceof a wave A a (in motion. Wavelength m)isthedistance by occupied one complete ofthewave. cycle
DisplocementDistonce Groph (A) Amplitude t1

(')
lml

i''l,on."
.rm

DisplocementTimeGroph (B) Amplitude (m) (s) Time

will After initial system either the disturbance,oscillation an In eventually. carry continuously on or slow down stop and thefirst is or at case, system in resonance oscillatingits the natural frequency. physical mayhaveseveral A system natural frequencieswhich canvibrate it with at easily very little Whenever it of from source. addition energy anexternal vibrates oneof itsnatural frequencies, said bein it is to at resonance.thelater In is known as case, phenomenon the which in damping usually occurs thepresence friction. of Friction against motion progressively the reduces acts and amplitude although frequency the the of theoscillation vibration remains unchanged. 6 Phenomena as reflection, refraction, diffraction and such interference observed a wave are when meets obstacle an phenomena The meets other waves. rules such ora wave of waves areapplicable all transverse longitudinal to and including sound water light, and waves.

Analysing Reflection

i 1 Thelawof reflection states theangle incidence that of equals theangle reflection to of r. Examplesreflection: of

1 wove velocity= 2-r ms-r

Graph shows displacement-time ofa wave. graph B a Wave (in velocity ms-1) thenumber wavelengthsdistance) is (or of thewave advancesonesecond. in Wavelength ), frequency wave f and velocityarerelated v inthewave formula: = f l. v joining thepoints A wavefront animaginary is surface in all space are reached the sameinstant a wave that at by propagating through medium. a plan a In view, waves are oftenrepresenteddiagrams a series lines in by of of wavefront. directions thepropagationthewaves The of of which perpendicular wavefronts usually are tothe are shown assmall arrows.

Incidentol woves

Normql

;
- - J - - -

reflected woves

Thefrequency, remain wavelength speed thewave and of thesame after reflection. the However, direction the the of wave change therefore velocity alsodiffer will and will the after reflection. the

tf,l

Analysing Refraction

patterns: 4 Various diffraction

1 Therefraction waves be demonstrated ripple of can in a tankbychanging water the depth various at region the of water When tank. water waves from travel a deeper section toa shallower itis The section, refracted. waves move slowly inshallow and reduction water the ofspeed causes reduction in wavelength thefrequency while remains unchanged. Wavefronts up on each close other thewaves and bend towards normal theintersection the of 2 Various examples refraction: of
-f '.r

t-+

}.

Interference 3F| Analysing

j,:s 1 Interference ,',-:-.,', -' - -'. ,', occurs , : t h e s a m e m e a t u m = - . - - : ' - = . '= , = d i ' : :s '-i: i.e. have sarrie -=-: . .. .: :- :'. they the ' c o m p l e x p a to fsr n- ' . ?= -- : : : - : . - -: . . : te r o f a m p l i t uw e i l e i r : - . : . , - : " : dh a theyancel ch ther:-::',:-: c a o p r i n c i p lo f s u p e r p o s i t i:o:n: : ' - : e t h r o u g h c h t h e\r' ,: ^ : - : : : - : : : ' ea o m ho d i s p l a c e m etn te f e :- - = '. - . : . - " s i m p l y t s u m ft h e' : . : - : : : : : : he o 2 A ne x p e r i m e n o wa sY c . ' : s : : - : k t n can carried tode-: -::'= : be out

Analysing Diffraction

i---2

Thephenomenon when of diffraction occurs either small a obstacle anobstacle a narrow or with opening placed is in thepath progressing ina ripple of waves tank. effect The of is significant when size theobstacle diffraction only the of or is thegapof theobstacle verysmall cornparison in to the wavelength waves, ofthe Thefrequency, wavelength speed thewaves and of remain thesame after diffraction. the However, direction the the of waves change therefore velocity also will and the will differ after diffraction. waves the The spread as theypass out gap through narrow andtherefore shape the a the of wavefronts changes thediffraction. after Light also is when diffracted it is passed through narrow a slit. theeffect only But is noticeable theslit when width no is more one-hundredth than ofa millimetersuggesting lights that with arewaves verv shortwavelenoth.

lf thedistance behvee' perpendicular :: distar nodes. wavelencr: the

fE|

Understanding Sound Waves

Sound waves which caused vibrations substance, a speaker arelongitudinalnature. are by ofa e.g. cone, in The molecules wobble a direction ofair in parallelthedirectionthetraveling to of sound. Sound wave needs media such asair, water concrete travel and to through.cannot throughvacuum lt go a where media notexist. do T66$eedof sound various in media differs. speed dryair(at0 oc), water 0'c) and concrete 300 s-1,1400 lts in (at in in are m m s-l and5000 s-1 m respectively. Different frequencies differenttheear. sound to High frequencies heard high pitch are as notes while frequency low sounds said beoflow are to pitch. waves large with Sound amplitude appear beloudintheear to while sounds which have small amplitude said besoft. are to Reflection orecho sound provides to measure of a way distance. equation The is
(twice distance thesource thereflection) the from to (speed sound) = 26 of s t (the thesound time takes travel tothesoure,e) to back

Gl

Understanding Electromagnetic Waves

The electromagnetic spectrum a continuous is sequenceallknown of types electromagnetic of radiation, arranged bywavelength ranging theshort from cosmic through rays gamma X-rays, rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible lights, infrared radiation, microwaves, long tothe wavelengths of radio waves. Electromagnetic have properties aswavelength, waves such amplitude, frequency power. and They electric, are magnetic transverse and innature. can They travel through space straight ata speed approximately free in lines of 3 x 108 ms-1(commonly asthespeeo light). energy anelectromagnetic radiating a source known of The of wave from diminishes it travels as outwards is inversely and proportional square itsdistance thesource. tothe of from Wavelengths, and types their respective applications: (m) Wavelength 104 3 x 10-1 to m r'-snt
:,35

10r to 3 x 10-1 m Microwave

1 0 {t o 1 0 rm Infrared

4 x 10'7 to 7x'10t m Visible lights

Types Waves Radio of waves Radio,

Applications TVtelecommunications Telecommunications, photosynthesis, Thermography, Vision, i'adar, cooking oven night vision, heating photography device Wavelength (m) 104 10rm to
10-11 104m to
1 0 - 1t4 1 0 - 1m 1 o

Types Waves Ultraviolet of lights Applications

X-rays

Gamma rays

Money inspection, sterilisation, Radiography, radiotherapy, Destroy cancer sterilisation, cell, pest terminator wielding inspection Pest terminator

gHAPTER

ELECTRICITY
@ Analysing ElectricFieldsand ChargeFlow
1 Basically aretwotypes electric there (+) of charges: positive charge (-) negative and charge. 2 TheS.l,unit electric for (C). is charge Coulomb 3 The charge a proton positive x 10-1e and charge anelectron negative .6x 10-1e A (+1.6 of is (-1 is C) the of C).
neutron nocharge C)andis considered has (0 neutral. object which a higher has number electrons will An of therefore a negatively be gainelectron charged object. Some when rubbed or lose objects easily thus and become negatively charged positively or charged rubbing another with matedal. after Eiectric current represents movementelectric the of charges isdefined therate flow electric and as of of charge. The formula current is | = f wnere isthequantity (I) for Q ofcharge Coulomb t isthetime in and durationSecond. in TheS.l. forcurrent Ampere and1A = '1 (A) unit is Cs-1. Ina solid conductor, electrons flowing thenegative are from But terminalthepositive to terminal. byconvention, thedirection current isconsidered from positivethenegative. of flow flowing the to Electric charges interact each with other. charges while Like repel attract. offorce Lines drawn unlike charges positive from charge negative to is charge used represent interaction. area to In an where there a is such distribution ofelectric charges, lines force anelectric The such of field provide form field. lines anelectric will of anindication path a positive ofthe of chargeit isfree move thefield. if in to Exampleselectric of fields:

4 5 6 7 8

Effect electric of fieldon chorgeping-pong experiment. boll

(o)

(b)

r=t 7?.--r-++

l-6. llll Il,l ,brl F:l*l l-l-F * -l

l- I l+l l- | l+l

F.t

u \

Fl

l -H .l V . + ++

l -H .l V . + ++

Effect eleclric of fieldon chorgecondleflome.

(.) l-+l
l+|
-f /\i l+l +H.V.+

lllKryt-tl l*l J( lT

597/l-l

13

between Relationship Analysing Difference Currentand Potentiat

points (p.d.) difference between'two inanelectric 1 Potential from point a charge one needed move unit to is field thework to another. done W for is formula p.d.(V) V = { wnere isthework 2 The in of inJoule Q isquantitychirge Coulomb. and isVolt(V)and1 V = difference for 3 TheS.l.unit potential 1 JC-1. potential (V) a energy acrossmetal Law thatthe 4 Ohms states (I) proportional current flowing to the is conductordirectly

q)

()
E

Superconduc'c.

o .2 o)

OK

Tc

Temperoture

physical and the it throughprovided temperatureother 6p remain constant: conditions

i.e. - | or lL = constant. V
I

Analysing Series and parallel

Circuits

in are in (f ofthe the constant ) t.nrtsents opposition conductor 1 TheresistorstheFigure connectedseries. 5 The called a flow is current and given name materialthe to electric +Vr+Vz+Vs(R) for The Resistance. formula Resistance isR=f where in in and V isp.d. Volt I iscurrent Ampere. = (A) is Ohm and1 Ohm 1 VA-1. forresistance S.l. 6 The unit (R) include theresistance of a conductor affecting 7 Factors (/),itscross sectional (A),itsmaterial area itslength (0). p) The flows (resistivityanditstemperature p = O* same current through oftheresistors. each l=1,,=lr=1, R {O) R (ei) The ofthep.d. sum across resistor each equals thep.d. to of thesource. = V,+ V2+ V V3 The combined resistance resistorsseries ofthe in equals to thesum theresistance theresistors.= R,+ R, of of all R + Rr.Theeffective resistancecombinatron rn is therefore larger theresrstance than resistor itsown. ofeach on The resistorstheFigure connectedparallel. in are in

L,(,,.inLf,,^.,t
R (O)

;Tl

1,.
(

+Yt, R: t L------:____l

+Vr-

l./
'
Temperorure

-]----------------(current) /

0fc)

Theresistance a conductor dropin tandem its of will with temperature. resistance The ofsome materials even will fall tozero when temperature its is lowered a certain to degree. Such materials called are superconductors. Becausezero of resistance, electrical cunent flow will forever a closed in loop it once is setin motion.

p.d. Thesame is acting ,Ool'r..ur.n resistors. Vr= ofthe V= Vr=V, Thecurrentfrom source I the equals thesum currents to of flowing each in resistor.= l, + lr+l, | Thereciprocalthecombined of resistancetheresistors of inparallelequals sum the tothe of reciprocals resistance ofthe 11'l,I resistor. = Ri * R; * R; . Theeffective of each Rresistance combinationtherefore in is smaller the than resistanceeach of resistor itsown. on

t4

Analysing Electromotive Force and InternalResistance

= 3 TheS.l.unitof Electdc Power Waft(W)and1Watt 1 Js-1. is 4 Theunit energy of measurement byTNB electrical used for consumption is Kilowatt (kwh). Hour Onekilowatt-hour is inequivalent energy the suppliedone in hour anelectrical to power onekilowatt. 2006 appliance whose is From June, TNB chargingrate 21.8 is per for a of cents unit thefirst 200 per will units. rate 28.9 A of cents unit becharged unit for 201 to 1000 when and consumption exceeds kwh,31,2 1000 cents belevied each will on unit. Typical domestic (and appliances theirelectrical power) i n c l u d e :n e r g y - s a vie r t u l b 1 7W ) ,t u n g s t eb u l b E l ghb ( n (40-100 fluorescent (2040 W),radio W), W), (10 tube fan(60W), (80-140 fridge TV (100-130 d t npairW), W), (800-950 rice conditioner (500-800 W), cooker W)"and water (2000 kettle W). ("r) Efficiency of anelectrical appliance bedefined can as
't-l =

: d .o f

: -a l s o t .R, ='efore

I
I I
- '-ents
S S:CTS

An energy-saver bulbis moreenergy light in efficient comparisona tungsten-filamentbulbbecause to light it requires energy less input produce equal to an amount of light. 7 W a y st o i n c r e a s e f f i c i e n c yn d o m e s t ie n e r g y i e c consumption: a) Switchoffwhen in use. a timer possible. it not Use if b) Doenergy efficiency comparison purchase. before Select yournormal onewitha size/capacity meets that need. Useenergy saving alternatives; fluorescent e.g. tube powered instead tungsten and of bulb solar heater instead Anatysing ElectricalEnergyand ffil heater of electrical Power c) Avoid excessive usage as such setting thermostatairof 1 Electrical energy theelectrical potential is gained energy conditionerrefrigerator or atvery temperature. low bya charge anelectric in source. current through As flows a d) Keep appliances in good condition; clean and e.g, filter potential load, electrical the energy thecharge belost of will replace broken seal. door andisconvertedother forms energy asheat, to of such light e) Avoid wastage; boil amount you e.g. an that need instead or sound. rateat which The such energy transformation is of a fullkettle avoid frequent or opening refrigerator of place defined Electric taking is as Power. good door provide insulation air-conditioned or for room. 2 The formulae electrical for (E) electric energy and power (P) arerespectively: E = VQwhere isthep.d. Volt, isthequantitycharge V in Q of inCoulomb P = + where isthetime t duration Second in

Electromotive ore.m.f. short thepotentialan force in is of electric source move to electric charges throughcomplete a circuit. e.m.f. thesource The of indicates total the energy the source capable giving each charge. is of to unit lnternal resistance a cellor an electric of source exists because thepropertiesitselectrolyte itselectrode of of and/or connections.internal The resistance quite isusually low;e.g. about Ohms a drycell. 0.5 for Owing theeffect theinternal to of resistance, p.d. the across the terminals cellwillvary ofa inrelationtheload to connected to it. Inanopen circuit, is noload nocurrent there and flow, thep.d. across internal the resistance p.d iszero hence and across terminal the equals thee.m.f. thecell. the to of In case a load, of there current resulting is flow a certain amount ofvoltage across intemal drop the resistance. , thep.d. ./ Hence across terminal belower thee.m.f. thecell. te will than of Referto Figure,= E- I rwhere isthee.m,f.,isthe the V E V p.d. across terminals, thecurrent I is flowing r is the and internal resistance. -----r i-----

useful energy output

total energy input power useful output x100% T = total power input

x 100 %

: = ^t h e

15

gHAPTER

ELECTROMAGNETISM
m
4 A simple motor Figure D.C. in below shows turning the effect a couple of carryingConductor forces ortwoopposite acting two on Anelectromagnet temporary isa magnet caused current flowing a conducin by s i d eo ft h e o i l i t h e a q n e t i c f i e l d . s c n m tor. patterns magnetic proCucedcurrent-carrying The field of by conductors depend ontheshape theconductorsshown Frgure of as in below.

Anatysing Magnetic the Effectof a Current-

Commulotor

( o )A l o n gs t r o i g h t i r e w

( b )A s i n g l eo o p l

(c)A solenoid

grip The right-hand rule grips coil wire the states iftheright that hand with a of fingers thedirectionthecurrent thethumb point thenorth of pole in of flow, will to theelectromagnet. r,vith the The strength magnetic ofanelectromagnet of field increases (a) number (b) of turns thecoil, a larger in current (c)thetype core and a of such iron, as Electroff,| Anaiysing ferromagnetic material. m a g n e t i cn d u c t i o n l 5 Applicationselectromagnet magnetic electric earpiece of include relay, bell, M a g n e t i ci n d u c t i o ni s t h e and circuit breaker. phe^:-e'c^ lnat a relative

5 T h e s p e e do f r o t a t i o n f a D . C . o motor :e a' ..' .: cvcha nging t he ca' force :^e ::-: e i he str engtof of h 'e rnagneti c a ' .' eS :Ze cur r ent of cr t h el e n g t r ' : ' e : c , o r i h et u r n i n g c effect c:' :' :^e :c i t {\\'

ff,|

Understanding Forceon a Current-carrying the

Conductorin a MagneticField

rrv!E

m a g n e i ' e ' J p r o d u c e s e . m . fi .n i an
iho , .o

s . - s . , , s c l ' a W I f ea n O a
A ' ^ A I T A A

1 When electromagnet an isplaced a magnet, interaction magnetic near the oftwo fields oroduces a force theconductorshown Fiqure on as in below.

ht

ffi@ i-'l
26

,3

Fleming's left-hand states if thethumb first fingers theleftrule that and two of hand held right are at angle each gives directionthe to other, thumb the the of force, forefinger the shows directionmagnetic andthemiddle the of field finger points thedirectioncurrent. in of The magnitude theforce of increases with (a)thestrengththemagnetic of field, (b)thesize current of and (c)thelength theconductor. of

' N l a g , i:e : l - : t o n i s c a u s eb Ya d n c h a n gie t n em a g n e t f cu xo n a il ( h c o n d r , l cao r i t sm a g n i t u dte e t nd ,ncjuced f ) increases (a) with the erate change themagnetic flux, of of (o) the field of sirengththemagnetic (c) and thelength theconductor. of F a r a d a y 'L a w s t a t e sh a tt h e s t i n d u c ee . m . fi.n a c o n d u c t io r d s proportional rateat directly to the which conductor through the cuts lines themagnetic field. of Lenz's states theinduced Law that flows a direction in current always that the such itopposes change that iscausing it. F l e m i n g 'rsg h t - h a n d l es t a t e s i ru thatif thethumb firsttwofingers and are at of theright-hand held right

: ::0W
nlA

'-'ed.

angle each to middle other, finger points thedirectiontheinduced in of current, forefinger the shows the direction magnetic andthe of field gives direction theforce. thumb the of A p p l i c a t i oo fs l e c t r o m a g n e t i c ne i n d u c t i on c l u dA . C .a n d D . C . in e generators convert which mechanical energy electricitytherotation into by ofconductor ina magnetic coils field as shown Figure and(b)as in (a) shown below.

I
A s i m p l e . C .g e n e r o t o r D
a. J .\J.

A transformer consistsa primary of c o i la n da s e c o n d ac y i lw o u n d ro passes aroundcommon which a core thefluxfromthe primary to and coil through secondary the coil. A s t e p - d o wtn a n s f o r mh a sa r er ( h i g h en u m b e rf t u r n s N oi)n i t s r o primary andaninput (Vo) coil voltage willproducelower voltage a output atitssecondary coilwhile a step-up transformer a higher has nu,mber of (N,) turns in secondary also and a h i g h eo u t p uv o l t a g ( V " ) n i t s r e i t secondarv coil.

5 --N; = j. Inideal transformer, Vo

V"l.= P Panditsefficiency s s V^l^ =1UU%r
-ll.'o/,,

'

vl

PP

vt

=100%.

_- : t h e
:-l.l Of
: iul

.. -"tt-lg A s i m p l e . C .g e n e r o t o r A

:ion
r
:

:ne
-- \/o

:-l a
:
,

'- i

in
i l I

u -l a I l: :ne I
l':he I
[.f'f - i

'JX.
old

: , ,.cr. , the
IJ

.--. ^+
:..= dt

A direct current always inone flows d i r e c t i oa n d i t h a s c o n s t a n t n amplitude ile nalternating wh a c u r r e n tf l o w si n t w o o p p o s i t e directions alternativelyconstant ata frequency. The amplitude A.C. ofan voltage can bespecifiedthree in ways: (a)peak peak ? value to (V*o between maximum minirnum); and (b)peak a value (V^ between maximum zero); anb and (c)root-mean-squar which (V,,". gives same the amount power of transfer a D.C. thesame as of = value).V2xVandV =
V'P'PPr'm.s. p

, I n p r a c t i c ee n e r g yI o s s i n transformers occurs to oartial due flux linkagethe in coils also and heat loss conductor from resistance, from eddy current magnetization and and demagnetization core. ofthe W a y s o i m p r o v er a n s f o r m e r t t efficiency include (a) using thicker wire lower coil to the resistance, (b)using sheets laminated thin of c o r em a t e r i ao r e d u c e d d y tl current, (c)using magnetic soft material to reduce frommagnetization loss and demagnetization and (d)using closed design the loop a for in core addition arrangement toan of winding coilaround one the other improve linkage. flux to

- '-

Understanding the Generationand Transmission of Electricity

Sources energy generation of for of electricity either are nonrenewable power sources are which nuclear and fossil fuels renewable or sources such hydropower, power, as wind s o l a rp o w e ra n d e n e r g y r o m f processes. biological

Jgn

\T

- _-ceo ::l 0n

ffil

Analysing
Transformers

d M o s te l e c t r i c i its p r o d u c eb y y g e n e r a t o r sr i v e n y r o t a t i n g d b which maybe turned by turbines s t e a m .w a t e r .w i n d o r o t h e r intermediate carrier. energy A transmission system consists of (a)a first high voltage stage very of lines long beoverhead over distance tween step-up transformers at the power plant theNational Grid and (b) Network, several intermediate stages theGrid substations from to g throu h step-down transformers and overhead cables (c)a last and stage which of distribution is thedelivery from substations consumers to the through overhead underground or cables. I n p o w e trr a n s m i s s i o nC .i s A. , p r e f e r r e d v e r D . C .b e c a u s e o transformers beused obtain can to e h i g hv o l t a g efs r t h e p u r p o so f o achieving flow smaller current and lower energy inthe loss transmssion cables. generatedthe Most thepower of in is country suppled theNational to GridNetwork thepurpose with of better control higher in and efticiency distribution alsomore and reliable plant in supply theevent a local of failure maintenance. or Shortages energy of fuels create economic political which and crisis and affect lifeofeveryone thereby the make realize importance us the ofa renewable source. energy y T h ei m p a c t sh a tp r i m a rp o w e r t o l a n t h a v e n t h ee n v i r o n m e n t s o include power plants polluting (a)nuclear the a t m o s o h ewe t hr a d i o a c t i v e ri nuclides, (b)fossil-fueled causing plants acid rain global and warming and (c)hydroelectric drastically dams landscape ecology altering and of life svstems.

: ., LUJ t - -prq
1 " ' v

:' 'nht

1 Mutual inductionthe is electromagnetic inductiona coilwhen is of it placed toanother has near which an alternating flowing it. current in

27

GRfrPHICORGfrIIlSER3'|::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ,i1i"""""""""""""""
i:i:

r::: Name the rules in Box A, B and C. Complete the equationsin box D and E

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Analysing the Magnetic Effect of a Current-carrying Conductor

--_------- North pole

Current

i
I

Understanding
B MogneticT field ,/

the force on a current-carrying

Conductor in a Magnetic Field

Current

tl

-Force

Analysing Electromagnetic

Induction

field rr

\| . Induced current \l

____l

Analysing Tbansformer

Ideal transformer VpI _

I
|

\=l
Vp p = l
n VI = 100 x7-!\ \/l Vo=

I I
I Vo I
I

Understanding

the Generation and Thansmission of Electricity

Nonrenewable energy sources National Grid Svstem

Renewable energ"y sources Power Tlansmission

38

gHAPTER

ELECTRONICS
- - - : r so f
- :: lhe
: aat'

- :cted

: ' ::'

- -er ' - -mber ' narkl

'rn2rkl
I

-jl

..:
l = . , , r bl e . io the

,-..

,.

,lr,Ofk

' 'ne rkl

11 The structurea cathode oscilloscope of ray (C.R.O.)shown Figure is in below. 12 lt hasthree parts: electron a deflection main gun, an system a fluorescent and screen. 1 A material offcharged gives particles 13 An electron consists a filament heating cathode; cathode gun of (for the a (to w h e n i t i s h e a t e dt o a h i g h produce cathode beams); grid reduce amount electrons ray a wire (to the going of temperature.iscalled This thermionic through brightness and control) twoanodes to accelerate electrons and (one the emission theparticles called and are andanother focus for control). thermions. 14 A deflection system consists twosets parallel of plates control vertical of to the 2 T h et h e r m i o n s i t t e d c r e a s e em in andhorizontal deflections beam. ofthe rapidly respect temperature. 15 Theinner with to surface thetube of coated zincsulphide with forms fluorescent the 3 A typical thermionic apparatus has (which screen converts kinetic energy light). to twospaced-out electrodes inside 16 Light emitted that a is by materialtheinstant electrons it. at that hit gas-filled tube. glass 17 Anoscilloscope isbasically a device which displays a graph anelectrical of signal 4 Onemetal plate serves anode as and shows signals it how change time. over while another (typicallytungsten 18 Common include a uses measurement of voltages, measurement of short time filament a coated or filament else or intervals frequency display waveforms. or and of a m e t a l p l a t e c o a t e dw i t h a c o m p o u nid i t h a s a s e p a r a t e f filament) serves cathode. as o o 5 An electrical supply used the is for .) filament heating while highp.d. a .) s u p p l yi s p u t a c r o s st h e t w o o o electrodespromote to electron flow. 3 6 A galvanometer in series the with circuit measures current the flow. 7 B y h e a t i n go r n o t )t h e f i l a m e n t ( coupled changing polarities with the Understanding Semiconductor Diodes @ ofthehigh across electrodes, p.d. the experiment be carried to can out 1 A semiconductoris a material whose conductivity between ofa metal lies that and confirm emission electrons. the of aninsulator. 8 Cathode raysare beams fast 2 ltsconductivity of is affected temperature, by exposure light itscontent to and of moving electrons. impurities. I Theproperties cathode are 3 The of ray outer orbits theatoms a material thenumber electrons of of and of inhabiting studied through various cathode ray inthem determine conductivity material. the ofthe (C.R.T.)such Maltese 4 The tubes as the outer orbits bedivided energy can into bands:conduction and valence a band a cross fube, deflection and the fube band anenergy separating with gap them. thePerrin tube. 5 A semiconductor fully has a occupied valence with smallenergy tothe band a gap 10 ltsproperties include: conduction makinga poor band it conductor. . lt moves a straight in line 6 But electrons valence can inthe band acquire sufficient (from energy increase In . lt possesses negative charge temperature orexposurelight) jump to to across gap move theconduction the to in . l t p o s s e s s e s o m e n t u mn d m a band conduct and electricity. energy 7 Examplessemiconductors silicon germanium, of which of include and each has . lt is deflected a magnetic by field four electrons outer ofthevalence inthe orbit band. . lt is deflected an electric by field 8 A silicon germanium can or atom share four its electrons incovalent with bonds its and neighbors formingregular a crystal lattice. . lt produces fluorescence it when 9 Electrons inhabiting valence arecalled inthe band valence electrons. strikesluminescent a screen. 10 Their departure creates (unoccupied inthecrystal holes space) lattice.

Understanding the Uses the C.R.O. of

T c

(t,

39

indicates in Thearrow thesymbols junction conducts current diode positive 3 A p-n to are 11 Holes used represent current of directionconventional the but rd intheforwa direction notinthe flow of carriers current in charge circuit. flowin a transistor reverse direction. semiconductors. 't4 circuit, transistor thecharge Ina PNP will input a diode therefore to AnA.C. properties semiof 1 2 Theelectrical flow and areholes they tna carriers p r o d u c a D . C .o u t P ua n dt h i s e t c conductors an be changed of thearrow. direction rectification. process called is in a bydoping,process dramatically that as functrons a terminal Emitter uses rectifier onlyone percentage offoreign 25 A haltwave a which small "emits" charge carriers. "half-wave" the is andit named diode crystal to is atoms added theregular that as functionsa terminal Collector the it only because converts positive of lattice thesemiconductor. "collects" while inthe midbase them into wave D.C. of A.C. half the arsenic of atoms antimony, 1 3 lmpurity controls which as dleserves a layer r r r p h o s p h o r o u sh i c hh a v e5 2 6 A b r i d g e e c t i f i eh o w e v ec a n w or theflow. rectification. producefull-wave a to when electrons, added valence a Ptransistor, of of arrangement 1 0 Inthecase a NPN produce n'type 27 lt hasaningenious germanium, or silicon an between is base sandwiched type wilt two by diodes which ofthem by semiconductors contributing four collector and emitter ann-type n-type direction. be always ina fonruard in electronsthelattice. extra "emitted" carriers andthe charge flows always in current resultant aluminum 28 The of atoms boron, 1 4 lmpurity instead are the from emitter electrons the through load. direction thesame whichhave3 valence or gallium of holes. of is current a series p'type 29 Therectified produce when electrons added of with lr^ surges briefPeriods zero extra by semiconductorscreating At tnbetween. current deficiencies. holes electron or lP put is capacitoroften across is semiconductor 30 A large a 1 5 When p-type {nl andto the loadto act as a filter with placed contact an n{YPe in l-v-l p IF out smooth thesurges. is a p-n semiconductor, junction uP charges as the 31 Thecapacitor formed. NPN lronsistor PNPtronsistor up builds to itspeak voltage rectified with by is 1 6 A diode made doping both C p.d. across and the 11 A posrtive applied through and value discharges so of types impurities thata P-n no transistor E of a NPN Produces itsPeak from the load once ACfalls junction formed a pure crystal. from is is the junction flow current since C-B t t o z e t o , k e e P i n gh e c u r r e n t of diffusion energy-powered 1 7 Thermal biased. reverse justa riPPle. to fluctuation at initially occur and electrons holes forward whena small has 12 However, rectifier D.C. a junction a layer developing called 32 The from full-wave the p.d. simultaneously biasing isapplied than ripple thatof a halfa smaller of the region, p-side which depletion t o t h e B - E j u n c t i o nt,h e N P N its since capacitor waverectifier ions negative left is eventually with like will transistor behave a current twice and charges discharges asoften positive ions. n-side and ora switch. amplifier wave. of A.C. each is zone completely during cycle the the 18 Inequilibrium, junction bias 1 3 Theforward oftheB-E or free of depleted any electron hole to emitter doped heavily the causes a Understanding a n d t h e i o n s i n i t i n h i b i t n Y !f,| the across junction electrons supply or byelectronsholes. encroachment Transistors layer. tothebase biased to is A diode said bereverse 19 in available j u n c t i otn a n s i s t os a d e v i c e 1 4 The ir quantitytheholes of r 1 A it across is when voltage apPlied a is type layer far base ofone of layer doped theslightly ofa consisting thin w i t h t h e n e g a t i v eP o l a r i t Y across. coming sandwiched less the uctor than electrons semicond material on the P-electrode. connected with of combine laYers the 1 5 While electrons two some between thicker and bias the 20 A reverse pulls electrons base producingsmall a type. theholes opposite away the further from depletion holes of is one flow the transrstor withan ncurrent (lo), majority the w i d e ra n d 2 A PNP i z o n em a k i n gt e v e n (1") two between from layer sandwiched type electrons theemitter travel to its greatly increasing resistance laYer go and p{ype laYers, the outer through thinbase flow. current the (because its of is layers called of outside intothe collector One the polarities reversed, are lfthevoltage the is a relatively positive producing p.d,) (E) the emitter and other called biased. to is the diode said beforward layer flow the (C) current (lc). larger collector collector while middle direction Thep.d.in the forward l. (B). l.t isthebase 16 Therefore l. t loand = l. + lo. the in electrons overcoming assists t w a J u n c t i o n sr e p l a c e s h e r e h e 1 7 S i n c ea s m a l ll o P r o d u c ea s charge of barrier thespace coulomb joins and larger the corresponding 1., transistor emrtter thebase thebase produces region depletion and inthe joins collector. n i s s a i dt o f u n c t i o a s a c u r r e n l the with of conduction current verysmall rr o amolifier. T h es y m b o lfs r t r a n s i s t o as e resistance. b. a in shown Figureand
^tl
R _

t-

- I lates : -rrent
- -

' : , v t na - 3 i t hat - althat -emid: l r lr0ls s :r a p, , ' , : ea n n : : Lec t o r =- i tt ed" . ^stead

C -,7.\

"'Y"

1 8 W h e nt h e B - E f o r w a r d i a si s b removed, fallto lowill zero. 1 9 l. andl. willfollow fallto zero and because thereverse of the of bias junction. C-B 20 The collector current therefore can be t u r n e d n o r o f f b y a p p l y i no r o g removing forward ontheBthe bias E terminals making transistor the to behave a switcn. like 21 Figuresto d show a application of a transistor a current as amplifier, a l i g h tc o n t r o l l es w i t c ha h e a t d , c o n t r o l l es w i t c h n d a s o u n d d a controlled switch respectively.

implementations of complex operations logic needed theconstruction for of computers other electronic and systems, 6 There five logic are basic gates:AND, NOT, NAND NCR. OR, and 7 Their and tables shown Figuretoe. symbols truth are in a

lnDUt::A InPnt..,gutput o x
0 0
1 1

A Input.',.B Output x
0 0 1
1

0
4

0 0

0 1
n

0
1
4

n U

0
1

1
AND gote

1
OR gote

NOT gote

A--f---__\
IFX B-l____J

0utput r,pul oUtpul lnpulInflut 'ln.Fut ':,:,1:':',"fi ,:,],:,,,,,X],,,,:, .,,. . . . . 4 ' l ,.:,1..,...Ell.,.X ' 4,:,.. ,ttt,,',',, NAND oote 1 n I 0 0 0 A--J---l n 4 1 0 0 1 p-x I s--I___J 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
,l
I

NOR gote

._\/
E

gates becombinedthe Logic can for purposeproducing complex more of functions orforthesubstitution type gate another. ofone of for 9 Truth tables often (insteps) work thefunction a combinationgates. are used to out of of 1 0 Figure gates. below shows simple a example thecombination logic of oftwo

:: UanO : - t e sn o t _- : l t 0 n s ': .vvard

. - - -^,

tn:put ' a ,,lnput G 'B

0 0 1

Xi.,=C'A

.,Ontgut,

Combinotionof two logic gotes

.: :Uu)ly

,^tU

-= NPN ? rJrrent

1 0 0 A 0 1 0 B 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 11 Some applications gates control oflogic in systems include safety system, street lightings security and system. 12 Anexample a 2-inputs circuit beonethatwould onthefireextinAND of can turn guisher both heat when the detector thesmoke and sensor inputs triggered are simultaneously. 1 3 Street lightings turned bya 2-inputs gate, inputs which a are on OR the of are AnalysingLogic signal a time from clock a signal a daylight and from sensor. Gates 1 4 A combination NOT two gates a simple ofone for and AND dual-switch security system shown Figure in below, which would unlock door the when switches both gate A logic isanelementary building areonorsound alarm thehidden an if switch notturned is on. block digital of circuits. It is an arrangementelectronic of switches theimplementation for of Boolean calculations. logic gates one Logic have output one and ormore inputs. Every terminal a logic gateis of always oneof the two binary in conditions: (0orfalse) high low (1 or ortrue), representeda lowanda by high voltage respectively. Anassemblythe of various gate logic combinations nables the e
SwitchI

B
Switch2 (o hidden switch)

r travel : ' a n Og O -se of its , ': atively ,, c) :l+l

: o.

--res a =."rrsistor : -,;rrent

Only 1 switch ison Both switches on are

fi 0 0 1
1

B
0
I

c
1

0
1

0
1

,,,Outpttt.. ..,:OutpUt.. .X*'..t,'BV.,*,At',,B 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 l0

ON ON

41

gHAPTER

KADIOACTIVITY
m Understanding the
Nucleus an Atom of
(Li) 3 15 For of Lithium :1; has example, andI ii areisotopestheelement !ti protons 3 (=6-3) and neutrons. neutrons ]1; has3 protons 4 (=7-3) while and

is 1 An atom thesmallest of a unit Decay Analysing Radioactive element hasitsown sp| that chemical properties. chemical process which by 1 Radioactivity and orradioactive isa natural spontaneous decay 2 Atoms made of fhree are major up particles or disintegrate emitenergetic and theunstable of atoms an element particles: proton, of types subatomic photonstheform ionizing radiations. in of neutron electron. and more energy make atoms stable a state lower at of 2 Such emission either would the s 3 P r o t o na n dn e u t r o n s ,o t ha r e b (while and form) change nucleus or the completely thus retaining original the known nucleons, as make the up producedifferent a element. massive dense, atomic nucleusthe 3 When later in nucleus is and nucleus called parent the happens, decaying the the while centre electrons a cloud form is nucleus. theresultantcalled daughter the orbiting arround nucleus. the products. particles thedaughter 4 The nucleus known decay are as and emitted 4 Electrons have negative a charge 5 Three and decays alpha are decay, decay gamma beta common radioactive and the are least massivethe of three. emission. 5 Protons have positive a charge and 6 Alpha is with neutrons two in a and protons decay a processwhich particle two is 1836 massive are about times more from ejected thenucleus. than electrons neutrons, while which 7 Theparticleidenticalthenucleus a helium is to of atom have mass a equal theprotons, 8 Beta to is from is in an decay a processwhich electronemitted thenucleus. no carry charge. particle nucleus losses its also I During process emitting or beta of alpha the the 6. Every formof arrangementthe of pulses electromagnetic and process is radiation the excess energy emitting by of particles an atom subatomic in is gamma called emission. called nuclide. a (lodine-131)gamma (Radium-226) decay 10 Examples beta and ofalpha decay and 7 Nuclidesdifferent of elements differ (Radium respectively: written formula asfollows in are emission C-214) i n t h e n u m b eo f t h e s u b a t o m i c r 'i2i$,Rr,.+rioq.R*..+..1..tt;,6|:t',.,,,.,t;,!;':,;,'t, particles contain, particularly they the .'''' number protons. of ..lltll'.1,..'''..*.llfl|'L,,,:",',;,;*"r!';ei""';',:"""L"""' 8 Nuclides thesame 2$Bi of element also -+'#Pu -1C;:t + in exist more one than form. 9 T h e yh a v et h e s a m en u m b eo f 11 Thecharacteristics r emissions summarized are below. ofradioactive protons differ the number but in of decay Beta ErnisCion ChaiacteiiiticS Alphadecay Garn,nra neutrons. (-ve) (no Electron (Charge) Helium Particle Photon charge) (+vs1 10 Nuclides thesame of element with numbers neutron different of are Symbol or .feor.!B I !He lcr isotopes. called Approximate mass 4 proton mass -kJ o proton 11 A notation, the Nit called atomic symbol, Io MASSES isdevised distinguish isotope to one Weak Very weak lonising effect Strong from another. power 7 cmin air 3 mmin aluminum 15cminlead 12 Thenumber protons an atom, in Penetrating of (or A, is called atomic the number glass, Plastic, light Dense metal, material Paper, Shielding skin, proton number). metals Earth concrete, clothes 13 Thetotalnumber profons of and Effect a of deflection Noeffect Small deflection Large inan neutrons atom, is called Z, the magnetic field (or nucleon number mass number). ll^t^ltofi speed of Up Speed 14 Hence, nuclide anelement the X of "y'" 10 of Speed light light of light speed is representedlX . by
<)

12 Common detectors forthedetectionradioactivity sparks used include of counter,

gold-leaf Geiger-Muller cloud tube, chambers, electroscope, scintillation detector NuclearEnergy (sodium plates/films. iodide) photographic and 1 3 Figurebelow a shows schematic Geiger-Muller andFigureshows 1 A t o m i c a s su n i t .o r a . m . u .i , the s ofa m tube b thetracks thethree of types radiationa cloud in of to of chamber. defined be* ofthemass one of carbon-1 2, atom isotop5 Thinmico .Argongos ot low pressure It is a unitoftenused express to + and masses. atomic molecular 450 V x is 1.993 Themass carbon-12 of 10'6kgandtherefore
tu Aluminum be cothode
Centrewire onode

Understanding

Y i a.m.u.;r'1.661g+r:1n.

: , ,vhich ::es0r
' : rtarn\/ "'VJ

- : thus

=-Sand ,-:ts. gamma

_.,it5 tD

:
.-^^^ .::=) i{^ ll,J

: , E S SI S

: : r nm a

*;t _1
:':3) -f
I

--l
I

Radioactive results a loss in decay is ofmass, which converted toenergy formula according the Einstein t to ltll \r E=mCwhere is energy joules, in E \\\'/ (D m is mass kilograms c isthe in (D and s q u a r e f t h e s p e e d f l i g h ti n o o CX, v = v a c u u imm s -(1 3 x 1 0 8 m s - l . n )2 Thick stroight ond T h i no n d i r r e g u l o r Shortond scottered When nucleus fissions, itsplits into a b twoor more nuclei. smaller 14 The ofradioactivity isunaffected chemical rate decay bythe change ortemperature. Intheprocess, orthree neutrons two 15 However, activity theaverage the per or number disintegrationsecond a of in arealso emitted thesumofthe and radioactive isalways proportional number theremaining decay tothe of nuclei. masses thefragments than of isless 16 Thehalf-life a radioactive of material bedefined thetime can as required the for theoriginal mass. materialdecay half itsinitial to to of value. About Yo theoriginal is mass 0.1 of 17 Thehalf-livessome of radioactive materials 7 x 108 years Uranium-235, l o s ta n d c o n v e r t eid t oe n e r g y are for n -226, -24,52 years Radium 15hours Sodium 1620 for for seconds Radon-220 for accordingEinstein's to equation, and x 10-7 3 seconds Polonium-212. for Since in theformula relatively C is 18 Carbon-dating application haltlife isan propertyradioactive ofthe of materials. large value, bigamount energy in a of canbeobtained a fraction the from of s m a t e r i a h r o u g t h e p r o c e so f tl h the of sf,l Understanding Uses Radioisotopes nuclear fission. lsotopes nuclides have same are which the atomic number butdifferinthe mass A nuclear reaction chain refers a to number. process which in neutrons released 2 Radioisotopes areradioactive isotopes. p e i n f i s s i o n r o d u ca n a d d i t i o n a l ,l!Ra 3 Some radioisotopes naturally aslH, ,3:U, occur such and !iRb. fission atleast further in one nucleus. 4 Some radioisotopes producedneutron are artificially by fission activation, product 10 T h i sn u c l e u sn t u r n p r o d u c e s i particle separation orcharged bombardment. neutrons theprocess and repeats, produced 5 Examplesartificially of radioisotopes are}iio,iiMn,11Na 1lll. and 11 Theprocess becontrolledin may as 6 The followings some theapplications show of ofradioisotopes various inthe fields: power nuclear reactor uncontrolled or asinnuciear bombs. Arsaof Application Ra.di6iSol0p,gs AppliCafione 12 Figure showssimplified a diagram of Medicine l o d i n e -1 3 1 1. used treat to thyroid disorders a nuclear eactor here hain w c 2. Cobalf60 2. sterilize surgical instruments r e a c t i o n f n u c l e af i s s i o ns o r i Agriculture 1. Phosohorus-32 molecular 1. biology genetics research and controlled generate to electrical 2. Selenium-75 2. protein studies lifescience in research energy. Archaeology 1 . C a rb o n -1 4 1. dating archaeological 1 3 Uranium-235 is used fueland of as artifact graphic blocks cavities as with serve lndustry 1 . C e s i u m -1 3 7 1. tomeasure liquid inoilpipelines the flow (r t h e m o d e r a t o c o n t r o lo d s ) o r t 2. Throium-230 2. Provides glazes fluorescence incolored control neutrons. the

) -+\l)t/ i \//J
\\ J/

-\l

\ \ \ t , l / tl ' , , ' \\r\, \\,/.' "

I

I t.

53

water as acts or dioxide cold 1 4 Carbon out the totransfer heat toturn coolant thegenerator. is source often of 1 5 Shortage energy justify theuseof nuclear for used to power which risks accident of while lives loss human and in willlead to are of environment contamination nuclear used considerations against reactor.
Controlrod drive

Hot coolqnt to heot excnongers

Coolont

Cool coolont from heot exchongers

by fusionis theprocess 1 6 Nuclear after nuclei combine which multiple to colliding highspeed forma at nucleus. heavier high1 7 Itonly in occurs theextremely conditions. energy temperature and fu e 1 8 Nuclear sion f light lements o releases energy astheprocess such powers sunand stars. which the the 1 9 Hydrogen explosion bomb iscaused 2 b y f u s i o no f H y d r o g e n -a n d Hydrogen-3 Helium-4. into

sf|

Proper Management
of Radioactive Substances

1 Radioactive materials damage deor living are stroy cells therefore and hazardous beinq. to human

paper, tools, clothmust materials there- 8 ltcomprises rags, Allradioactive contain and ing,filters etc.which labeled precauand fore clearly be short-lived of amounts mostly small approsigns, as such warning tions radioactivity. and priate and building itslocality but to the proper to containercontain ma- 9 lt is notdangerous handle, in of be must disposedbyburial shalterials. sites. lowlandfill and shielding provehicles, Special or compactedincinerated to gears beprovidedpro- 10 lt is often must tective disbefore incinerator in a closed aswell the tect environment asthe posal. people the handling substance. waste properly, radioactive11 lntermediate-level contains lf notmanaged and of higher amounts radioactivity the contaminateenvimaterials can inhandling. shielding special requires time get fora long and into ronment chemrresins, comprises will to which lead seri- 12 lt typically food chain our ' and reactor components calsludge, cataract, such ous sicknesses aseye from materials reactor contaminated and mutation. cancer cell decommissioning. classiwastes Radioactive normally or inconcretebi13 lt may solidified be or medium-level fiedas low-level, for tumen disposal. to wastes, accordingthe high-level waste short-lived (mainly in of and amount types radioactivity 1 4 Generally but isburied, long-lived reactors) from them. nuclear (from reprocessing waste principles emgeneral are Three underof will fuel) bedisposeddeep ployed themanagement of radioin ground. active wastes: may thespent be waste (i) concentrate-and-contain: 1 5 High-level waste fuelitself theprincipal from or and is thewaste concentrated the materials. reprocessingfuel then isolated: fisthe (ii) dilute-and-disperse: 1 6 It contains highly-radioactive heavy eleand sionproducts some to is thewaste diluted accepf 17. radioactivity, with discharged ments long-lived levels then and able amount aconsiderable of Itgenerates and totheenvironment, as as cooling well heat requires and (iii) delay-and-decay: and during shielding handling special and is thewaste stored itsradiotransport. to is activity allowed decrease inside be 1 7 Thewaste should sealed naturally. glass stainless steelcanfrom special and is Low-level waste generated deep disposal unisters eventual for industry, and laboratories, hospitals, derground. fuel thenuclear cycle.

54