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* 1.1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ?p. 4 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/1/WHAT-IS-PHYSICS> * 1.1 What is physics ?p. 4 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/2/What-is-physics> * 1.2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICSp. 5 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/3/SCOPE-AND-EXCITEMENT-OF-PHYSICS> * 1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETYp. 8 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/4/PHYSICS-TECHNOLOGY-AND-SOCIETY> * 1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE*p. 9 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/5/FUNDAMENTAL-FORCES-IN-NATURE> * 1.5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWSp. 13 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/6/NATURE-OF-PHYSICAL-LAWS> * 2.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 19 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/7/INTRODUCTION> * 2.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITSp. 19 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/8/THE-INTERNATIONAL-SYSTEM-OF-UNITS> * 2.1 Introductionp. 19 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/9/Introduction> * 2.2 The international system of unitsp. 19 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/10/The-international-system-of-units> * 2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTHp. 21 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/11/MEASUREMENT-OF-LENGTH> * 2.4 MEASUREMENT OF MASSp. 24 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/12/MEASUREMENT-OF-MASS> * 2.5 MEASUREMENT OF TIMEp. 25 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/13/MEASUREMENT-OF-TIME> * 2.6 ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTp. 25 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/14/ACCURACY-PRECISION-OF-INSTRUMENTS-AND -ERRORS-IN-MEASUREMENT> * 2.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURESp. 30 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/15/SIGNIFICANT-FIGURES> * 2.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIESp. 34 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/16/DIMENSIONS-OF-PHYSICAL-QUANTITIES> * 2.9 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONSp. 34 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/17/DIMENSIONAL-FORMULAE-AND-DIMENSIONALEQUATIONS> * 2.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONSp. 35 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/18/DIMENSIONAL-ANALYSIS-AND-ITS-APPLICAT IONS> * 3.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 42 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/19/INTRODUCTION> * 3.2 POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND DISPLACEMENTp. 42 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/20/POSITION-PATH-LENGTH-AND-DISPLACEMENT > * 3.3 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEEDp. 45 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/21/AVERAGE-VELOCITY-AND-AVERAGE-SPEED> * 3.4 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEEDp. 46 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/22/INSTANTANEOUS-VELOCITY-AND-SPEED> * 3.5 ACCELERATIONp. 48 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/23/ACCELERATION> * 3.6 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTIONp. 50 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/24/KINEMATIC-EQUATIONS-FOR-UNIFORMLY-ACC ELERATED-MOTION> * 3.7 RELATIVE VELOCITYp. 54 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/25/RELATIVE-VELOCITY> * 4.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 68 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/26/INTRODUCTION> * 4.2 SCALARS AND VECTORSp. 68 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/27/SCALARS-AND-VECTORS>

* 4.1 Introductionp. 68 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/28/Introduction> * 4.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL NUMBERSp. 70 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/29/MULTIPLICATION-OF-VECTORS-BY-REAL-NUM BERS> * 4.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS GRAPHICAL METHODp. 70 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/30/ADDITION-AND-SUBTRACTION-OF-VECTORS-% E2%80%94-GRAPHICAL-METHOD> * 4.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORSp. 72 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/31/RESOLUTION-OF-VECTORS> * 4.6 VECTOR ADDITION ANALYTICAL METHODp. 74 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/32/VECTOR-ADDITION-%E2%80%93-ANALYTICALMETHOD> * 4.7 MOTION IN A PLANEp. 75 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/33/MOTION-IN-A-PLANE> * 4.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATIONp. 78 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/34/MOTION-IN-A-PLANE-WITH-CONSTANT-ACCEL ERATION> * 4.9 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO DIMENSIONSp. 79 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/35/RELATIVE-VELOCITY-IN-TWO-DIMENSIONS> * 4.10 PROJECTILE MOTIONp. 80 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/36/PROJECTILE-MOTION> * 4.11 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTIONp. 82 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/37/UNIFORM-CIRCULAR-MOTION> * 5.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 92 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/38/INTRODUCTION> * 5.3 THE LAW OF INERTIAp. 93 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/39/THE-LAW-OF-INERTIA> * 5.4 NEWTONS FIRST LAW OF MOTIONp. 94 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/40/NEWTON%E2%80%99S-FIRST-LAW-OF-MOTION> * 5.5 NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTIONp. 96 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/41/NEWTON%E2%80%99S-SECOND-LAW-OF-MOTION > * 5.6 NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTIONp. 99 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/42/NEWTON%E2%80%99S-THIRD-LAW-OF-MOTION> * 5.7 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUMp. 101 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/43/CONSERVATION-OF-MOMENTUM> * 5.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLEp. 102 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/44/EQUILIBRIUM-OF-A-PARTICLE> * 5.9 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICSp. 103 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/45/COMMON-FORCES-IN-MECHANICS> * 5.10 CIRCULAR MOTIONp. 107 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/46/CIRCULAR-MOTION> * 5.11 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICSp. 108 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/47/SOLVING-PROBLEMS-IN-MECHANICS> * 6.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 117 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/48/INTRODUCTION> * 6.1 Introductionp. 117 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/49/Introduction> * 6.2 NOTIONS OF WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY: THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREMp. 119 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/50/NOTIONS-OF-WORK-AND-KINETIC-ENERGY-TH E-WORK-ENERGY-THEOREM> * 6.4 KINETIC ENERGYp. 120 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/51/KINETIC-ENERGY> * 6.5 WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCEp. 121 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/52/WORK-DONE-BY-A-VARIABLE-FORCE> * 6.6 THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM FOR A VARIABLE FORCEp. 122 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/53/THE-WORK-ENERGY-THEOREM-FOR-A-VARIABL E-FORCE>

* 6.7 THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGYp. 123 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/54/THE-CONCEPT-OF-POTENTIAL-ENERGY> * 6.8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGYp. 124 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/55/THE-CONSERVATION-OF-MECHANICAL-ENERGY > * 6.9 THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRINGp. 126 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/56/THE-POTENTIAL-ENERGY-OF-A-SPRING> * 6.10 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY : THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGYp. 129 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/57/VARIOUS-FORMS-OF-ENERGY-THE-LAW-OF-CO NSERVATION-OF-ENERGY> * 6.12 COLLISIONSp. 132 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/58/COLLISIONS> * 7.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 144 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/59/INTRODUCTION> * 7.2 CENTRE OF MASSp. 147 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/60/CENTRE-OF-MASS> * 7.3 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASSp. 151 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/61/MOTION-OF-CENTRE-OF-MASS> * 7.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLESp. 152 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/62/LINEAR-MOMENTUM-OF-A-SYSTEM-OF-PARTIC LES> * 7.5 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORSp. 153 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/63/VECTOR-PRODUCT-OF-TWO-VECTORS> * 7.6 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION WITH LINEAR VELOCITYp. 155 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/64/ANGULAR-VELOCITY-AND-ITS-RELATION-WIT H-LINEAR-VELOCITY> * 7.7 TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUMp. 157 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/65/TORQUE-AND-ANGULAR-MOMENTUM> * 7.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODYp. 161 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/66/EQUILIBRIUM-OF-A-RIGID-BODY> * 7.9 MOMENT OF INERTIAp. 166 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/67/MOMENT-OF-INERTIA> * 7.10 THEOREMS OF PERPENDICULAR AND PARALLEL AXESp. 167 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/68/THEOREMS-OF-PERPENDICULAR-AND-PARALLE L-AXES> * 7.11 KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXISp. 170 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/69/KINEMATICS-OF-ROTATIONAL-MOTION-ABOUT -A-FIXED-AXIS> * 7.12 DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXISp. 172 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/70/DYNAMICS-OF-ROTATIONAL-MOTION-ABOUT-A -FIXED-AXIS> * 7.13 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN CASE OF ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXISp. 174 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/71/ANGULAR-MOMENTUM-IN-CASE-OF-ROTATIONABOUT-A-FIXED-AXIS> * 7.14 ROLLING MOTIONp. 176 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/72/ROLLING-MOTION> * 8.1 INTRODUCTIONp. 186 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/73/INTRODUCTION> * 8.2 KEPLERS LAWSp. 187 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/74/KEPLER%E2%80%99S-LAWS> * 8.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATIONp. 188 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/75/UNIVERSAL-LAW-OF-GRAVITATION> * 8.4 THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANTp. 192 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/76/THE-GRAVITATIONAL-CONSTANT> * 8.5 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF THE EARTHp. 192 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/77/ACCELERATION-DUE-TO-GRAVITY-OF-THE-EA RTH> * 8.6 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY BELOW AND ABOVE THE SURFACE OF EARTHp. 193 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/78/ACCELERATION-DUE-TO-GRAVITY-BELOW-AND

-ABOVE-THE-SURFACE-OF-EARTH> * 8.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGYp. 194 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/79/GRAVITATIONAL-POTENTIAL-ENERGY> * 8.8 ESCAPE SPEEDp. 196 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/80/ESCAPE-SPEED> * 8.9 EARTH SATELLITESp. 197 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/81/EARTH-SATELLITES> * 8.10 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITEp. 198 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/82/ENERGY-OF-AN-ORBITING-SATELLITE> * 8.11 GEOSTATIONARY AND POLAR SATELLITESp. 199 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/83/GEOSTATIONARY-AND-POLAR-SATELLITES> * 8.12 WEIGHTLESSNESSp. 200 <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/84/WEIGHTLESSNESS> Zoom Out Zoom In Fullscreen Exit Fullscreen Select View Mode View Mode SlideshowScroll Readcast Add a Comment Embed & Share <#> Reading should be social! Post a message on your social networks to let others know what you re reading. Select the sites below and start sharing. Readcast this DocumentTransparent <#> <#> Login </login> to Add a Comment <#> Share & Embed <http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F528972 69%2FPhysics-11A%23source%3Afacebook><http://twitter.com/home?source=scribd.com& status=Reading%20%22Physics%2011A%22%20on%20Scribd%20http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com %2Fdoc%2F52897269%20%23Readcast><http://www.google.com/buzz/post?url=http%3A%2F% 2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F52897269%2FPhysics-11A&message=This%20book%20is%20meant %20for%20the%20students%20studying%20in%20schools%20which%20follows%20CBSE%20or% 20similar%20curriculum.%20It%20can%20also%20be%20referred%20for%20General%20Stud ies%20paper%20of%20UPSC%27s%20Civil%20Services%20Exam.%20All%20rights%20are%20re served%20by%20the%20publisher%20i.e.%20NCERT.%20The%20contents%20of%20the%20book %20has%20been%20downloaded%20from%20the%20site%3A%20http%3A...> <#> Add to Collections Download this Document for Free Auto-hide: on <#> CK CONTENTS

F OREWORD iii P REFACE v A N OTE FOR THE T EACHER x C H A P T E R 1P HYSICAL W ORLD 1.1 What is physics ? 1 1.2 Scope and excitement of physics 2 1.3 Physics, technology and society 5 1.4 Fundamental forces in nature 6 1.5 Nature of physical laws 10 C H A P T E R 2U NITS AND M EASUREMENTS 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 The international system of units 16 2.3 Measurement of length 18 2.4 Measurement of mass 21 2.5 Measurement of time 22 2.6 Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement 22 2.7 Significant figures 27 2.8 Dimensions of physical quantities 31 2.9 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 31 2.10 Dimensional analysis and its applications 32 C H A P T E R 3M OTION IN

A S TRAIGHT L INE 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Position, path length and displacement 39 3.3 Average velocity and average speed 42 3.4 Instantaneous velocity and speed 43 3.5 Acceleration 45 3.6 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 47 3.7 Relative velocity 51 C H A P T E R 4M OTION IN A P LANE 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Scalars and vectors 65 4.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 67 4.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors graphical method 67 4.5 Resolution of vectors 69 CK 4.6 Vector addition analytical method 71 4.7 Motion in a plane 72 4.8 Motion in a plane with constant acceleration 75 4.9 Relative velocity in two dimensions 76 4.10 Projectile motion 77 4.11 Uniform circular motion 79 C H A P T E R 5L AWS OF M OTION 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2

Aristotles fallacy 90 5.3 The law of inertia 90 5.4 Newtons first law of motion 91 5.5 Newtons second law of motion 93 5.6 Newtons third law of motion 96 5.7 Conservation of momentum 98 5.8 Equilibrium of a particle 99 5.9 Common forces in mechanics 100 5.10 Circular motion 104 5.11 Solving problems in mechanics 105 C H A P T E R 6W ORK , E NERGY AND P OWER 6.1 Introduction 114 6.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 116 6.3 Work 116 6.4 Kinetic energy 117 6.5 Work done by a variable force 118 6.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 119 6.7 The concept of potential energy 120 6.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 121 6.9 The potential energy of a spring 123 6.10 Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy 126 6.11 Power 128 6.12 Collisions 129 C H A P T E R 7S YSTEM OF P ARTICLES AND R

OTATIONAL M OTION 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Centre of mass 144 7.3 Motion of centre of mass 148 7.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 149 7.5 Vector product of two vectors 150 7.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 152 7.7 Torque and angular momentum 154 7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 158 7.9 Moment of inertia 163 7.10 Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes 164 xii CK 7.11 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 167 7.12 Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 169 7.13 Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis 171 7.14 Rolling motion 173 C H A P T E R 8G RAVITATION 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Keplers laws 184 8.3 Universal law of gravitation 185 8.4 The gravitational constant 189 8.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 189 8.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 190 8.7 Gravitational potential energy 191 8.8 Escape speed 193 8.9 Earth satellite 194 8.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 195 8.11 Geostationary and polar satellites 196 8.12 Weightlessness 197APPENDICES203ANSWERS219

xiii 1.1WHAT IS PHYSICS ? Humans have always been curious about the world aroundthem. The night sky with its bright celestial objects hasfascinated humans since time immemorial. The regular repetitions of the day and night, the annual cycle of seasons,the eclipses, the tides, the volcanoes, the rainbow have alwaysbeen a source of wonder. The world has an astonishing variety of materials and a bewildering diversity of life and behaviour.The inquiring and imaginative human mind has respondedto the wonder and awe of nature in different ways. One kindof response from the earliest times has been to observe thephysical environment carefully, look for any meaningfulpatterns and relations in natural phenomena, and build anduse new tools to interact with nature. This human endeavour led, in course of time, to modern science and technology.The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia meaning to know . The Sanskrit word Vijnan and the Arabicword Ilm convey similar meaning, namely knowledge.Science, in a broad sense, is as old as human species. Theearly civilisations of Egypt, India, China, Greece, Mesopotamia and many others made vital contributions to its progress.From the sixteenth century onwards, great strides were madein science in Europe. By the middle of the twentieth century,science had become a truly international enterprise, withmany cultures and countries contributing to its rapid growth.What is Science and what is the so-called ScientificMethod ? Science is a systematic attempt to understandnatural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible,and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify andcontrol phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting andpredicting from what we see around us. The curiosity to learnabout the world, unravelling the secrets of nature is the first step towards the discovery of science. The scientific methodinvolves several interconnected steps : Systematicobservations, controlled experiments, qualitative and C HAPTER O NE P HYSICAL W ORLD 1.1 What is physics ? 1.2 Scope and excitement of physics 1.3 Physics, technology andsociety 1.4 Fundamental forces innature 1.5 Nature of physical lawsSummary Exercises

PHYSICS2 quantitative reasoning, mathematicalmodelling, prediction and verification or falsification of theories. Speculation andconjecture also have a place in science; but ultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable,must be verified by relevant observations or experiments. There is much philosophicaldebate about the nature and method of sciencethat we need not discuss here.The interplay of theory and observation (or experiment) is basic to the progress of science.Science is ever dynamic. There is no finaltheory in science and no unquestionedauthority among scientists. As observationsimprove in detail and precision or experimentsyield new results, theories must account for them, if necessary, by introducing modifications.Sometimes the modifications may not be drasticand may lie within the framework of existingtheory. For example, when Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) examined the extensive data onplanetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe(1546-1601), the planetary circular orbits inheliocentric theory (sun at the centre of thesolar system) imagined by Nicolas Copernicus(14731543) had to be replaced by ellipticalorbits to fit the data better. Occasionally,however, the existing theory is simply unableto explain new observations. This causes a major upheaval in science. In the beginning of the twentieth century, it was realised that Newtonian mechanics, till then a very successful theory, could not explain some of themost basic features of atomic phenomena.Similarly, the then accepted wave picture of light failed to explain the photoelectric effect properly.This led to the development of a radically new theory ( Quantum Mechanics ) to deal with atomicand molecular phenomena.Just as a new experiment may suggest analternative theoretical model, a theoreticaladvance may suggest what to look for in someexperiments. The result of experiment of scattering of alpha particles by gold foil, in 1911by Ernest Rutherford (18711937) establishedthe nuclear model of the atom, which thenbecame the basis of the quantum theory of hydrogen atom given in 1913 by Niels Bohr (18851962). On the other hand, the concept of antiparticle was first introduced theoretically by Paul Dirac (19021984) in 1930 and confirmedtwo years later by the experimental discovery of positron (antielectron) by Carl Anderson.Physics is a basic discipline in the category of Natural Sciences , which also includes other disciplines like Chemistry and Biology. The word Physics comes from a Greek word meaningnature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki that is used to refer to the study of the physical world.A precise definition of this discipline is neither possible nor necessary. We can broadly describephysics as a study of the basic laws of natureand their manifestation in different naturalphenomena. The scope of physics is describedbriefly in the next section. Here we remark ontwo principal thrusts in physics : unification and reduction .In Physics, we attempt to explain diversephysical phenomena in terms of a few concepts and laws . The effort is to see the physical worldas manifestation of some

universal laws indifferent domains and conditions. For example,the same law of gravitation (given by Newton)describes the fall of an apple to the ground, themotion of the moon around the earth and themotion of planets around the sun. Similarly, thebasic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwellsequations) govern all electric and magneticphenomena. The attempts to unify fundamentalforces of nature (section 1.4) reflect this samequest for unification.A related effort is to derive the properties of a bigger, more complex, system from the propertiesand interactions of its constituent simpler parts.This approach is called reductionism and isat the heart of physics. For example, the subject of thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenthcentury, deals with bulk systems in terms of macroscopic quantities such as temperature,internal energy, entropy, etc. Subsequently, thesubjects of kinetic theory and statisticalmechanics interpreted these quantities in termsof the properties of the molecular constituentsof the bulk system. In particular, thetemperature was seen to be related to the averagekinetic energy of molecules of the system. 1.2SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS We can get some idea of the scope of physics by looking at its various sub-disciplines. Basically,there are two domains of interest : macroscopicand microscopic. The macroscopic domainincludes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrialand astronomical scales. The microscopic domainincludes atomic, molecular and nuclear PHYSICAL WORLD 3 Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated by Maxwell in his famous set of equations. Themotion of a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the response of a circuit to an acvoltage (signal), the working of an antenna, thepropagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc.,are problems of electrodynamics. Optics dealswith the phenomena involving light. The workingof telescopes and microscopes, colours exhibitedby thin films, etc., are topics in optics.Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, doesnot deal with the motion of bodies as a whole.Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopicequilibrium and is concerned with changes ininternal energy, temperature, entropy, etc., of thesystem through external work and transfer of heat. The efficiency of heat engines andrefrigerators, the direction of a physical or You can now see that the scope of physics istruly vast. It covers a tremendous range of magnitude of physical quantities like length,mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studiesphenomena at the very small scale of length(10 -14 m or even less) involving electrons, protons,etc.; at the other end, it deals with astronomicalphenomena at the scale of galaxies or even theentire universe whose extent is of the order of 10 26 m. The two length scales differ by a factor of 10 40 or even more. The range of time scales canbe obtained by dividing the length scales by thespeed of light : 10 22 s to 10 18 s. The range of masses goes from, say, 10 30 kg (mass of anelectron) to 10 55 kg (mass of known observableuniverse). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewherein the middle of this range. Fig. 1.1

Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each others progress. The alpha scattering experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom. * Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research. phenomena * . Classical Physics deals mainly with macroscopic phenomena and includessubjects like Mechanics , Electrodynamics,Optics and Thermodynamics . Mechanicsfounded on Newtons laws of motion and the law of gravitation is concerned with the motion (or equilibrium) of particles, rigid and deformablebodies, and general systems of particles. Thepropulsion of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases,propagation of water waves or sound waves inair, the equilibrium of a bent rod under a load,etc., are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamicsdeals with electric and magnetic phenomena associated with charged and magnetic bodies.Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted,chemical process, etc., are problems of interest in thermodynamics.The microscopic domain of physics deals withthe constitution and structure of matter at theminute scales of atoms and nuclei (and evenlower scales of length) and their interaction withdifferent probes such as electrons, photons andother elementary particles. Classical physics isinadequate to handle this domain and QuantumTheory is currently accepted as the proper framework for explaining microscopicphenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics isbeautiful and imposing and you will appreciateit more as you pursue the subject. PHYSICS4 Physics is exciting in many ways. To some peoplethe excitement comes from the elegance anduniversality of its basic theories, from the fact that a few basic concepts and laws can explainphenomena covering a large range of magnitudeof physical quantities. To some others, the challengein carrying out imaginative new experiments tounlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refutetheories, is thrilling. Applied physics is equally demanding. Application and exploitation of physical laws to make useful devices is the most interesting and exciting part and requires great ingenuity and persistence of effort.What lies behind the phenomenal progressof physics in the last few centuries? Great progress usually accompanies changes in our basic perceptions. First, it was realised that for scientific progress, only qualitative thinking,though no doubt important, is not enough.Quantitative measurement is central to thegrowth of science, especially physics, becausethe laws of nature happen to be expressible inprecise mathematical equations. The secondmost important insight was that the basic lawsof physics are universal the same laws apply in widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategy of approximation turned out to be very successful. Most observed phenomena in daily life are rather complicated manifestations of thebasic laws. Scientists recognised the importanceof extracting the essential features of a phenomenon from its less significant aspects.It is not practical to take into account all thecomplexities of a phenomenon in one go. A goodstrategy is to focus first on the essential features,discover the basic principles and then

introducecorrections to build a more refined theory of thephenomenon. For example, a stone and a feather dropped from the same height do not reach theground at the same time. The reason is that theessential aspect of the phenomenon, namely freefall under gravity, is complicated by thepresence of air resistance. To get the law of freefall under gravity, it is better to create a situation wherein the air resistance isnegligible. We can, for example, let the stone andthe feather fall through a long evacuated tube.In that case, the two objects will fall almost at the same rate, giving the basic law that acceleration due to gravity is independent of themass of the object. With the basic law thusfound, we can go back to the feather, introducecorrections due to air resistance, modify theexisting theory and try to build a more realistic Hypothesis, axioms and models One should not think that everything can be provedwith physics and mathematics. All physics, and alsomathematics, is based on assumptions, each of which is variously called a hypothesis or axiom or postulate, etc.For example, the universal law of gravitationproposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis,which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him,there were several observations, experiments anddata, on the motion of planets around the sun,motion of the moon around the earth, pendulums,bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of theserequired a separate explanation, which was moreor less qualitative. What the universal law of gravitation says is that, if we assume that any twobodies in the universe attract each other with a force proportional to the product of their massesand inversely proportional to the square of thedistance between them, then we can explain allthese observations in one stroke. It not only explainsthese phenomena, it also allows us to predict theresults of future experiments.A hypothesis is a supposition without assumingthat it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybody to prove the universal law of gravitation, becauseit cannot be proved. It can be verified andsubstantiated by experiments and observations.An axiom is a self-evident truth while a modelis a theory proposed to explain observedphenomena. But you need not worry at this stageabout the nuances in using these words. For example, next year you will learn about Bohrs modelof hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that anelectron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules(postutates). Why did he do that? There was a largeamount of spectroscopic data before him which noother theory could explain. So Bohr said that if weassume that an atom behaves in such a manner,we can explain all these things at once.Einsteins special theory of relativity is alsobased on two postulates, the constancy of the speedof electromagnetic radiation and the validity of physical laws in all inertial frame of reference. It would not be wise to ask somebody to prove that the speed of light in vacuum is constant,independent of the source or observer.In mathematics too, we need axioms andhypotheses at every stage. Euclids statement that parallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This meansthat if we assume this statement, we can explainseveral properties of straight lines and two or threedimensional figures made out of them. But if youdont assume it, you are free to use a different axiomand get a new geometry, as has indeed happened inthe past few centuries and decades. PHYSICAL WORLD 5 Table 1.1Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions theory of objects falling to the earth under gravity. 1.3PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY The connection between physics, technology and society can be seen in many examples. Thediscipline of thermodynamics arose from theneed to understand and improve the working of heat engines. The steam engine, as

we know,is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution inEngland in the eighteenth century, which hadgreat impact on the course of humancivilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise tonew physics; at other times physics generatesnew technology. An example of the latter is thewireless communication technology that followedthe discovery of the basic laws of electricity andmagnetism in the nineteenth century. Theapplications of physics are not always easy toforesee. As late as 1933, the great physicist Ernest Rutherford had dismissed the possibility of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few years later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitner discovered the phenomenon of neutron-inducedfission of uranium, which would serve as thebasis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear weapons. Yet another important example of physics giving rise to technology is the siliconchip that triggered the computer revolution inthe last three decades of the twentieth century.A most significant area to which physics hasand will contribute is the development of alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of the planet are dwindling fast and there is anurgent need to discover new and affordablesources of energy. Considerable progress hasalready been made in this direction (for example, in conversion of solar energy,geothermal energy, etc., into electricity), but much more is still to be accomplished.Table1.1 lists some of the great physicists,their major contribution and the country of origin. You will appreciate from this table themulti-cultural, international character of thescientific endeavour. Table 1.2 lists someimportant technologies and the principles of physics they are based on. Obviously, thesetables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try toadd many names and items to these tables withthe help of your teachers, good books andwebsites on science. You will find that thisexercise is very educative and also great fun.And, assuredly, it will never end. The progressof science is unstoppable!Physics is the study of nature and naturalphenomena. Physicists try to discover the rulesthat are operating in nature, on the basis of observations, experimentation and analysis.Physics deals with certain basic rules/lawsgoverning the natural world. What is the nature Name Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever GreeceGalileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light HollandIsaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; U.K.Reflecting telescopeMichael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U.K.James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an U.K.electromagnetic waveHeinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India W.K. Roentgen X-rays Germany J.J. Thomson Electron U.K.Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on Polandnatural radioactivity Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Germany Theory of relativity PHYSICS6 * Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the areas which continue to occupy the physicists today. of physical laws? We shall now discuss thenature of fundamental forces and the laws that govern the diverse phenomena of the physicalworld. 1.4FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE* We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our experience, force is needed to push, carry or throw objects, deform or break them. We alsoexperience the impact of forces on us, like whena moving object hits us or we are in a merry-go-round. Going from this intuitive notion to theproper scientific concept of force is not a trivialmatter. Early

thinkers like Aristotle had wrongideas about it. The correct notion of force wasarrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of motion. He also gave an explicit form for the forcefor gravitational attraction between two bodies.We shall learn these matters in subsequent chapters.In the macroscopic world, besides thegravitational force, we encounter several kindsof forces: muscular force, contact forces betweenbodies, friction (which is also a contact forceparallel to the surfaces in contact), the forcesexerted by compressed or elongated springs andtaut strings and ropes (tension), the force of buoyancy and viscous force when solids are in Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U.S.A.Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New ZealandNiels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter FranceM.N. Saha Thermal ionisation India S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; U.K.Quantum statisticsEdwin Hubble Expanding universe U.S.A.Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U.S.A.James Chadwick Neutron U.K.Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces JapanHomi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution India of starsJohn Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U.S.A.C.H. Townes Maser; Laser U.S.A.Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic Pakistaninteractions Name Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin PHYSICAL WORLD 7 contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid,and so on. There are also forces involving chargedand magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domainagain, we have electric and magnetic forces,nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons,interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. Weshall get familiar with some of these forces in later parts of this course.A great insight of the twentieth century physics is that these different forces occurringin different contexts actually arise from only a small number of fundamental forces in nature.For example, the elastic spring force arises dueto the net attraction/repulsion between theneighbouring atoms of the spring when thespring is elongated/compressed. This net attraction/repulsion can be traced to the(unbalanced) sum of electric forces between thecharged constituents of the atoms.In principle, this means that the laws for derived forces (such as spring force, friction)are not independent of the laws of fundamentalforces in nature. The origin of these derivedforces is, however, very complex.At the present stage of our understanding,we know of four fundamental forces in nature,which are described in brief here : Table 1.2Link between technology and physicsTechnology Scientific principle(s) Steam engine Laws of thermodynamicsNuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fissionRadio and Television Generation, propagation and detectionof electromagnetic wavesComputers Digital logicLasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiationProduction of ultra high magnetic Superconductivity fieldsRocket propulsion Newtons laws of motionElectric generator Faradays laws of electromagnetic inductionHydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy intoelectrical energy Aeroplane Bernoullis principle in fluid dynamicsParticle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagneticfieldsSonar Reflection of ultrasonic wavesOptical fibres

Total internal reflection of light Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interferenceElectron microscope Wave nature of electronsPhotocell Photoelectric effect Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma Giant Metrewave Radio Detection of cosmic radio wavesTelescope (GMRT)Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams andmagnetic fields. PHYSICS8 1.4.1Gravitational Force The gravitational force is the force of mutualattraction between any two objects by virtue of their masses. It is a universal force. Every object experiences this force due to every other object in the universe. All objects on the earth, for example, experience the force of gravity due tothe earth. In particular, gravity governs themotion of the moon and artificial satellites aroundthe earth, motion of the earth and planetsaround the sun, and, of course, the motion of bodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role inthe large-scale phenomena of the universe, suchas formation and evolution of stars, galaxies andgalactic clusters. 1.4.2Electromagnetic Force Electromagnetic force is the force betweencharged particles. In the simpler case whencharges are at rest, the force is given by Coulombs law : attractive for unlike charges andrepulsive for like charges. Charges in motionproduce magnetic effects and a magnetic fieldgives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electricand magnetic effects are, in general,inseparable hence the name electromagneticforce. Like the gravitational force,electromagnetic force acts over large distancesand does not need any intervening medium. It is enormously strong compared to gravity. Theelectric force between two protons, for example,is 10 36 times the gravitational force betweenthem, for any fixed distance.Matter, as we know, consists of elementary charged constituents like electrons andprotons. Since the electromagnetic force is somuch stronger than the gravitational force, it dominates all phenomena at atomic andmolecular scales. (The other two forces, as weshall see, operate only at nuclear scales.) Thusit is mainly the electromagnetic force that governs the structure of atoms and molecules,the dynamics of chemical reactions and themechanical, thermal and other properties of materials. It underlies the macroscopic forceslike tension, friction, normal force, springforce, etc.Gravity is always attractive, whileelectromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive. Another way of putting it is that masscomes only in one variety (there is no negativemass), but charge comes in two varieties :positive and negative charge. This is what makes all the difference. Matter is mostly electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus,electric force is largely zero and gravitationalforce dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electricforce manifests itself in atmosphere where theatoms are ionised and that leads to lightning. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Albert Einstein, born in Ulm, Germany in 1879, is universally regarded asone of the greatest physicists of all time. His astonishing scientific career began with the publication of three path-breaking papers in 1905. In thefirst paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons)and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect that the classicalwave theory of radiation could not account for. In the second paper, hedeveloped a theory of Brownian motion that was confirmed experimentally a few years later and provided a convincing evidence of the atomic picture of matter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity that made Einstein a legend in his own life time. In the next decade, he explored the consequences of hisnew theory which

included, among other things, the mass-energy equivalence enshrined in his famousequation E = mc 2 . He also created the general version of relativity (The General Theory of Relativity),which is the modern theory of gravitation. Some of Einsteins most significant later contributions are:the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Plancks blackbody radiationlaw, static model of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas of massive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics. The year 2005 wasdeclared as International Year of Physics, in recognition of Einsteins monumental contribution tophysics, in year 1905, describing revolutionary scientific ideas that have since influenced all of modernphysics. PHYSICAL WORLD 9 If we reflect a little, the enormous strengthof the electromagnetic force compared togravity is evident in our daily life. When wehold a book in our hand, we are balancing thegravitational force on the book due to the hugemass of the earth by the normal forceprovided by our hand. The latter is nothingbut the net electromagnetic force between thecharged constituents of our hand andthe book, at the surface in contact. If electromagnetic force were not intrinsically somuch stronger than gravity, the hand of thestrongest man would crumble under theweight of a feather ! Indeed, to be consistent,in that circumstance, we ourselves wouldcrumble under our own weight ! 1.4.3Strong Nuclear Force The strong nuclear force binds protons andneutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that without some attractive force, a nucleus will beunstable due to the electric repulsion betweenits protons. This attractive force cannot begravitational since force of gravity is negligiblecompared to the electric force. A new basic forcemust, therefore, be invoked. The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces,about 100 times the electromagnetic force instrength. It is charge-independent and actsequally between a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a neutron. Its range is, however, extremely small,of about nuclear dimensions (10 15 m). It isresponsible for the stability of nuclei. Theelectron, it must be noted, does not experiencethis force.Recent developments have, however,indicated that protons and neutrons are built out of still more elementary constituents calledquarks. 1.4.4Weak Nuclear Force The weak nuclear force appears only in certainnuclear processes such as the -decay of a nucleus. In -decay, the nucleus emits anelectron and an uncharged particle calledneutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force, ut much weaker than the strong nuclear and electromagneticforces. The range of weak nuclear force isexceedingly small, of the order of 10 -16 m. 1.4.5Towards Unification of Forces We remarked in section 1.1 that unification is a asic quest in physics. Great advances inphysics often amount to unification of different Satyendranath Bose (1894-1974) Satyendranath Bose, orn in Calcutta in 1894, is among the great Indianphysicists who made a fundamental contri ution to the advance of

sciencein the twentieth century. An outstanding student throughout, Bose startedhis career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in Calcutta University; five yearslater he joined Dacca University. Here in 1924, in a rilliant flash of insight,Bose gave a new derivation of Plancks law, treating radiation as a gas of photons and employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states.He wrote a short paper on the su ject and sent it to Einstein whoimmediately recognised its great significance, translated it in German andforwarded it for pu lication. Einstein then applied the same method to a gas of molecules.The key new conceptual ingredient in Boses work was that the particles were regarded asindistinguisha le, a radical departure from the assumption that underlies the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. It was soon realised that the new Bose-Einstein statistics was applica le toparticles with integers spins, and a new quantum statistics (Fermi-Dirac statistics) was needed for particles with half integers spins satisfying Paulis exclusion principle. Particles with integers spinsare now known as osons in honour of Bose.An important consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules elow a certaintemperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate thesame lowest energy state. Some seventy years were to pass efore the pioneering ideas of Bose, developedfurther y Einstein, were dramatically confirmed in the o servation of a new state of matter in a dilutegas of ultra cold alkali atoms - the Bose-Eintein condensate. PHYSICS10 theories and domains. Newton unified terrestrialand celestial domains under a common law of gravitation. The experimental discoveries of Oersted and Faraday showed that electric andmagnetic phenomena are in generalinsepara le. Maxwell unified electromagnetismand optics with the discovery that light is anelectromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted tounify gravity and electromagnetism ut couldnot succeed in this venture. But this did not deter physicists from zealously pursuing thegoal of unification of forces.Recent decades have seen much progress onthis front. The electromagnetic and the weak nuclear force have now een unified and areseen as aspects of a single electro-weak force.What this unification actually means cannot e explained here. Attempts have een (and are eing) made to unify the electro-weak and thestrong force and even to unify the gravitationalforce with the rest of the fundamental forces.Many of these ideas are still speculative andinconclusive. Ta le 1.4 summarises some of themilestones in the progress towards unificationof forces in nature. 1.5NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS Physicists explore the universe. Their investigations, ased on scientific processes,range from particles that are smaller thanatoms in size to stars that are very far away. Inaddition to finding the facts y o servation andexperimentation, physicists attempt to discover the laws that summarise (often as mathematicalequations) these facts.In any physical phenomenon governed y different forces, several quantities may changewith time. A remarka le fact is that some specialphysical quantities, however, remain constant in time. They are the conserved quantities of nature. Understanding these conservationprinciples is very important to descri e theo served phenomena quantitatively.For motion under an external conservativeforce, the total mechanical energy i.e. the sumof kinetic and potential energy of a ody is a constant. The familiar example is the free fall of an o ject under gravity. Both the kinetic energy of the o ject and its potential energy changecontinuously with time, ut the sum remainsfixed. If the o ject is released from rest, the initial Ta le 1.4Progress in unification of different forces/domains in

natureTa le 1.3Fundamental forces of natureName Relative Range Operates amongstrength Gravitational force 10 39 Infinite All o jects in the universeWeak nuclear force 10 13 Very short, Su -nuclear Some elementary particles,size ( 10 16 m) particularly electron andneutrinoElectromagnetic force 10 2 Infinite Charged particlesStrong nuclear force 1 Short, nuclear Nucleons, heavier size ( 10 15 m) elementary particles PHYSICAL WORLD 11 potential energy is completely converted into thekinetic energy of the o ject just efore it hitsthe ground. This law restricted for a conservativeforce should not e confused with the generallaw of conservation of energy of an isolatedsystem (which is the asis of the First Law of Thermodynamics).The concept of energy is central to physicsand the expressions for energy can e writtenfor every physical system. When all forms of energy e.g., heat, mechanical energy, electricalenergy etc., are counted, it turns out that energy is conserved. The general law of conservation of energy is true for all forces and for any kind of transformation etween different forms of energy. In the falling o ject example, if youinclude the effect of air resistance during thefall and see the situation after the o ject hitsthe ground and stays there, the totalmechanical energy is o viously not conserved.The general law of energy conservation, however,is still applica le. The initial potential energy of the stone gets transformed into other formsof energy : heat and sound. (Ultimately, soundafter it is a sor ed ecomes heat.) The totalenergy of the system (stone plus thesurroundings) remains unchanged.The law of conservation of energy is thought to e valid across all domains of nature, fromthe microscopic to the macroscopic. It isroutinely applied in the analysis of atomic,nuclear and elementary particle processes. At the other end, all kinds of violent phenomena occur in the universe all the time. Yet the totalenergy of the universe (the most ideal isolatedsystem possi le !) is elieved to remainunchanged.Until the advent of Einsteins theory of relativity, the law of conservation of mass wasregarded as another asic conservation law of nature, since matter was thought to eindestructi le. It was (and still is) an important principle used, for example, in the analysis of chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is asically a rearrangement of atoms amongdifferent molecules. If the total inding energy of the reacting molecules is less than the total inding energy of the product molecules, thedifference appears as heat and the reaction isexothermic. The opposite is true for energy a sor ing (endothermic) reactions. However,since the atoms are merely rearranged ut not destroyed, the total mass of the reactants is thesame as the total mass of the products in a chemical reaction. The changes in the indingenergy are too small to e measured as changesin mass.According to Einsteins theory, mass m isequivalent to energy E given y the relationE= mc 2 , where c is speed of light in vacuum.In a nuclear process mass gets

converted toenergy (or vice-versa). This is the energy whichis released in a nuclear power generation andnuclear explosions. Sir C.V. Raman (1888-1970) Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was orn on 07 Nov 1888 in Thiruvanaikkaval.He finished his schooling y the age of eleven. He graduated from Presidency College, Madras. After finishing his education he joined financial services of theIndian Government.While in Kolkata, he started working on his area of interest at Indian Asso-ciation for Cultivation of Science founded y Dr. Mahendra Lal Sirkar, during hisevening hours. His area of interest included vi rations, variety of musical instru-ments, ultrasonics, diffraction and so on.In 1917 he was offered Professorship at Calcutta University. In 1924 he waselected Fellow of the Royal Society of London and received No el prize in Physicsin 1930 for his discovery, now known as Raman Effect.The Raman Effect deals with scattering of light y molecules of a mediumwhen they are excited to vi rational energy levels. This work opened totally new avenues for research for years to come.He spent his later years at Bangalore, first at Indian Institute of Science and then at Raman Re-search Institute. His work has inspired generation of young students. PHYSICS12 Energy is a scalar quantity. But all conservedquantities are not necessarily scalars. The totallinear momentum and the total angular momentum ( oth vectors) of an isolated systemare also conserved quantities. These laws can e derived from Newtons laws of motion inmechanics. But their validity goes eyondmechanics. They are the asic conservationlaws of nature in all domains, even in thosewhere Newtons laws may not e valid.Besides their great simplicity and generality,the conservation laws of nature are very usefulin practice too. It often happens that we cannot solve the full dynamics of a complex pro leminvolving different particles and forces. Theconservation laws can still provide usefulresults. For example, we may not know thecomplicated forces that act during a collisionof two automo iles; yet momentumconservation law ena les us to ypass thecomplications and predict or rule out possi leoutcomes of the collision. In nuclear andelementary particle phenomena also, theconservation laws are important tools of analysis. Indeed, using the conservation lawsof energy and momentum for -decay, WolfgangPauli (1900-1958) correctly predicted in 1931the existence of a new particle (now calledneutrino) emitted in -decay along with theelectron.Conservation laws have a deep connectionwith symmetries of nature that you will explorein more advanced courses in physics. For example, an important o servation is that thelaws of nature do not change with time! If youperform an experiment in your la oratory today and repeat the same experiment (on the sameo jects under identical conditions) after a year,the results are ound to e the same. It turnsout that this symmetry of nature with respect totranslation (i.e. displacement) in time isequivalent to the law of conservation of energy.Likewise, space is homogeneous and there is no(intrinsically) preferred location in the universe.To put it more clearly, the laws of nature are thesame everywhere in the universe. (Caution : thephenomena may differ from place to place ecause of differing conditions at different locations. For example, the acceleration due togravity at the moon is one-sixth that at the earth, ut the law of gravitation is the same oth onthe moon and the earth.) This symmetry of thelaws of

nature with respect to translation inspace gives rise to conservation of linear momentum. In the same way isotropy of space(no intrinsically preferred direction in space)underlies the law of conservation of angular momentum * . The conservation laws of charge andother attri utes of elementary particles can also e related to certain a stract symmetries.Symmetries of space and time and other a stract symmetries play a central role in modern theoriesof fundamental forces in nature. * See Chapter 7 Conservation laws in physics Conservation of energy, momentum, angular momentum, charge, etc are considered to efundamental laws in physics. At this moment,there are many such conservation laws. Apart fromthe a ove four, there are others which mostly dealwith quantities which have een introduced innuclear and particle physics. Some of theconserved quantities are called spin, aryonnum er, strangeness, hypercharge, etc, ut youneed not worry a out them.A conservation law is a hypothesis, ased ono servations and experiments. It is important toremem er that a conservation law cannot eproved. It can e verified, or disproved, y experiments. An experiment whose result is inconformity with the law verifies or su stantiatesthe law; it does not prove the law. On the other hand, a single experiment whose result goesagainst the law is enough to disprove it.It would e wrong to ask some ody to provethe law of conservation of energy. This law is anoutcome of our experience over several centuries,and it has een found to e valid in allexperiments, in mechanics, thermodynamics,electromagnetism, optics, atomic and nuclear physics, or any other area.Some students feel that they can prove theconservation of mechanical energy from a ody falling under gravity, y adding the kinetic andpotential energies at a point and showing that it turns out to e constant. As pointed out a ove,this is only a verification of the law, not its proof. PHYSICAL WORLD 13 SUMMARY 1. Physics deals with the study of the asic laws of nature and their manifestation indifferent phenomena. The asic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely different contexts and conditions.2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physicalquantities.3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise tonew physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact on society.4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of themacroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the gravitational force, theelectromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. Unificationof different forces/domains in nature is a asic quest in physics.5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conservedquantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws of conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity,etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force ut not for the other.6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of space and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of fundamental forces in nature. EXERCISES Note for the student The exercises given here are meant to enhance your awareness a out the issues surroundingscience, technology and society and to encourage you

to think and formulate your viewsa out them. The questions may not have clear-cut o jective answers. Note for the teacher The exercises given here are not for the purpose of a formal examination. 1.1 Some of the most profound statements on the nature of science have come fromAl ert Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all time. What do you think didEinstein mean when he said : The most incomprehensi le thing a out the world isthat it is comprehensi le? 1.2 Every great physical theory starts as a heresy and ends as a dogma. Give someexamples from the history of science of the validity of this incisive remark. 1.3 Politics is the art of the possi le. Similarly, Science is the art of the solu le.Explain this eautiful aphorism on the nature and practice of science. 1.4 Though India now has a large ase in science and technology, which is fast expanding,it is still a long way from realising its potential of ecoming a world leader in science.Name some important factors, which in your view have hindered the advancement of science in India. 1.5 No physicist has ever seen an electron. Yet, all physicists elieve in the existence of electrons. An intelligent ut superstitious man advances this analogy to argue that ghosts exist even though no one has seen one. How will you refute his argument? 1.6 The shells of cra s found around a particular coastal location in Japan seem mostly to resem le the legendary face of a Samurai. Given elow are two explanations of thiso served fact. Which of these strikes you as a scientific explanation ?(a) A tragic sea accident several centuries ago drowned a young Samurai. As a tri uteto his ravery, nature through its inscruta le ways immortalised his face y imprinting it on the cra shells in that area.

PHYSICS14 ( ) After the sea tragedy, fishermen in that area, in a gesture of honour to their dead hero, let free any cra shell caught y them which accidentally had a shaperesem ling the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the particular shape of thecra shell survived longer and therefore in course of time the shape was genetically propagated. This is an example of evolution y artificial selection.[Note : This interesting illustration taken from Carl Sagans The Cosmos highlightsthe fact that often strange and inexplica le facts which on the first sight appear supernatural actually turn out to have simple scientific explanations. Try to think out other examples of this kind]. 1.7 The industrial revolution in England and Western Europe more than two centuriesago was triggered y some key scientific and technological advances. What were theseadvances ? 1.8 It is often said that the world is witnessing now a second industrial revolution, whichwill transform the society as radically as did the first. List some key contemporary areasof science and technology, which are responsi le for this revolution. 1.9 Write in a out 1000 words a fiction piece ased on your speculation on the scienceand technology of the twenty-second century. 1.10

Attempt to formulate your moral views on the practice of science. Imagine yourself stum ling upon a discovery, which has great academic interest ut is certain to havenothing ut dangerous consequences for the human society. How, if at all, will youresolve your dilemma ? 1.11 Science, like any knowledge, can e put to good or ad use, depending on the user.Given elow are some of the applications of science. Formulate your views on whether the particular application is good, ad or something that cannot e so clearly categorised :(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to cur and finally eradicate this diseasefrom the population. (This has already een successfully done in India).( ) Television for eradication of illiteracy and for mass communication of news andideas.(c) Prenatal sex determination(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency (e) Putting artificial satellites into or its around the Earth(f ) Development of nuclear weapons(g) Development of new and powerful techniques of chemical and iological warfare).(h) Purification of water for drinking(i) Plastic surgery (j ) Cloning 1.12 India has had a long and un roken tradition of great scholarship in mathematics,astronomy, linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with this, several superstitiousand o scurantistic attitudes and practices flourished in our society and unfortunately continue even today among many educated people too. How will you use your knowledge of science to develop strategies to counter these attitudes ? 1.13 Though the law gives women equal status in India, many people hold unscientificviews on a womans innate nature, capacity and intelligence, and in practice givethem a secondary status and role. Demolish this view using scientific arguments, and y quoting examples of great women in science and other spheres; and persuade yourself and others that, given equal opportunity, women are on par with men. 1.14 It is more important to have eauty in the equations of physics than to have themagree with experiments. The great British physicist P. A. M. Dirac held this view.Criticize this statement. Look out for some equations and results in this ook whichstrike you as eautiful. 1.15 Though the statement quoted a ove may e disputed, most physicists do have a feelingthat the great laws of physics are at once simple and eautiful. Some of the nota lephysicists, esides Dirac, who have articulated this feeling, are : Einstein, Bohr,Heisen erg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman. You are urged to make special efforts to get PHYSICAL WORLD 15 access to the general ooks and writings y these and other great masters of physics.(See the Bi liography at the end of this ook.) Their writings are truly inspiring ! 1.16 Text ooks on science may give you a wrong impression that studying science is dry and all too serious and that scientists are a sent-minded introverts who never laughor grin. This image of science and scientists is patently false. Scientists, like any other group of humans, have their share of humorists, and many have led their liveswith a great sense of fun and adventure, even as they seriously pursued their scientificwork. Two great physicists of this genre are Gamow and Feynman. You will enjoy reading their ooks listed in the Bi liography. C HAPTER T

WO U NITS AND M EASUREMENT 2.1INTRODUCTION Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparisonwith a certain asic, ar itrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit . The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed y a num er (or numerical measure) accompanied y a unit.Although the num er of physical quantities appears to every large, we need only a limited num er of units for expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-related with one another. The units for the fundamental or ase quantities are called fundamental or ase units . Theunits of all other physical quantities can e expressed ascom inations of the ase units. Such units o tained for thederived quantities are called derived units . A complete set of these units, oth the ase units and derived units, isknown as the system of units . 2.2THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS In earlier time scientists of different countries were usingdifferent systems of units for measurement. Three suchsystems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKSsystem were in use extensively till recently.The ase units for length, mass and time in these systemswere as follows : In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and secondrespectively. In FPS system they were foot, pound and secondrespectively. In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and secondrespectively.The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Systme Internationale d Unites (French for International System of Units),a reviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of sym ols,units and a reviations, was developed and recommended y General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971 for 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The international system of units 2.3 Measurement of length 2.4 Measurement of mass 2.5 Measurement of time 2.6 Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors inmeasurement 2.7

Significant figures 2.8 Dimensions of physicalquantities 2.9 Dimensional formulae anddimensional equations 2.10 Dimensional analysis and itsapplicationsSummary ExercisesAdditional exercises international usage in scientific, technical,industrial and commercial work. Because SIunits used decimal system, conversions withinthe system are quite simple and convenient. Weshall follow the SI units in this ook.In SI, there are seven ase units as given inTa le 2.1. Besides the seven ase units, thereare two more units that are defined for (a) planeangle d as the ratio of length of arc d s to theradius r and (b) solid angle d as the ratio of the intercepted area d A of the spherical surface,described about the apex O as the centre, tothe s uare of its radius r , as shown in Fig. 2.1(a)and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle isradian with the symbol rad and the unit for thesolid angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Boththese are dimensionless uantities. Table 2.1 SI Base Quantities and Units* UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 17 * The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techni ues get improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up with this progress. (a)(b) Fig. 2.1 Description of (a) plane angle d and (b) solid angle d . Base SI Units uantity Name Symbol Definition Length metre m The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuumduring a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. (1983)Mass kilogram kg The kilogram is e ual to the mass of the international prototypeof the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at international Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)Time second s The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of theradiation corresponding to the transition between the twohyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.(1967)Electric ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained incurrent two straight parallel conductors of infinite

length, of negligiblecircular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum,would produce between these conductors a force e ual to 2 10 7 newton per metre of length. (1948)Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamicdynamic temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)TemperatureAmount of mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which containssubstance as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012kilogram of carbon - 12. (1971)Luminous candela cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a givenintensity direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of fre uency 540 10 12 hertz and that has a radiant intensity inthat direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. (1979) PHYSICS18 Table 2.2Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI) Note that when mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified. These entitiesmay be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons,other particles or specified groups of suchparticles.We employ units for some physical uantitiesthat can be derived from the seven base units(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1).Some SI derived units are given special names(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units makeuse of these units with special names and theseven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These aregiven in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready reference. Other units retained for general useare given in Table 2.2.Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiplesand sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2.General guidelines for using symbols for physical uantities, chemical elements and nuclides aregiven in Appendix A7 and those for SI units andsome other units are given in Appendix A8 for your guidance and ready reference. 2.3MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH You are already familiar with some direct methodsfor the measurement of length. For example, a metre scale is used for lengths from 10 3 m to 10 2 m. A vernier callipers is used for lengths to anaccuracy of 10 4 m. A screw gauge and a spherometer can be used to measure lengths asless as to 10 5 m. To measure lengths beyond theseranges, we make use of some special indirect methods. 2.3.1Measurement of Large Distances Large distances such as the distance of a planet or a star from the earth cannot be measureddirectly with a metre scale. An important methodin such cases is the parallax method . When you hold a pencil in front of you against some specific point on the background (a wall)and look at the pencil first through your left eyeA

(closing the right eye) and then look at thepencil through your right eye B (closing the left eye), you would notice that the position of thepencil seems to change with respect to the point on the wall. This is called parallax . Thedistance between the two points of observationis called the basis . In this example, the basis isthe distance between the eyes.To measure the distance D of a far away planet S by the parallax method, we observe it from two different positions (observatories) A andB on the Earth, separated by distance AB = b at the same time as shown in Fig. 2.2. Wemeasure the angle between the two directionsalong which the planet is viewed at these twopoints. The ASB in Fig. 2.2 represented by symbol is called the parallax angle or parallactic angle . As the planet is very far away, 1, b D << andtherefore, is very small. Then weapproximately take AB as an arc of length b of a circle with centre at S and the distance D as UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 19 !!!! the radius AS = BS so that AB = b = D where is in radians. D =b (2.1)Having determined D , we can employ a similar method to determine the size or angular diameter of the planet. If d is the diameter of the planet and

c n be me sured from the s meloc tion on the e rth. It is the ngle betweenthe two directions when two di metric lly opposite points of the pl net re viewed throughthe telescope. Since D is known, the di meter d of the pl net c n be determined using Eq. (2.2). Ex mple 2.1 C lcul te the ngle of ( ) 1 0 (degree) (b) 1 (minute of rc or rcmin) nd (c) 1 (second of rc or rc second) inr di ns. Use 360 0 =2 rad, 1 0 =60 and1 = 60 Answer (a) We have 360 0 = 2 rad1 0 = ( /180) rad = 1.745 10 2 rad(b) 1 0 = 60 = 1.745 10 2

= d/D (2.2)The

ngle

the ngul r size of the pl net (the d t the e rth), we h ve

nglesubtended by

rad1 = 2.908 10 4 rad ; 2.91 10 4 rad(c) 1 = 60 = 2.908 10 4 rad1 = 4.847 10 4 rad ; 4.85 10 6 rad ! Exam le 2.2 A man wishes to estimatethe distance of a nearby tower from him.He stands at a oint A in front of the tower C and s ots a very distant object O in linewith AC. He then walks er endicular toAC u to B, a distance of 100 m, and looksat O and C again. Since O is very distant,the direction BO is ractically the same asAO; but he finds the line of sight of C shiftedfrom the original line of sight by an angle = 40 0 ( is known as arallax) estimatethe distance of the tower C from his original osition A. Fig. 2.3 Answer We have, arallax angle = 40 0

From Fig. 2.3, AB = AC tan AC = AB/tan = 100 m/tan 40 0 = 100 m/0.8391 = 119 m ! Exam le 2.3 The moon is observed fromtwo diametrically o osite oints A and Bon Earth. The angle subtended at themoon by the two directions of observationis 1 o 54 . Given the diameter of the Earth tobe about 1.276 10 7 m, com ute thedistance of the moon from the Earth. Answer We have = 1 54 = 114 ( ) ( ) -6 114 60 4.85 10 = rad = 3.32 10 2 r d, since 6 1 4.85 10 . =" r d Also b = B =1.276 m 10 7 Hence from Eq. (2.1), we h ve the e rth moondist nce, D b

=/ = 1.276 103.32 10 7-2 8 3.84 10 m = ! Exam le 2.4 The Suns angular diameter is measured to be 1920 . The distance D of the Sun from the Earth is 1.496 10 11 m.What is the diameter of the Sun ? Fig. 2.2 Parallax method. PHYSICS20 ! Answer Suns angular diameter = 1920" = 1920 4.85 10 r d 6 = 9.31 10 r d 3 Suns di meter d D = 3 119.31 10 1.496 10 m = 9 =1.39 10 m ! 2.3.2Estim tion of Very Sm ll Dist nces:Size of

Molecule

To me sure very sm ll size like th t of molecule (10 8 m to 10 10 m), we h ve to dopt speci l methods. We c nnot use screw g ugeor simil r instruments. Even microscope h scert in limit tions. An optic l microscope usesvisible light to look t the system under investig tion. As light h s w ve like fe tures,the resolution to which n optic l microscopec n be used is the w velength of light (A det iledexpl n tion c n be found in the Cl ss XIIPhysics textbook). For visible light the r nge of w velengths is from bout 4000 to 7000 (1 ngstrom = 1 = 10 10 m). Hence n optic lmicroscope c nnot resolve p rticles with sizessm ller th n this. Inste d of visible light, we c nuse n electron be m. Electron be ms c n befocussed by properly designed electric ndm gnetic fields. The resolution of such nelectron microscope is limited fin lly by the f ct th t electrons c n lso beh ve s w ves ! (Youwill le rn more bout this in cl ss XII). Thew velength of n electron c n be s sm ll s fr ction of n ngstrom. Such electronmicroscopes with resolution of 0.6 h ve beenbuilt. They c n lmost resolve toms ndmolecules in m teri l. In recent times,tunnelling microscopy h s been developed inwhich g in the limit of resolution is better th n n ngstrom. It is possible to estim te the sizesof molecules.A simple method for estim ting the molecul r size of oleic cid is given below. Oleic cid is so py liquid with l rge molecul r size of theorder of 10 9 m.The ide is to first form mono molecul r l yer of oleic cid on w ter surf ce.We dissolve 1 cm 3 of oleic cid in lcohol tom ke solution of 20 cm 3 . Then we t ke 1 cm 3 of this solution nd dilute it to 20 cm 3 , using lcohol. So, the concentr tion of the solution isequ l to 3 1cm20 20 of oleic cid/cm 3 of solution. Next we lightly sprinkle somelycopodium powder on the surf ce of w ter in l rge trough nd we put one drop of this solutionin the w ter. The oleic cid drop spre ds into thin, l rge nd roughly circul r film of molecul r thickness on w ter surf ce. Then, we quickly me sure the di meter of the thin film to get its re A . Suppose we h ve dropped n drops inthe w ter. Initi lly, we determine the pproxim te volume of e ch drop ( V cm 3 ).Volume of n drops of solution=

nV cm 3 Amount of oleic cid in this solution= nV 120 20 cm 3 This solution of oleic cid spre ds very f st on the surf ce of w ter nd forms very thinl yer of thickness t . If this spre ds to form film of re A cm 2 , then the thickness of thefilm t = Volume of the filmAre of the filmor,cm20 20 nV t A = (2.3)If we ssume th t the film h s mono molecul r thickness, then this becomes the size or di meter of molecule of oleic cid. The v lue of thisthickness comes out to be of the order of 10 9 m. Ex mple 2.5 If the size of nucleus (inthe r nge of 10 15 to 10 14 m) is sc led upto the tip of sh rp pin, wh t roughly isthe size of n tom ? Assume tip of the pinto be in the r nge 10 5 m to 10 4 m. Answer The size of nucleus is in the r nge of 10 15 m nd 10 14 m. The tip of sh rp pin ist ken to be in the r nge of 10 5 m nd 10 4 m.Thus we re sc ling up by f ctor of 10 10 . An tom roughly of size 10 10 m will be sc led up to size of 1 m. Thus nucleus in n tom is s sm llin size s the tip of sh rp pin pl ced t the centreof sphere of r dius bout metre long. ! UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 21 2.3.3R nge of Lengths The sizes of the objects we come

cross in theuniverse v ry over

very

wide r nge. These m y v ry from the size of the order of 10 14 m of thetiny nucleus of n tom to the size of the order of 10 26 m of the extent of the observ ble universe.T ble 2.6 gives the r nge nd order of lengths nd sizes of some of these objects.We lso use cert in speci l length units for short nd l rge lengths. These re1 fermi = 1 f = 10 15 m1 ngstrom = 1 = 10 10 m1 stronomic l unit = 1 AU ( ver ge dist nceof the Sun from the E rth)= 1.496 10 11 m1 light ye r = 1 ly= 9.46 10 15 m (dist nceth t light tr vels with velocity of 3 10 8 m s 1 in 1 ye r)1 p rsec = 3.08 10 16 m (P rsec is thedist nce t which ver ge r dius of e rths orbit subtends n ngle of 1 rc second) 2.4MEASUREMENT OF MASS M ss is b sic property of m tter. It does not depend on the temper ture, pressure or loc tionof the object in sp ce. The SI unit of m ss iskilogr m (kg). The prototypes of the Intern tion lst nd rd kilogr m supplied by the Intern tion lBure u of Weights nd Me sures (BIPM) re v il ble in m ny other l bor tories of different countries. In Indi , this is v il ble t theN tion l Physic l L bor tory (NPL), New Delhi.While de ling with toms nd molecules, thekilogr m is n inconvenient unit. In this c se,there is n import nt st nd rd unit of m ss,c lled the unified tomic m ss unit (u), whichh s been est blished for expressing the m ssof toms s1 unified tomic m ss unit = 1u= (1/12) of the m ss of n tom of c rbon 12isotope ( ) 612 C including the m ss of electrons= 1.66 10 27 kgM ss of commonly v il ble objects c n bedetermined by common b l nce like the oneused in grocery shop. L rge m sses in theuniverse like pl nets, st rs, etc., b sed onNewtons l w of gr vit tion c n be me sured by using gr vit tion l method (See Ch pter 8). For me surement of sm ll m sses of tomic/sub tomic p rticles etc., we m ke use of m ssspectrogr ph in which r dius of the tr jectory is proportion l to the m ss of ch rged p rticlemoving in uniform electric nd m gnetic field.

PHYSICS22 T ble 2.4R nge nd order of m sses 2.5MEASUREMENT OF TIME To me sure ny time interv l we need clock.We now use n tomic st nd rd of time , whichis b sed on the periodic vibr tions produced in cesium tom. This is the b sis of the cesiumclock , sometimes c lled tomic clock , used inthe n tion l st nd rds. Such st nd rds re v il ble in m ny l bor tories. In the cesium tomic clock, the second is t ken s the timeneeded for 9,192,631,770 vibr tions of ther di tion corresponding to the tr nsitionbetween the two hyperfine levels of the groundst te of cesium 133 tom. The vibr tions of thecesium tom regul te the r te of this cesium tomic clock just s the vibr tions of b l ncewheel regul te n ordin ry wristw tch or thevibr tions of sm ll qu rtz cryst l regul te qu rtz wristw tch.The cesium tomic clocks re very ccur te.In principle they provide port ble st nd rd. Then tion l st nd rd of time interv l second swell s the frequency is m int ined through four cesium tomic clocks. A cesium tomic clock isused t the N tion l Physic l L bor tory (NPL),New Delhi to m int in the Indi n st nd rd of time.In our country, the NPL h s the responsibility of m inten nce nd improvement of physic lst nd rds, including th t of time, frequency, etc.Note th t the Indi n St nd rd Time (IST) islinked to this set of tomic clocks. The efficient cesium tomic clocks re so ccur te th t they imp rt the uncert inty in time re lis tion s 1 10 13 , i.e. 1 p rt in 10 13 . This implies th t the uncert inty g ined over time by such device is less th n 1 p rt in 10 13 ; they lose or g in no more th n 3 s in one ye r. In view of the tremendous ccur cy in time me surement,the SI unit of length h s been expressed in termsthe p th length light tr vels in cert in interv lof time (1/299, 792, 458 of second) (T ble 2.1).The time interv l of events th t we come cross in the universe v ry over very wider nge. T ble 2.5 gives the r nge nd order of some typic l time interv ls.You m y notice th t there is n interestingcoincidence between the numbers ppe ringin T bles 2.3 nd 2.5. Note th t the r tio of thelongest nd shortest lengths of objects in our universe is bout 10 41 . Interestingly enough,the r tio of the longest nd shortest timeinterv ls ssoci ted with the events nd objectsin our universe is lso bout 10 41 . This number,10

2.4.1R nge of M sses The m sses of the objects, we come cross inthe universe, v ry over very wide r nge. Thesem y v ry from tiny m ss of the order of 10 30 kgof n electron to the huge m ss of bout 10 55 kgof the known universe. T ble 2.4 gives the r nge nd order of the typic l m sses of v riousobjects. T ble 2.3R nge nd order of lengths

41 comes up g in in T ble 2.4, which liststypic l m sses of objects. The r tio of thel rgest nd sm llest m sses of the objects inour universe is bout (10 41 ) 2 . Is this curiouscoincidence between these l rge numberspurely ccident l ? 2.6ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTSAND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT Me surement is the found tion of llexperiment l science nd technology. The result of every me surement by ny me suringinstrument cont ins some uncert inty. Thisuncert inty is c lled error . Every c lcul tedqu ntity which is b sed on me sured v lues, lso h s n error. We sh ll distinguish betweentwo terms: ccur cy nd precision . The ccur cy of me surement is me sure of how close the me sured v lue is to the true v lue of the qu ntity. Precision tells us to wh t resolutionor limit the qu ntity is me sured.The ccur cy in me surement m y depend onsever l f ctors, including the limit or the resolutionof the me suring instrument. For ex mple, supposethe true v lue of cert in length is ne r 3.678 cm.In one experiment, using me suring instrument of resolution 0.1 cm, the me sured v lue is found tobe 3.5 cm, while in nother experiment using me suring device of gre ter resolution, s y 0.01 cm,the length is determined to be 3.38 cm. The first me surement h s more ccur cy (bec use it is UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 23 closer to the true v lue) but less precision (itsresolution is only 0.1 cm), while thesecond me surement is less ccur te but more precise. Thus every me surement is pproxim te due to errors in me surement. Ingener l, the errors in me surement c n bebro dly cl ssified s ( ) system tic errors nd(b) r ndom errors. System tic errors The system tic errors re those errors th t tend to be in one direction, either positive or neg tive. Some of the sources of system ticerrors re :( ) Instrument l errors th t rise from theerrors due to imperfect design or c libr tionof the me suring instrument, zero error inthe instrument, etc. For ex mple, thetemper ture gr du tions of thermometer m y be in dequ tely c libr ted (it m y re d104 C t the boiling point of w ter t STPwhere s it should re d 100 C); in vernier c llipers the zero m rk of vernier sc le m y not coincide with the zero m rk of the m insc le, or simply n ordin ry metre sc le m y be worn off t one end.(b) Imperfection in experiment l techniqueor procedure To determine the temper tureof hum n body, thermometer pl cedunder the rmpit will lw ys give temper ture lower th n the ctu l v lue of the body temper ture. Other extern lconditions (such s ch nges in temper ture,humidity, wind velocity, etc.) during theexperiment m y system tic lly ffect theme surement.(c) Person l errors

th t rise due to nindividu ls bi s, l ck of proper setting of the pp r tus or individu ls c relessnessin t king observ tions without observingproper prec utions, etc. For ex mple, if you,by h bit, lw ys hold your he d bit too f r to the right while re ding the position of needle on the sc le, you will introduce nerror due to p r ll x .System tic errors c n be minimised by improving experiment l techniques, selectingbetter instruments nd removing person l bi s s f r s possible. For given set up, theseerrors m y be estim ted to cert in extent ndthe necess ry corrections m y be pplied to there dings. R ndom errors The r ndom errors

PHYSICS24 to sign nd size. These c n rise due to r ndom nd unpredict ble fluctu tions in experiment lconditions (e.g. unpredict ble fluctu tions intemper ture, volt ge supply, mech nic lvibr tions of experiment l set ups, etc), person l(unbi sed) errors by the observer t kingre dings, etc. For ex mple, when the s meperson repe ts the s me observ tion, it is very likely th t he m y get different re dingseverytime. Le st count error The sm llest v lue th t c n be me sured by theme suring instrument is c lled its le st count .All the re dings or me sured v lues re good only up to this v lue.The le st count error is the error ssoci ted with the resolution of the instrument.For ex mple, vernier c llipers h s the le st count s 0.01cm; spherometer m y h ve le st count of 0.001 cm. Le st count error belongs to the c tegory of r ndom errors but within limited size; it occurs with bothsystem tic nd r ndom errors. If we use metresc le for me surement of length, it m y h vegr du tions t 1 mm division sc le sp cing or interv l.Using instruments of higher precision,improving experiment l techniques, etc., we c nreduce the le st count error. Repe ting theobserv tions sever l times nd t king the rithmetic me n of ll the observ tions, theme n v lue would be very close to the true v lueof the me sured qu ntity. 2.6.1Absolute Error, Rel tive Error ndPercent ge Error ( ) Suppose the v lues obt ined in sever lme surements re 1 , 2 , 3 ...., n . The rithmetic me n of these v lues is t ken sthe best possible v lue of the qu ntity under the given conditions of me surement s :

me n = ( 1 + 2

re those errors, which occur irregul rly nd hence T ble 2.5R nge nd order of time interv ls

re r ndom with respect

+ 3 +...+ n ) / n (2.4)or, /n me n i i 1n = = (2.5)This is bec use, s expl ined e rlier, it isre son ble to suppose th t individu lme surements re s likely to overestim te s to underestim te the true v lue of thequ ntity. The m gnitude of the differencebetween the true v lue of the qu ntity nd the individu l me surement v lue isc lled the bsolute error of theme surement . This is denoted by a . Inabsence of any other method of knowing truevalue, we considered arithmatic mean as thetrue value. Then the errors in the individualmeasurement values are a 1 = a mean a 1 , a 2 = a mean a 2 ,.... .... ........ .... .... a n = a mean a n The a

calculated above may be positive incertain cases and negative in some other cases. But absolute error a will alwaysbe positive.(b) The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is taken as the final or mean absolute error of the value of the physical quantity a . It isrepresented by a mean .Thus, a mean = ( a 1 + a 2 + a 3 +...+ a n )/ n (2.6) = = i 1n a i / n (2.7)If we do a single measurement, the value weget may be in the range a mean a mean i.e. a = a

mean a mean or, a mean a mean a a mean + a mean (2.8)This implies that any measurement of thephysical quantity a is likely to lie between (a mean + a mean ) and (a mean a mean ).(c) Instead of the absolute error, we often usethe relative error or the percentage error ( a ). T he relative error is the ratio of themean absolute error a mean to the meanvalue

a mean of the quantity measured . UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 25 !! Relative error = a mean / a mean (2.9)When the relative error is expressed in per cent, it is called the percentage error ( a ).Thus, Percentage error a = ( a mean / a mean ) 100% (2.10)Let us now consider an example. Example 2.6 Two clocks are being testedagainst a standard clock located in a national laboratory. At 12:00:00 noon by the standard clock, the readings of the twoclocks are : Clock 1 Clock 2 Monday 12:00:05 10:15:06Tuesday 12:01:15 10:14:59Wednesday 11:59:08 10:15:18Thursday 12:01:50 10:15:07Friday 11:59:15 10:14:53Saturday 12:01:30 10:15:24Sunday 12:01:19 10:15:11 If you are doing an experiment that requiresprecision time interval measurements, whichof the two clocks will you prefer ? Answer The range of variation over the sevendays of observations is 162 s for clock 1, and31 s for clock 2. The average reading of clock 1is much closer to the standard time than theaverage reading of clock 2. The important point is that a clocks zero error is not as significant for precision work as its variation, because a zero-error can always be easily corrected.Hence clock 2 is to be preferred to clock 1. ""! Example 2.7 We measure the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. Insuccessive measurements, the readingsturn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71sand 2.80 s. Calculate the absolute errors,relative error or percentage error. Answer The mean period of oscillation of thependulum ( ) T

=+ + + + 2.63 2.56 2.42 2.71 2.80 s5 =13.125s= 2.624 s= 2.62 sAs the periods are measured to a resolutionof 0.01 s, all times are to the second decimal; it is proper to put this mean period also to thesecond decimal.The errors in the measurements are2.63 s 2.62 s = 0.01 s2.56 s 2.62 s = 0.06 s2.42 s 2.62 s = 0.20 s2.71 s 2.62 s = 0.09 s2.80 s 2.62 s = 0.18 sNote that the errors have the same units as thequantity to be measured.The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors(for arithmetic mean, we take only themagnitudes) is mean = [(0.01+ 0.06+0.20+0.09+0.18)s]/5= 0.54 s/5= 0.11 s hat means, the period of oscillation of thesimple pendulum is (2.62 0.11) s i.e. it liesbetween (2.62 + 0.11) s and (2.62 0.11) s or between 2.73 s an 2.51 s. As the arithmeticmean of all the absolute errors is 0.11 s, thereis alrea y an error in the tenth of a secon .Hence there is no point in giving the perio to a hun re th. A more correct way will be to write T = 2.6 0.1 sNote that the last numeral 6 is unreliable, sinceit may be anything between 5 an 7. We in icatethis by saying that the measurement has twosignificant figures. In this case, the twosignificant figures are 2, which is reliable an 6, which has an error associate with it. Youwill learn more about the significant figures insection 2.7.For this example, the relative error or thepercentage error is a = = 01100 4.2.6 % """""""! 2.6.2Combination of Errors If we o an experiment involving severalmeasurements, we must know how the errorsin all the measurements combine. For example, PHYSICS26 ! ensity is the ratio of the mass to the volume of the substance. If we have errors in themeasurement of mass an of the sizes or imensions, we must know what the error willbe in the ensity of the substance. To make suchestimates, we shoul learn how errors combinein various mathematical operations. For this,we use the following proce ure. (a) Error of a sum or a ifference Suppose two physical quantities A an B havemeasure values A A , B

B respectively where A and B are their absolute errors. Wewish to find the error Z in the sum Z = A + B .We have by addition, Z Z = ( A

A ) + ( B B ).The maximum possible error in Z Z = A + B For the difference Z = A B , we have Z

Z = (A

A ) ( B B ) = ( A B ) A B or, Z = A

B The maximum value of the error Z is again A + B . Hence the rule : When two quantities areadded or subtracted, the absolute error in thefinal result is the sum of the absolute errorsin the individual quantities. Example 2.8 The temperatures of twobodies measured by a thermometer are t 1 = 20 0 C 0.5 0 C and t 2 = 50 0 C 0.5 0

C.Calculate the temperature difference andthe error theirin. Answer t = t 2 t 1 = (50 0 C 0.5 0 C) (20 0 C 0.5 0 C) t = 30 0 C 1 0 C ! (b)Error of a product or a quotient Suppose Z = AB and the measured values of A and B are A A and B B . Then Z Z = ( A A ) ( B

 B )= AB B A A B

A B .Dividing LHS by Z and RHS by AB we have,1 ( Z/Z ) = 1 ( A / A ) ( B / B ) ( A / A )( B / B ).Since A and B are small, we shall ignore their product.Hence the maximum relative error Z / Z = (

A/A) + ( B/B).You can easily verify that this is true for divisionalso. Hence the rule : When two quantities aremultiplied or divided, the relative error in theresult is the sum of the relative errors in themultipliers. How will you measure the length of a line? What a nave question, at this stage, you might say! But what if it is not a straight line? Draw a zigzag line in your copy, or on the blackboard.Well, not too difficult again. You might take a thread, place it along the line, open up thethread, and measure its length.Now imagine that you want to measure thelength of a national highway, a river, the railway track between two stations, or the boundary between two states or two nations. If you takea string of length 1 metre or 100 metre, keep it along the line, shift its position every time, thearithmetic of man-hours of labour and expenseson the project is not commensurate with theoutcome. Moreover, errors are bound to occur in this enormous task. There is an interestingfact about this. France and Belgium share a common international boundary, whose lengthmentioned in the official documents of the twocountries differs substantially!Go one step beyond and imagine thecoastline where land meets sea. Roads and rivershave fairly mild bends as compared to a coastline. Even so, all documents, including our school books, contain information on the lengthof the coastline of Gujarat or Andhra Pradesh,or the common boundary between two states,etc. Railway tickets come with the distancebetween stations printed on them. We havemilestones all along the roads indicating thedistances to various towns. So, how is it done?One has to decide how much error one cantolerate and optimise cost-effectiveness. If youwant smaller errors, it will involve hightechnology and high costs. Suffice it to say that it requires fairly advanced level of physics,mathematics, engineering and technology. It belongs to the areas of fractals, which has lately become popular in theoretical physics. Eventhen one doesnt know how much to rely onthe figure that props up, as is clear from thestory of France and Belgium. Incidentally, thisstory of the France-Belgium discrepancy appears on the first page of an advanced Physicsbook on the subject of fractals and chaos! UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 27 !!!! Example 2.9 The resistance R = V/I where V 5)V and = (100 I = (10 0.2)A. Find thepercentage error in R . Answer The percentage error in V is 5% and in I it is 2%. The total error in R

would thereforebe 5% + 2% = 7%. ! Example 2.10 Two resistors of resistances R 1 = 100 3 ohm and R 2 = 200 4 ohm areconnected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Findthe equivalent resistance of the (a) seriescombination, (b) parallel combination. Usefor (a) the relation R =R 1 + R 2, and for (b)1 1 1 1 2 = + R R R and 1 22 2 21 2 R R R R R R = + . Answer (a) The equivalent resistance of seriescombination R =R 1 + R 2 3) ohm + (200 4) ohm= 300 7 ohm.(b) The equivalent = (100 resistance of parallelcombination 1 21 2 2003 R R R R R = =+ = 66.7 ohmThen, from 1 2 1 1 1 R R R = + we get, 1 22 2 21 2 R R R R R R = + ( ) ( ) 2 21 22 21 2 R R R R R R R = + 2 2

66.7 66.73 4100 200 = + = 1.8Then,66.7 1.8 ohm R = (Here, R is expresed as 1.8 instead of 2 tokeep in confirmity with the rules of significant figures.) ""! (c)Error in case of a measured quantityraised to a power Suppose Z = A 2 ,Then, Z / Z = ( A / A ) + ( A / A ) = 2 ( A / A ).Hence, the relative error in A 2 is two times theerror in A .In general, if Z = A p B q /C r Then, Z / Z = p

( A / A ) + q ( B/B ) + r ( C / C ). Hence the rule : The relative error in aphysical quantity raised to the power k is thek times the relative error in the individualquantity. Example 2.11 Find the relative error in Z , if Z = A 4 B 1/3 /CD 3/2 . Answer The relative error in Z is Z / Z =4( A / A ) +(1/3) ( B/B ) + ( C / C ) + (3/2) ( D/ D

). ! Example 2.12 The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T L/g. = 2 Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to 1mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillationsof the endulum is found to be 90 s usinga wrist watch of 1 s resolution. What is theaccuracy in the determination of g ? Answer g = 4 2 L / T 2 Here, T = t n and t T n = . Therefore, T t T t = .The errors in both L and t are the least count errors. Therefore,( g/g ) = ( L/L ) + 2( T/T )= 0.1 12 0.03220.0 90 + =

Thus, the percentage error in g is 100 (

 g/g ) = 100( L/L ) + 2 100 ( T/T )= 3% ! 2.7SIGNIFICANT FIGURES As discussed above, every measurement involves errors. Thus, the result of measurement should be reported in a way that indicates the precision of measurement.Normally, the reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in thenumber that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus PHYSICS28 the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or significant figures . If wesay the period of oscillation of a simplependulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 arereliable and certain, while the digit 2 isuncertain. Thus, the measured value has threesignificant figures. The length of an object reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm hasfour significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 arecertain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,reporting the result of measurement that includes more digits than the significant digitsis superfluous and also misleading since it wouldgive a wrong idea about the precision of measurement.The rules for determining the number of significant figures can be understood from thefollowing examples. Significant figures indicate,as already mentioned, the precision of measurement which depends on the least count of the measuring instrument. A choice of change of different units does not change thenumber of significant digits or figures in ameasurement. This important remark makesmost of the following observations clear:(1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four significant figures. But in different units, thesame value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08mm or 23080 m.All these numbers have the same number of significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four.This shows that the location of decimal point isof no consequence in determining the number of significant figures.The example gives the following rules : All the non-zero digits are significant. All the zeros between two non-zero digitsare significant, no matter where thedecimal point is, if at all. If the number is less than 1, the zero(s)on the right of decimal point but to theleft of the first non-zero digit are notsignificant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlinedzeroes are not significant].

 The terminal or trailing zero(s) in anumber without a decimal point are notsignificant. [Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures, the trailing zero(s)being not significant.] However, you can alsosee the next observation. The trailing zero(s) in a number with adecimal point are significant. [The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four significant figures each.](2) There can be some confusion regarding thetrailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported tobe 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes hereare meant to convey the precision of measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If these were not, it would be superfluous to writethem explicitly, the reported measurement would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now supposewe change units, then4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 kmSince the last number has trailing zero(s) in a number with no decimal, we would concludeerroneously from observation (1) above that thenumber has two significant figures, while infact, it has four significant figures and a merechange of units cannot change the number of significant figures.(3) To remove such ambiguities indetermining the number of significantfigures, the best way is to report everymeasurement in scientific notation (in thepower of 10). In this notation, every number isexpressed as a 10 b , where a is a number between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order toget an approximate idea of the number, we may round off the number a to 1 (for a 5) and to 10(for 5< a 10). Then the number can beexpressed approximately as 10 b in which theexponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of magnitude of the physical quantity. When only an estimate is required, the quantity is of theorder of 10 b . For example, the diameter of theearth (1.28 10 7 m) is of the order of 10 7 m withthe order of magnitude 7. The diameter of hydrogen atom (1.06

10 10 m) is of the order of 10 10 m, with the order of magnitude10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 ordersof magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.It is often customary to write the decimal after the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in(a) above disappears :4.700 m = 4.700 10 2 cm= 4.700 10 3 mm = 4.700 10 3 kmThe power of 10 is irrelevant to thedetermination of significant figures. However, all UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 29 zeroes appearing in the base number in thescientific notation are significant. Each number in this case has four significant figures.Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusionarises about the trailing zero(s) in the basenumber a . They are always significant.(4) The scientific notation is ideal for reportingmeasurement. But if this is not adopted, we usethe rules adopted in the preceding example : For a number greater than 1, without anydecimal, the trailing zero(s) are notsignificant. For a number with a decimal, the trailingzero(s) are significant. (5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)is never significant. However, the zeroes at theend of such number are significant in a measurement.(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which areneither rounded numbers nor numbersrepresenting measured values are exact andhave infinite number of significant digits. For example in 2 d r = or s = 2 r , the factor 2 is anexact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00or 2.0000 as re uired. Similarly, in t T n = , n isan exact number. 2.7.1Rules for Arithmetic O erations withSignificant Figures The result of a calculation involving a roximatemeasured values of uantities (i.e. values withlimited number of significant figures) must reflect the uncertainties in the original measured values.It cannot be

more accurate than the originalmeasured values themselves on which the result is based. In general, the final result should not have more significant figures than the originaldata from which it was obtained. Thus, if mass of an object is measured to be, say, 4.237 g (four significant figures) and its volume is measured tobe 2.51 cm 3 , then its density, by mere arithmeticdivision, is 1.68804780876 g/cm 3 u to 11 decimal laces. It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant to record the calculated value of density to such a recision when the measurements on which thevalue is based, have much less recision. Thefollowing rules for arithmetic o erations withsignificant figures ensure that the final result of a calculation is shown with the recision that isconsistent with the recision of the in ut measured values :(1) In multi lication or division, the finalresult should retain as many significantfigures as are there in the original numberwith the least significant figures. Thus, in the exam le above, density shouldbe re orted to three significant figures. Density 4.237g2.51 cm1.69 g cm 3-3 = = Similarly, if the s eed of light is given as3.00 10 8 m s -1 ( three significant figures) andone year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 10 7 s ( five significant figures), the light year is 9.47 10 15 m ( three significant figures).(2) In addition or subtraction, the final resultshould retain as many decimal laces as arethere in the number with the least decimal laces. For exam le, the sum of the numbers436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmeticaddition, is 663.821 g. But the least recisemeasurement (227.2 g) is correct to only onedecimal lace. The final result should, therefore,be rounded off to 663.8 g.Similarly, the difference in length can beex ressed as :0.307 m 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 10 3 m.Note that we should not use the rule (1)a licable for multi lication and division andwrite 664 g as the result in the exam le of addition

and 3.00 10 3 m in the exam le of subtraction . They do not convey the recisionof measurement ro erly. For addition andsubtraction, the rule is in terms of decimal laces. 2.7.2Rounding off the Uncertain Digits The result of com utation with a roximatenumbers, which contain more than oneuncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rulesfor rounding off numbers to the a ro riatesignificant figures are obvious in most cases. A number 2.746 rounded off to three significant figures is 2.75, while the number 2.743 wouldbe 2.74. The rule by convention is that the receding digit is raised by 1 if the PHYSICS30 !! insignificant digit to be dro ed (theunderlined digit in this case) is more than5, and is left unchanged if the latter is lessthan 5 . But what if the number Here, theconvention is if the receding digit and, if it is odd, the is 2.745 inwhich the insignificant digit is 5. that iseven, the insignificant digit is sim lydro ed receding digitis raised by

1. Then, the number 2.745 roundedoff to three significant figures becomes 2.74. Onthe other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off to three significant figures becomes 2.74 sincethe receding digit is odd.In any involved or com lex multi-ste calculation, you should retain, in intermediateste s, one digit more than the significant digitsand round off to ro er significant figures at theend of the calculation. Similarly, a number known to be within many significant figures,such as in 2.99792458 10 8 m/s for the s eedof light in vacuum, is rounded off to ana roximate value 3 10 8 m/s , which is oftenem loyed in com utations. Finally, remember that exact numbers that a ear in formulae like2 in T L g = 2 ,have a large (infinite) number of significant figures. The value of =3.1415926.... is known to a large number of significant figures. You may take the value as3.142 or 3.14 for

, with limited number of significant figures as re uired in s ecificcases. Exam le 2.13 Each side of a cube ismeasured to be 7.203 m. What are thetotal surface area and the volume of thecube to a ro riate significant figures? Answer The number of significant figures inthe measured length is 4. The calculated area and the volume should therefore be rounded off to 4 significant figures.Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203) 2 m 2 = 311.299254 m 2 = 311.3 m 2 Volume of the cube = (7.203) 3 m 3 = 373.714754 m 3 = 373.7 m 3 ! Exam le 2.14 5.74 g of a substanceoccu ies 1.2 cm 3 . Ex ress its density by kee ing the significant figures in view. Answer There are 3 significant figures in themeasured mass whereas there are only 2significant figures in the measured volume.Hence the density should be ex ressed to only 2 significant figures. Density = 5.741.2g cm 3 = 4.8 g cm 3 . ""! 2.7.3Rules for Determining the Uncertaintyin the Results of ArithmaticCalculations he rules for determining the uncertainty or error in the number/measured quantity inarithmetic operations can be understood fromthe following examples.(1) If the length and breadth of a thinrectangular sheet are measured, using a metrescale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, thereare three significant figures in eachmeasurement. It means that the length l may be written as l = 16.2 0.1 cm= 16.2 cm 0.6 %.Similarly, the breadth b may be written as b = 10.1 0.1 cm= 10.1 cm 1 % hen, the error of the product of two (or

more)experimental values, using the combination of errors rule, will be l b = 163.62 cm 2 + 1.6% = 163.62 + 2.6 cm 2 his leads us to quote the final result as l b = 164 + 3 cm 2 Here 3 cm 2 is the uncertainty or error in theestimation of area of rectangular sheet.(2) If a set of experimental data is specifiedto n significant figures, a result obtained bycombining the data will also be valid to nsignificant figures. However, if data are subtracted, the number of significant figures can be reduced. UNI S AND MEASUREMEN 31 For example, 12.9 g 7.06 g, both specifie to threesignificant figures, cannot properly be evaluate as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as uncertainties insubtraction or a ition combine in a ifferent fashion (smallest number of ecimal places rather than the number of significant figures in any of the number a e or subtracte ).(3) The relative error of a value of numberspecifie to significant figures epen s notonly on n but also on the number itself. For example, the accuracy in measurement of mass 1.02 g is 0.01 g whereas another measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to 0.01 g.The relative error in 1.02 g is= ( 0.01/1.02) 100 %= 1%Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is= ( 0.01/9.89) 100 %= 0.1 %Finally, remember that interme iate results ina multi-step computation shoul becalculate to one more significant figure inevery measurement than the number of igits in the least precise measurement. These shoul be justifie by the ata an thenthe arithmetic operations may be carrie out;otherwise roun ing errors can buil up. For example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculate (after roun ing off) to the same number of significant figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of 0.104 calculate to three significant figures is9.62. However, if we ha written 1/9.58 = 0.1044an then taken the reciprocal to three significant figures, we woul have retrieve the originalvalue of 9.58.This example justifies the i ea to retain onemore extra igit (than the number of igits inthe least precise measurement) in interme iatesteps of the complex multi-step calculations inor er to avoi a itional errors in the processof roun ing off the numbers. 2.8DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL Q UANTITIES The nature of a physical quantity is escribe by its imensions. All the physical quantitiesrepresente by erive units can be expresse in terms of some combination of sevenfun amental or base quantities. We shall callthese base quantities as the seven imensionsof the physical worl , which are enote withsquare brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the imension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current [A], thermo ynamic temperature

[K], luminousintensity [c ], an amount of substance [mol]. The imensions of a physical quantity are thepowers (or exponents) to which the basequantities are raise to represent thatquantity . Note that using the square brackets[ ] roun a quantity means that we are ealingwith the imensions of the quantity.In mechanics, all the physical quantities canbe written in terms of the imensions [L], [M]an [T]. For example, the volume occupie by an object is expresse as the pro uct of length,brea th an height, or three lengths. Hence the imensions of volume are [L] [L] [L] = [L] 3 = [L 3 ].As the volume is in epen ent of mass an time,it is sai to possess zero imension in mass [M],zero imension in time [T] an three imensions in length.Similarly, force, as the pro uct of mass an acceleration, can be expresse asForce = mass acceleration= mass (length)/(time) 2 The imensions of force are [M] [L]/[T] 2 =[M L T 2 ]. Thus, the force has one imension inmass, one imension in length, an 2 imensions in time. The imensions in all other base quantities are zero.Note that in this type of representation, themagnitu es are not consi ere . It is the quality of the type of the physical quantity that enters.Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,average velocity, final velocity, an spee areall equivalent in this context. Since all thesequantities can be expresse as length/time,their imensions are [L]/[T] or [L T 1 ]. 2.9DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE ANDDIMENSIONAL E Q UATIONS The expression which shows how an which of the base quantities represent the imensionsof a physical quantity is calle the imensional formula of the given physical quantity. For example, the imensional formula of the volumeis [M L 3 T], an that of spee or velocity is[M L T -1 ]. Similarly, [M L T 2 ] is the imensionalformula of acceleration an [M L 3 T] that of mass ensity.An equation obtaine by equating a physicalquantity with its imensional formula is calle the imensional equation of the physical

PHYSICS32 quantity. Thus, the imensional equations arethe equations, which represent the imensionsof a physical quantity in terms of the basequantities. For example, the imensionalequations of volume [ V ], spee [ v ], force [ F ] an mass ensity [ ] may be exp essed as[ V ] = [M 0 L 3 T 0 ][ v ] = [M 0 L T 1 ][ F ] = [M L T 2 ][ ] = [M L 3 T 0 ]The dimensional equation can be obtainedf om the equation ep esenting the elationsbetween the physical quantities. Thedimensional fo mulae of a la ge numbe andwide va iety of physical quantities, de ived f omthe equations ep esenting the elationshipsamong othe physical quantities and exp essedin te ms of base quantities a e given inAppendix 9 fo you guidance and eady efe ence. 2.10DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITSAPPLICATIONS The ecognition of concepts of dimensions, whichguide the desc iption of physical behaviou isof basic impo tance as only those physicalquantities can be added o subt acted whichhave the same dimensions. A tho oughunde standing of dimensional analysis helps usin deducing ce tain elations among diffe ent physical quantities and checking the de ivation,accu acy and dimensional consistency o homogeneity of va ious mathematicalexp essions. When magnitudes of two o mo ephysical quantities a e multiplied, thei unitsshould be t eated in the same manne aso dina y algeb aic symbols. We can cancelidentical units in the nume ato anddenominato . The same is t ue fo dimensionsof a physical quantity. Simila ly, physicalquantities ep esented by symbols on both sidesof a mathematical equation must have the samedimensions. 2.10.1Checking the DimensionalConsistency of Equations The magnitudes of physical quantities may beadded togethe o subt acted f om one anothe only if they have the same dimensions. In othe wo ds, we can add o subt act simila physicalquantities. Thus, velocity cannot

be added tofo ce, o an elect ic cu ent cannot be subt actedf om the the modynamic tempe atu e. Thissimple p inciple called the p inciple of homogeneity of dimensions in an equation isext emely useful in checking the co ectness of an equation. If the dimensions of all the te msa e not same, the equation is w ong. Hence, if we de ive an exp ession fo the length (o distance) of an object, ega dless of the symbolsappea ing in the o iginal mathematical elation,when all the individual dimensions a esimplified, the emaining dimension must bethat of length. Simila ly, if we de ive an equationof speed, the dimensions on both the sides of equation, when simplified, must be of length/time, o [L T 1 ].Dimensions a e customa ily used as a p elimina y test of the consistency of anequation, when the e is some doubt about theco ectness of the equation. Howeve , thedimensional consistency does not gua anteeco ect equations. It is unce tain to the extent of dimensionless quantities o functions. Thea guments of special functions, such as thet igonomet ic, loga ithmic and exponentialfunctions must be dimensionless. A pu enumbe , atio of simila physical quantities,such as angle as the atio (length/length), ef active index as the atio (speed of light invacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has nodimensions.Now we can test the dimensional consistency o homogeneity of the equation () 2 1/2 0 0 x x v t a t = + + fo the distance x t avelled by a pa ticle o body in time t which sta ts f om the position x 0 withan initial velocity v 0 at time t = 0 and has unifo maccele ation a along the di ection of motion.The dimensions of each te m may be w itten as[ x ] = [L][ x 0 ] = [L][ v 0 t ] = [L T 1 ] [T]= [L][(1/2) a t 2 ] = [L T

2 ] [T 2 ]= [L]As each te m on the ight hand side of thisequation has the same dimension, namely that of length, which is same as the dimension of left hand side of the equation, hence thisequation is a dimensionally co ect equation.It may be noted that a test of consistency of dimensions tells us no mo e and no less than a UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 33 !!! test of consistency of units, but has theadvantage that we need not commit ou selvesto a pa ticula choice of units, and we need not wo y about conve sions among multiples andsub-multiples of the units. It may be bo ne inmind that if an equation fails this consistencytest, it is p oved w ong, but if it passes, it isnot p oved ight. Thus, a dimensionally co ectequation need not be actually an exact(co ect) equation, but a dimensionally w ong(inco ect) o inconsistent equation must bew ong . Example 2.15 Let us conside an equation 12 m v m g h 2 = whe e m is the mass of the body, v itsvelocity, g is the accele ation due tog avity and h is the height. Check whethe this equation is dimensionally co ect. Answe The dimensions of LHS a e[M] [L T 1 ] 2 = [M] [ L 2 T 2 ]= [M L 2 T 2 ]The dimensions of RHS a e[M][L T 2 ] [L] = [M][L 2 T 2 ]= [M L 2 T 2 ]The dimensions of LHS and RHS a e the same andhence the equation is dimensionally co ect. !

Example 2.16 The SI unit of ene gy isJ = kg m 2 s 2 ; that of speed v is m s 1 andof accele ation a is m s 2 . Which of thefo mulae fo kinetic ene gy ( K ) given below can you ule out on the basis of dimensional a guments ( m stands fo themass of the body) :(a) K = m 2 v 3 (b) K = (1/2)mv 2 (c) K = ma (d) K = (3/16)mv 2 (e) K = (1/2)mv 2 + ma Answe Eve y co ect fo mula o equation must have the same dimensions on both sides of theequation. Also, only quantities with the samephysical dimensions can be added o subt acted. The dimensions of the quantity onthe ight side a e [M 2 L 3 T 3 ] fo (a); [M L 2 T 2 ] fo (b) and (d); [M L T 2 ] fo (c). The quantity on the ight side of (e) has no p ope dimensions sincetwo quantities of diffe ent dimensions have beenadded. Since the kinetic ene gy K has thedimensions of [M L 2 T 2 ], fo mulas (a), (c) and (e)a e uled out. Note that dimensional

a gumentscannot tell which of the two, (b) o (d), is theco ect fo mula. Fo this, one must tu n to theactual definition of kinetic ene gy (see Chapte 6). The co ect fo mula fo kinetic ene gy is givenby (b). ! 2.10.2Deducing Relation among thePhysical Q uantities The method of dimensions can sometimes beused to deduce elation among the physicalquantities. Fo this we should know thedependence of the physical quantity on othe quantities (upto th ee physical quantities o linea ly independent va iables) and conside it as a p oduct type of the dependence. Let us takean example. Example 2.17 Conside a simplependulum, having a bob attached to a st ing, that oscillates unde the action of the fo ce of g avity. Suppose that the pe iodof oscillation of the simple pendulumdepends on its length ( l ), mass of the bob( m ) and accele ation due to g avity ( g ).De ive the exp ession fo its time pe iodusing method of dimensions. Answe The dependence of time pe iod T onthe quantities l, g and m as a p oduct may bew itten as : T = k l x g y m z whe e k is dimensionless constant and x, y and z a e the exponents.By conside ing dimensions on both sides, wehave o o 1 1 1 2 1 [L M T ]=[L ][L T ] [M ] y z = L x+y T 2 y M z On equating the dimensions on both sides,we have x + y = 0; 2 y = 1; and z = 0So that

1 1, , 02 2 x y z = = = Then, T = k l g PHYSICS34 SUMMARY 1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measu ement of physical quantities. Ce tainphysical quantities have been chosen as fundamental o base quantities (such as length,mass, time, elect ic cu ent, the modynamic tempe atu e, amount of substance, andluminous intensity).2. Each base quantity is defined in te ms of a ce tain basic, a bit a ily chosen but p ope ly standa dised efe ence standa d called unit (such as met e, kilog am, second, ampe e,kelvin, mole and candela). The units fo the fundamental o base quantities a e calledfundamental o base units.3. Othe physical quantities, de ived f om the base quantities, can be exp essed as a combination of the base units and a e called de ived units. A complete set of units,both fundamental and de ived, is called a system of units.4. The Inte national System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at p esent inte nationally accepted unit system and is widely used th oughout the wo ld.5. The SI units a e used in all physical measu ements, fo both the base quantities andthe de ived quantities obtained f om them. Ce tain de ived units a e exp essed by means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).6. The SI units have well defined and inte nationally accepted unit symbols (such as m fo met e, kg fo kilog am, s fo second, A fo ampe e, N fo newton etc.).7. Physical measu ements a e usually exp essed fo small and la ge quantities in scientificnotation, with powe s of 10. Scientific notation and the p efixes a e used to simplify measu ement notation and nume ical computation, giving indication to the p ecisionof the numbe s.8. Ce tain gene al ules and guidelines must be followed fo using notations fo physicalquantities and standa d symbols fo SI units, some othe units and SI p efixes fo exp essing p ope ly the physical quantities and measu ements.9. In computing any physical quantity, the units fo de ived quantities involved in the elationship(s) a e t eated as though they we e algeb aic quantities till the desi edunits a e obtained.10. Di ect and indi ect methods can be used fo the measu ement of physical quantities.In measu ed quantities, while exp essing the esult, the accu acy and p ecision of measu ing inst uments along with e o s in measu ements should be taken into account.11. In measu ed and computed quantities p ope significant figu es only should be etained.Rules fo dete mining the numbe of significant figu es, ca ying out a ithmeticope ations with them, and ounding off the unce tain digits must be followed.12. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions desc ibe thenatu e of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the dimensionalconsistency of equations, deducing elations among the physical quantities, etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an exact (co ect) equation,but a dimensionally w ong o inconsistent equation must be w ong. o , T = l k g Note that value of constant k can not be obtainedby the method of

dimensions. He e it does not matte if some numbe multiplies the ight sideof this fo mula, because that does not affect itsdimensions.Actually, k = 2 so that T = 2 l g ! Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducingrelations among the interde endent hysical uantities. However, dimensionless constantscannot be obtained by this method. The methodof dimensions can only test the dimensionalvalidity, but not the exact relationshi between hysical uantities in any e uation. It does not distinguish between the hysical uantitieshaving same dimensions.A number of exercises at the end of thischa ter will hel you develo skill indimensional analysis. UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 35 EXERCISESNote : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.2.1 Fill in the blanks(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is e ual to .....m 3 (b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is e ual to...(mm) 2 (c) A vehicle moving with a s eed of 18 km h 1 covers....m in 1 s(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm 3 or ....kg m 3 . 2.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units(a) 1 kg m 2 s 2 = ....g cm 2 s 2 (b) 1 m = ..... ly (c) 3.0 m s 2 = .... km h 2 (d) G = 6.67 10 11 N m 2 (kg) 2

= .... (cm) 3 s 2 g 1 . 2.3 A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it e uals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1 kg m 2 s 2 .Su ose we em loy a system of units in which the unit of mass e uals kg, the unit of length equ ls m, the unit of time is s. Show that a calorie has a ma nitude 4.2 1 2 2 in terms of the new units. 2.4 Explain this statement clearly :To call a dimensional quantity lar e or small is meanin less without specifyin a standard for comparison. In view of this, reframe the followin statements wherever necessary :(a) atoms are very small o jects( ) a jet plane moves with reat speed(c) the mass of Jupiter is very lar e(d) the air inside this room contains a lar e num er of molecules(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of li ht. 2.5 A new unit of len th is chosen such that the speed of li ht in vacuum is unity. What is the distance etween the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if li ht takes8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ? 2.6 Which of the followin is the most precise device for measurin len th :(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the slidin scale( ) a screw au e of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale(c) an optical instrument that can measure len th to within a wavelen th of li ht ? 2.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair y lookin at it throu h a microscope of ma nification 100. He makes 20 o servations and finds that the avera ewidth of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is theestimate on the thickness of hair ? 2.8 Answer the followin :(a)You are iven a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of the thread ?( )A screw au e has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Doyou think it is possi le to increase the accuracy of the screw au e ar itrarily y increasin the num er of divisions on the circular scale ?(c)The mean diameter of a thin rass rod is to e measured y vernier callipers.

 

 

 

Why is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more relia leestimate than a set of 5 measurements only ? 2.9 The photo raph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm 2 on a 35 mm slide. The slideis projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m 2 . What is the linear ma nification of the projector-screen arran ement. 2.10 State the num er of si nificant fi ures in the followin :(a) 0.007 m 2 ( ) 2.64 10 24 k (c) 0.2370 cm 3 PHYSICS36 (d) 6.320 J(e) 6.032 N m 2 (f) 0.0006032 m 2 2.11 The len th, readth and thickness of a rectan ular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m,and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct si nificant fi ures. 2.12 The mass of a ox measured y a rocers alance is 2.300 k . Two old pieces of masses 20.15 and 20.17 are added to the ox. What is (a) the total mass of the ox, ( ) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct si nificant fi ures ? 2.13 A physical quantity P is related to four o serva les a, , c and d as follows : ( ) = 3 2 P a / c d The percenta e errors of measurement in a ,

, c and d are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2%,respectively. What is the percenta e error in the quantity P ? If the value of P calculatedusin the a ove relation turns out to e 3.763, to what value should you round off the result ? 2.14

A ook with many printin errors contains four different formulas for the displacement y of a particle under oin a certain periodic motion :(a) y = a sin 2 t/T (b) y = a sin vt (c) y = ( a/T ) sin t/a (d) y a t T t T = ( )2 (sin 2 / + cos 2 / ) ( a = maximum dis lacement of the article, v = s eed of the article. T = time- eriodof motion). Rule out the wrong formulas on dimensional grounds. 2.15 A famous relation in hysics relates moving mass m to the rest mass m o of a article in terms of its s eed v and the s eed of light, c . (This relation first arose asa conse uence of s ecial relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relationalmost correctly but forgets where to ut the constant c. He writes : ( ) m m 1 v 0 = 21/2 .Guess where to put the missing c. 2.16 he unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and isdenoted by

 : 1 = 10 10 m. The size of a hydro en atom is a out 0.5 . What is thetotal atomic volume in m 3 of a mole of hydro en atoms ? 2.17 One mole of an ideal as at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L (molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of hydro en ? (Take the size of hydro en molecule to e a out 1 ). Why is this ratioso lar e ? 2.18 Explain this common o servation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast movin train, the near y trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction oppositeto the trains motion, ut the distant o jects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)seem to e stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are movin , thesedistant o jects seem to move with you). 2.19 The principle of parallax in section 2.3.1 is used in the determination of distancesof very distant stars. The aseline AB is the line joinin the Earths two locations six months apart in its or it around the Sun. That is, the aseline is a out the diameter of the Earths or it 3 10 11 m. However, even the nearest stars are so distant that with such a lon aseline, they show parallax only of the order of 1 (second) of arcor so. A parsec is a convenient unit of len th on the astronomical scale. It is thedistance of an o ject that will show a parallax of 1 (second) of arc from oppositeends of a aseline equal to the distance from the Earth to the Sun. How much is a parsec in terms of metres ? UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 37 2.20 The nearest star to our solar system is 4.29 li ht years away. How much is thisdistance in terms of parsecs? How much parallax would this star (named Alpha Centauri) show when viewed from two locations of the Earth six months apart in itsor it around the Sun ? 2.21 Precise measurements of physical quantities are a need of science. For example, toascertain the speed of an aircraft, one must have an accurate method to find itspositions at closely separated instants of time. This was the actual motivation ehindthe discovery of radar in World War II. Think of different examples in modern sciencewhere precise measurements of len th, time, mass etc. are needed. Also, wherever you can, ive a quantitative idea of the precision needed.

 

2.22 Just as precise measurements are necessary in science, it is equally important to ea le to make rou h estimates of quantities usin rudimentary ideas and commono servations. Think of ways y which you can estimate the followin (where anestimate is difficult to o tain, try to et an upper ound on the quantity) :(a) the total mass of rain- earin clouds over India durin the Monsoon( ) the mass of an elephant (c) the wind speed durin a storm(d) the num er of strands of hair on your head(e) the num er of air molecules in your classroom. 2.23 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceedin 10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of a out 6000 K. At these hi htemperatures, no su stance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what ran e do youexpect the mass density of the Sun to e, in the ran e of densities of solids andliquids or ases ? Check if your uess is correct from the followin data : mass of theSun = 2.0 10 30 k , radius of the Sun = 7.0 10 8 m. 2.24 When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million kilometers from the Earth,its an ular diameter is measured to e 35.72 of arc. Calculate the diameter of Jupiter. Additional Exercises2.25 A man walkin riskly in rain with speed v must slant his um rella forward makin an an le with the vertical. A student derives the following relation between and v : tan = v and checks that the relation has a correct limit: as v 0 , 0, asex ected. (We are assuming there is no strong wind and that the rain falls vertically for a stationary man). Do you think this relation can be correct ? If not, guess thecorrect relation. 2.26

 

It is claimed that two cesium clocks, if allowed to run for 100 years, free from any disturbance, may differ by only about 0.02 s. What does this im ly for the accuracy of the standard cesium clock in measuring a time-interval of 1 s ? 2.27 Estimate the average mass density of a sodium atom assuming its size to be about 2.5 . (Use the known values of Avogadros number and the atomic mass of sodium).Com are it with the density of sodium in its crystalline hase : 970 kg m 3 . Are thetwo densities of the same order of magnitude ? If so, why ? 2.28 The unit of length convenient on the nuclear scale is a fermi : 1 f = 10 15 m. Nuclear sizes obey roughly the following em irical relation : r = r 0 A 1/3 where r is the radius of the nucleus, A its mass number, and r o is a constant e ual toabout, 1.2 f. Show that the rule im lies that nuclear mass density is nearly constant for different nuclei. Estimate the mass density of sodium nucleus. Com are it withthe average mass density of a sodium atom obtained in Exercise. 2.27. 2.29 A LASER is a source of very intense, monochromatic, and unidirectional beam of light. These ro erties of a laser light can be ex loited to measure long distances.The distance of the Moon from the Earth has been already determined very recisely using a laser as a source of light. A laser light beamed at the Moon takes 2.56 s to PHYSICS38 return after reflection at the Moons surface. How much is the radius of the lunar orbit around the Earth ? 2.30 A SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) uses ultrasonic waves to detect and locateobjects under water. In a submarine e ui ed with a SONAR the time delay betweengeneration of a robe wave and the rece tion of its echo after reflection from anenemy submarine is found to be 77.0 s. What is the distance of the enemy submarine?(S eed of sound in water = 1450 m s 1 ). 2.31 The farthest objects in our Universe discovered by modern astronomers are so distant that light emitted by them takes billions of years to reach the Earth. These objects(known as uasars) have many uzzling features, which have not yet been satisfactorily ex lained. What is the distance in km of a uasar from which light takes 3.0 billionyears to reach us? 2.32 It is a well known fact that during a total solar ecli se the disk of the moon almost com letely covers the disk of the Sun. From this fact

and from the information youcan gather from exam les 2.3 and 2.4, determine the a roximate diameter of themoon. 2.33 A great hysicist of this century (P.A.M. Dirac) loved laying with numerical values of Fundamental constants of nature. This led him to an interesting observation. Diracfound that from the basic constants of atomic hysics ( c , e , mass of electron, mass of roton) and the gravitational constant G , he could arrive at a number with thedimension of time. Further, it was a very large number, its magnitude being close tothe resent estimate on the age of the universe (~15 billion years). From the table of fundamental constants in this book, try to see if you too can construct this number (or any other interesting number you can think of ). If its coincidence with the age of the universe were significant, what would this im ly for the constancy of fundamentalconstants ? C HAPTER T HREE M OTION IN A S TRAIGHT L INE 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Position, ath length anddis lacement 3.3 Average velocity and averages eed 3.4 Instantaneous velocity ands eed 3.5 Acceleration 3.6 Kinematic e uations for uniformly accelerated motion 3.7 Relative velocity Summary Points to onder ExercisesAdditional exercisesA endix 3.1 3.1INTRODUCTION Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are slee ing, air movesinto and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries andveins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowingdown a dam. Automobiles and lanes carry eo le from one lace to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sunitself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again movingwithin its local grou of galaxies.Motion is change in osition of an object with time. How does the osition change with time ? In this cha ter, we shalllearn how to describe motion. For this, we develo theconce ts of velocity and

acceleration. We shall confineourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight line, also known as rectilinear motion . For the case of rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of sim lee uations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relativenature of motion, we introduce the conce t of relative velocity.In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as oint objects. This a roximation is valid so far as the sizeof the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situationsin real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they canbe considered as oint-like objects without much error.In Kinematics , we study ways to describe motion without going into the causes of motion. What causes motiondescribed in this cha ter and the next cha ter forms thesubject matter of Cha ter 5. 3.2POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND DISPLACEMENT Earlier you learnt that motion is change in osition of anobject with time. In order to s ecify osition, we need to usea reference oint and a set of axes. It is convenient to choose PHYSICS40 with the ath of the cars motion and origin of the axis as the oint from where the car startedmoving, i.e. the car was at x = 0 at t = 0 (Fig. 3.1).Let P, Q and R re resent the ositions of the car at different instants of time. Consider two casesof motion. In the first case, the car moves fromO to P. Then the distance moved by the car isOP = +360 m. This distance is called the athlength traversed by the car . In the secondcase, the car moves from O to P and then movesback from P to Q . During this course of motion,the ath length traversed is OP + PQ = + 360 m+ (+120 m) = + 480 m. Path length is a scalar uantity a uantity that has a magnitudeonly and no direction (see Cha ter 4). Dis lacement It is useful to define another uantity dis lacement as the change in osition. Let x 1 and x 2 be the ositions of an object at time t 1 and t 2 . Then its dis lacement, denoted by x , intime

t = ( t 2 t 1 ), is given by the differencebetween the final and initial positions : x = x 2 x 1 (We use the Greek letter delta ( ) to denote a change in a quantity.)If x 2 > x 1 , x is positive; and if x 2 < x 1 , x isnegative.Displacement has both magnitude anddirection. Such quantities are represented by vectors. You will read about vectors in the next chapter. Presently, we are dealing with motionalong a straight line (also called rectilinearmotion ) only. In one-dimensional motion, thereare only two directions (backward and forward,upward and downward) in which an object canmove, and these two directions can easily bespecified by + and signs. For example,displacement of the car in moving from O to P is : x = x 2 x 1 = (+360 m) 0 m = +360 mThe displacement has a magnitude of 360 m andis directed in the positive x direction as indicatedby the + sign. Similarly, the displacement of

thecar from P to Q is 240 m 360 m = 120 m. The Fig. 3.1 x-axis, origin and positions of a car at different times. a rectangular coordinate system consisting of three mutually perpenducular axes, labelled X-,Y-, and Z- axes. The point of intersection of thesethree axes is called origin (O) and serves as the reference point . The coordinates ( x, y. z ) of anobject describe the position of the object withrespect to this coordinate system. To measuretime, we position a clock in this system. Thiscoordinate system along with a clock constitutesa frame of reference .If one or more coordinates of an object changewith time, we say that the object is in motion.Otherwise, the object is said to be at rest withrespect to this frame of reference.The choice of a set of axes in a frame of reference depends upon the situation. For example, for describing motion in one dimension,we need only one axis. To describe motion intwo/three dimensions, we need a set of two/three axes.Description of an event depends on the frameof reference chosen for the description. For example, when you say that a car is moving ona road, you are describing the car with respect to a frame of reference attached to you or to theground. But with respect to a frame of referenceattached with a person sitting in the car, thecar is at rest.To describe motion along a straight line, wecan choose an axis, say X -axis, so that it coincides with the path of the object. We thenmeasure the position of the object with referenceto a conveniently chosen origin, say O, as shownin Fig. 3.1. Positions to the right of O are takenas positive and to the left of O, as negative.Following this convention, the positioncoordinates of point P and Q in Fig. 3.1 are +360m and +240 m. Similarly, the position coordinateof point R is 120 m. Path length Consider the motion of a car along a straight line. We choose the x -axis such that it coincides MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 41 negative sign indicates the direction of displacement. Thus, it is not necessary to usevector notation for discussing motion of objectsin one-dimension. The magnitude of displacement may or maynot be equal to the path length traversed byan object. For example, for motion of the car from O to P, the path length is +360 m and thedisplacement is +360 m. In this case, themagnitude of displacement (360 m) is equal tothe path length (360 m). But consider the motionof the car from O to P and back to Q . In thiscase, the path length = (+360 m) + (+120 m) = +480 m. However, the displacement = (+240 m) (0 m) = + 240 m. Thus, the magnitude of displacement (240 m) is not equal to the pathlength (480 m).The magnitude of the displacement for a course of motion may be zero but thecorresponding path length is not zero .

For example, if the car starts from O, goes to P andthen returns to O, the final position coincideswith the initial position and the displacement is zero. However, the path length of this journey is OP + PO = 360 m + 360 m = 720 m.Motion of an object can be represented by a position-time graph as you have already learnt about it. Such a graph is a powerful tool torepresent and analyse different aspects of motion of an object. For motion along a straight line, say X -axis, only x -coordinate varies withtime and we have an x t graph. Let us first consider the simple case in which an object isstationary, e.g. a car standing still at x = 40 m.The position-time graph is a straight line parallelto the time axis, as shown in Fig. 3.2(a).If an object moving along the straight linecovers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion along a straight line. Fig. 3.2(b) shows the position-timegraph of such a motion. Fig. 3.2 Position-time graph of (a) stationary object, and (b) an object in uniform motion. Fig. 3.3 Position-time graph of a car.t (s) ! " x (m) PHYSICS42 Now, let us consider the motion of a car that starts from rest at time t = 0 s from the origin Oand picks up speed till t = 10 s and thereafter moves with uniform speed till t = 18 s. Then thebrakes are applied and the car stops at t = 20 s and x = 296 m. The position-time graphfor this case is shown in Fig. 3.3. We shall refer to this graph in our discussion in the followingsections. 3.3AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGESPEED When an object is in motion, its positionchanges with time. But how fast is the positionchanging with time and in what direction? Todescribe this, we define the quantity averagevelocity . Average velocity is defined as thechange in position or displacement ( x ) dividedby the time intervals ( t ), in which thedisplacement occurs :

v x x t t x t 2 12 1 = = (3.1)where x 2 and x 1 are the positions of the object at time t 2 and t 1 , respectively. Here the bar over the symbol for velocity is a standard notationused to indicate an average quantity. The SIunit for velocity is m/s or m s 1 , although km h 1 is used in many everyday applications.Like displacement, average velocity is also a vector quantity. But as explained earlier, for motion in a straight line, the directional aspect of the vector can be taken care of by + and signs and we do not have to use the vector notation for velocity in this chapter. Fig. 3.4 The average velocity is the slope of line P 1 P 2 . Consider the motion of the car in Fig. 3.3. Theportion of the x-t graph between t = 0 s and t = 8s is blown up and shown in Fig. 3.4. As seenfrom the plot, the average velocity of the car between time t = 5 s and t = 7 s is : ()() 1 1212 sm8.7s 57 m 010427 = = = .. t t x x v Geometrically, this is the slope of the straight line P

1 P 2 connecting the initial position 1 P tothe final position P 2 as shown in Fig. 3.4. he average velocity can be positive or negativedepending upon the sign of the displacement. It is zero if the displacement is zero. Fig. 3.5 showsthe x t graphs for an object, moving with positivevelocity (Fig. 3.5a), moving with negative velocity (Fig. 3.5b) and at rest (Fig. 3.5c).Average velocity as defined above involvesonly the displacement of the object. We have seenearlier that the magnitude of displacement may be different from the actual path length. odescribe the rate of motion over the actual path,we introduce another quantity called averagespeed . Average speed is defined as the total pathlength travelled divided by the total timeinterval during which the motion has takenplace : Average speed otal path length otal time interval = (3.2)Average speed has obviously the same unit (m s 1 ) as that of velocity. But it does not tell usin what direction an o ject is movin . Thus, it is always positive (in contrast to the avera evelocity which can e positive or ne ative). If themotion of an o ject is alon a strai ht line andin the same direction , the ma nitude of displacement is equal to the total path len th.In that case, the ma nitude of avera e velocity Fi . 3.5 Position-time raph for an o ject (a) movin with positive velocity, ( ) movin with ne ative velocity, and (c) at rest . MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 43 # is equal to the avera e speed. This is not alwaysthe case, as you will see in the followin example. Example 3.1 A car is movin alon a strai ht line, say OP in Fi . 3.1. It movesfrom O to P in 18 s and returns from P to Q in 6.0 s. What are the avera e velocity and avera e speed of the car in oin (a)from O to P ? and ( ) from O to P and ack to Q ? Answer (a)

 

Avera e velocity Displacement Time inte rval = 1 + 360 m20 m s18 s v = = + Average speed Path length ime interval = 1 360 m= 20 m s18 s = hus, in this case the average speed is equal tothe magnitude of the average velocity.(b) In this case, ( ) 240 m18 6.0 s Displacement Average velocity = ime interval +=+ 1 =+10 ms OP + PQ Path length Average speed = = ime interval t () -1 360+120 m= = 20 m s24 s Thus, in this case the average speed is not equalto the magnitude of the average velocity. Thishappens because the motion here involveschange in direction so that the path length isgreater than the magnitude of displacement.This shows that speed is, in general, greaterthan the magnitude of the velocity. # If the car in Example 3.1 moves from O to Pand comes back to O in the same time interval,average speed is 20 m/s but the average velocity is zero ! 3.4INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED The average velocity tells us how fast an object has been moving over a given time interval but does not tell us how fast it moves at different instants of time during that interval. For this,we define instantaneous velocity or simply velocity v at an instant t .The velocity at an instant is defined as thelimit of the average velocity as the time interval t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words, v lim x t = t 0

 (3.3a) = dd x t (3.3b)where the symbol lim t 0 stands for the operationof taking limit as t $ 0 of the quantity on itsright. In the language of calculus, the quantity on the right hand side of Eq. (3.3a) is thedifferential coefficient of x with respect to t andis denoted by dd x t (see Appendix 3.1). It is therate of change of position with respect to time,at that instant.We can use Eq. (3.3a) for obtaining the valueof velocity at an instant either graphically or numerically . Suppose that we want to obtaingraphically the value of velocity at time t = 4 s(point P) for the motion of the car representedin Fig. 3.3. The figure has been redrawn inFig. 3.6 choosing different scales to facilitate the Fig. 3.6 Determining velocity from position-time graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the tangent to the graph at that instant . PHYSICS44 calculation. Let us take t = 2 s centred at t = 4 s. Then, by the definition of the averagevelocity, the slope of line P 1 P 2 ( Fig. 3.6) givesthe value of average velocity over the interval3 s to 5 s. Now, we decrease the value of

t from2 s to 1 s. Then line P 1 P 2 becomes Q 1 Q 2 and itsslope gives the value of the average velocity over the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit t 0,the line P 1 P 2 becomes tangent to the position-time curve at the point P and the velocity at t =4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at that point. It is difficult to show this processgraphically. But if we use numerical methodto obtain the value of the velocity, themeaning of the limiting process becomesclear . For the graph shown inFig. 3.6, x = 0.08 t 3 . Table 3.1 gives the value of x / t calculated for t equal to 2.0 s, 1.0 s, 0.5s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t = 4.0 s. Thesecond and third columns give the value of t 1 = t t 2 and t t t 2 2 = + and the fourth andthe fifth columns give the corresponding valuesof x , i.e. x ( t

1 ) = 0.08 t 13 and x ( t 2 ) = 0.08 t 23 . Thesixth column lists the difference x = x ( t 2 ) x ( t 1 ) and the last column gives the ratio of x and t , i.e. the average velocity corresponding to thevalue of t listed in the first column.We see from Table 3.1 that as we decreasethe value of t from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of the average velocity approaches the limitingvalue 3.84 m s 1 which is the value of velocity at t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of dd x t at t = 4.0 s. In thismanner, we can calculate velocity at eachinstant for motion of the car shown in Fig. 3.3.For this case, the variation of velocity with timeis found to be as shown in Fig. 3.7. Fig. 3.7 Velocitytime graph corresponding to motion shown in Fig. 3.3 . The graphical method for the determinationof the instantaneous velocity is always not a convenient method. For this, we must carefully plot the

positiontime graph and calculate thevalue of average velocity as t becomes smaller and smaller. It is easier to calculate the valueof velocity at different instants if we have data of positions at different instants or exact expression for the position as a function of time.Then, we calculate x / t from the data for decreasing the value of t and find the limitingvalue as we have done in Table 3.1 or usedifferential calculus for the given expression andcalculate dd x t at different instants as done inthe following example. Table 3.1Limiting value of x t at t = 4 s MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 45 # Example 3.2 The position of an object moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt 2 where a = 8.5 m , b = 2.5 m s 2 and t is measured in seconds. What is its velocity at t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s . What is the average velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ? Answer In notation of differential calculus, thevelocity is ( ) v x t t a bt 2b t = 2

= = + = dddd5.0 t m s -1 At t = 0 s, v = 0 m s 1 and at t = 2.0 s, v = 10 m s -1 . ()() 4.0 2.04.0 2.0 x x Average velocity = 16 46.02.0 a a += = -1 6.0 2.5=15 m s = %%# From Fi . 3.7, we note that durin the period t =10 s to 18 s the velocity is constant. Betweenperiod t =18 s to t = 20 s, it is uniformly decreasin and durin the period t = 0 s to t = 10 s, it is increasin . Note that for uniformmotion, velocity is the same as the avera evelocity at all instants . Instantaneous speed or simply speed is thema nitude of velocity. For example, a velocity of + 24.0 m s 1 and a velocity of 24.0 m s 1 othhave an associated speed of 24.0 m s -1 . It should e noted that thou h avera e speed over a finiteinterval of time is reater or equal to thema nitude of the avera e velocity,instantaneous speed at an instant is equal tothe ma nitude of

  

the instantaneous velocity at that instant. Why so ? 3.5ACCELERATION The velocity of an o ject, in eneral, chan esdurin its course of motion. How to descri e thischan e? Should it e descri ed as the rate of chan e in velocity with distance or with time ?This was a pro lem even in Galileos time. It wasfirst thou ht that this chan e could e descri ed y the rate of chan e of velocity with distance.But, throu h his studies of motion of freely fallin o jects and motion of o jects on an inclinedplane, Galileo concluded that the rate of chan eof velocity with time is a constant of motion for all o jects in free fall. On the other hand, thechan e in velocity with distance is not constant it decreases with the increasin distance of fall.This led to the concept of acceleration as the rateof chan e of velocity with time.The avera e acceleration a over a timeinterval is defined as the chan e of velocity divided y the time interval : 2 12 1 v v v a t t t = = (3.4)where v 2 and v 1 are the instantaneous velocitiesor simply velocities at time t 2 and t 1 . It is theaverage change of velocity per unit time. The SIunit of acceleration is m s 2 .On a plot of velocity versus time, the averageacceleration is the slope of the straight lineconnecting the points corresponding to ( v 2 , t 2 )and ( v 1 , t 1 ). The average accelerationfor velocity-time graph shown in Fig. 3.7 for different time intervals 0 s - 10 s, 10 s 18 s,and 18 s 20 s are :0 s - 10 s ()()

 

12 24 0 ms2.4 m s10 0 s a = = 10 s - 18 s ()() 12 24 24 ms0 m s18 10 s a = = 18 s - 20 s ()() 12 0 24 ms12 m s20 18 s a = = Fig. 3.8 Acceleration as a function of time for motion represented in Fig. 3.3 . Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the sameway as the instantaneous velocity :dd t 0 v v a lim t t = = (3.5)The acceleration at an instant is the slope of the tangent to the vt curve at that instant. For the vt curve shown in Fig. 3.7, we can obtainacceleration at every instant of time. Theresulting a t curve is shown in Fig. 3.8. We see a (m s 2 ) PHYSICS46 that the acceleration is nonuniform over theperiod 0 s to 10 s. It is zero between 10 s and18 s and is constant with value 12 m s 2 between 18 s and 20 s. When the accelerationis uniform, obviously, it equals the averageacceleration over that period.Since velocity is a quantity having bothmagnitude and direction, a change in velocity may involve either or both of these factors.Acceleration, therefore, may result from a change in speed (magnitude), a change indirection or changes in both. Like velocity,acceleration can also be positive, negative or zero. Position-time graphs for motion withpositive, negative and zero acceleration areshown in Figs. 3.9 (a), (b) and (c), respectively.Note that the graph curves upward for positiveacceleration; downward for negativeacceleration and it is a straight line for zeroacceleration. As an exercise, identify in Fig. 3.3,the regions of the curve that correspond to thesethree cases.Although acceleration can vary with time,our study in this chapter will be restricted tomotion with constant acceleration. In this case,the average acceleration equals the constant value of acceleration during the interval. If thevelocity

of an object is v o at t = 0 and v at time t ,we have or 0 0 0 v v a , v v at t = = + (3.6) Fig. 3.9 Position time graph for motion with (a) positive acceleration; (b) negative acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration . Let us see how velocity time graph looks likefor some simple cases. Fig. 3.10 shows velocity time graph for motion with constant accelerationfor the following cases :(a) An object is moving in a positive directionwith a positive acceleration, for examplethe motion of the car in Fig. 3.3 between t = 0 s and t = 10 s.(b) An object is moving in positive directionwith a negative acceleration, for example,motion of the car in Fig 3.3 between t = 18 s and 20 s.(c) An object is moving in negative directionwith a negative acceleration, for examplethe motion of a car moving from O in Fig.3.1 in negative x direction withincreasing speed.(d) An object is moving in positive directiontill time t 1 , and then turns back with thesame negative acceleration, for examplethe motion of a car from point O to point Q in Fig. 3.1 till time t 1 with decreasingspeed and turning back and moving withthe same negative acceleration.An interesting feature of a velocity time graphfor any moving object is that the area under thecurve represents the displacement over agiven time interval . A general proof of this Fig. 3.10 Velocitytime raph for motions with constant acceleration. (a) Motion in positive direction with positive acceleration,( ) Motion in positive direction with ne ative acceleration, (c) Motion in ne ative direction

with ne ative acceleration,(d) Motion of an o ject with ne ative acceleration that chan es direction at time t 1 . Between times 0 to t 1 , its moves in positive x - direction and etween t 1 and t 2 it moves in the opposite direction . MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 47 statement requires use of calculus. We can,however, see that it is true for the simple case of an o ject movin with constant velocity u . Itsvelocity-time raph is as shown in Fi . 3.11. Fi . 3.11 Area under vt curve equals displacement of the o ject over a iven time interval . The v-t curve is a strai ht line parallel to thetime axis and the area under it etween t = 0and t = T is the area of the rectan le of hei ht u and ase T . Therefore, area = u T = uT whichis the displacement in this time interval. How come in this case an area is equal to a distance?Think! Note the dimensions of quantities onthe two coordinate axes, and you will arrive at the answer. Note that the x-t, v-t, and a-t raphs shownin several fi ures in this chapter have sharpkinks at some points implyin that thefunctions are not differentia le at thesepoints. In any realistic situation, thefunctions will e differentia le at all pointsand the raphs will e smooth . What this means physically is thatacceleration and velocity cannot chan evalues a ruptly at an instant. Chan es arealways continuous.3.6KINEMATIC E Q

 

 

UATIONS FORUNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derivesome simple equations that relate displacement ( x ), time taken ( t ), initial velocity ( v 0 ), finalvelocity ( v ) and acceleration ( a ). Equation (3.6)already o tained ives a relation etween finaland initial velocities v and v 0 of an o ject movin with uniform acceleration a : v = v 0 + at (3.6)This relation is raphically represented in Fi . 3.12.The area under this curve is :Area etween instants 0 and t = Area of trian leABC + Area of rectan le OACD ( ) 0 0 1v v t +v t 2 = Fi . 3.12 Area under v-t curve for an o ject with uniform acceleration . As explained in the previous section, the area under v-t curve represents the displacement.Therefore, the displacement x of the o ject is : ( ) 1 2 0 0 x v v t +v t = (3.7)But v v a t 0 = herefore, 20 12 x a t +v t = or, 20

12 x v t at = + (3.8)Equation (3.7) can also be written as 0 2 v +v x t v t = = (3.9a)where, 0 2 v v v += (constant acceleration only) (3.9b)Equations (3.9a) and (3.9b) mean that the object has undergone displacement x with an averagevelocity equal to the arithmetic average of theinitial and final velocities.From Eq. (3.6), t = ( v v 0 ) /a . Su stitutin this inEq. (3.9a), we et 2 20 0 0 2 2 v v v v v v x v t a a + = = = 2 20 2 v v ax = + (3.10) PHYSICS48 # his equation can also be obtained by substituting the value of t from Eq. (3.6) intoEq. (3.8). hus, we have obtained threeimportant equations : 0 v v at = + 20 12 x v t at = + 2 20 2 v v ax = + (3.11a)connecting five quantities

v 0 , v, a, t and x . heseare kinematic equations of rectilinear motionfor constant acceleration. he set of Eq. (3.11a) were obtained by assuming that at t = 0, the position of theparticle, x is 0. We can obtain a more generalequation if we take the position coordinate at t = 0 as non zero, say x 0 . hen Eqs. (3.11a) aremodified (replacing x by x x 0 ) to : 0 v v at = + 20 0 12 x x v t at = + + (3.11 ) 2 20 0 2 ( ) v v a x x = + (3.11c) Example 3.3 Obtain equations of motionfor constant acceleration using method of calculus. Answer By definitiondd v a t = d v = a d t Integrating both sides 0 0 d d v t v v a t = 0 d t

a t = ( a is constant) 0 v v at = 0 v v at = + Further,dd x v t = d x = v d t Inte ratin oth sides 0 d x x x 0 d t v t = ( ) 00 d t v at t = + 20 0 1 2 x x v t a t = + x = 20 0 12 x v t a t + + We can writed d d dd d d d v v x v a v t x t x = = = or, v d v = a d x Inte ratin oth sides,

 

 

0 0 d d v x v x v v a x = ( ) 2 200 2 v v a x x = ( ) 2 20 0 2 v v a x x = + The advanta e of this method is that it can e used for motion with non-uniform acceleration also. Now, we shall use these equations to someimportant cases. # Example 3.4 A all is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m s 1 fromthe top of a multistorey uildin . Thehei ht of the point from where the all isthrown is 25.0 m from the round. (a) How hi h will the all rise ? and ( ) how lon will it e efore the all hits the round?Take = 10 m s 2 . Answer (a) Let us take the y -axis in thevertically upward direction with zero at the round, as shown in Fi . 3.13.Now v o = + 20 m s 1 , a = = 10 m s 2 , v = 0 m s 1 If the all rises to hei ht y from the point of launch, then usin the equation ( ) 0 2 2 0 v v 2 a y y = + we et 0 = (20)

2 + 2(10)( y y 0 )Solvin , we et, ( y y 0 ) = 20 m.( ) We can solve this part of the pro lem in twoways. Note carefully the methods used . # MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 49 # Fi . 3.13 FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split the path in two parts : the upward motion (A toB) and the downward motion (B to C) andcalculate the correspondin time taken t 1 and t 2 . Since the velocity at B is zero, we have : v = v o + at 0 = 20 10 t 1 Or, t 1 = 2 sThis is the time in oin from A to B . From B , or the point of the maximum hei ht, the all fallsfreely under the acceleration due to ravity. The all is movin in ne ative y direction. We useequation 20 0 12 y y v t at = + + We have, y 0 = 45 m, y = 0, v 0 = 0,

a = = 10 m s 2 0 = 45 + ( ) (10) t 22 Solvin , we et t 2 = 3 sTherefore, the total time taken y the all eforeit hits the round = t 1 + t 2 = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s. SECOND METHOD : The total time taken canalso e calculated y notin the coordinates of initial and final positions of the all with respect to the ori in chosen and usin equation 20 0 12 y y v t at = + + Now y 0 = 25 m y = 0 m v o = 20 m s -1 , a = 10m s 2 , t = ?0 = 25 +20 t + ( ) (-10) t 2 Or, 5 t 2 20

 

t 25 = 0Solvin this quadratic equation for t , we et t = 5sNote that the second method is etter since wedo not have to worry a out the path of the motionas the motion is under constant acceleration. %%# Example 3.5 Free-fall : Discuss themotion of an o ject under free fall. Ne lect air resistance. Answer An o ject released near the surface of the Earth is accelerated downward under theinfluence of the force of ravity. The ma nitudeof acceleration due to ravity is represented y . If air resistance is ne lected, the o ject issaid to e in free fall . If the hei ht throu hwhich the o ject falls is small compared to theearths radius, can e taken to e constant,equal to 9.8 m s 2 . Free fall is thus a case of motion with uniform acceleration.We assume that the motion is in y -direction,more correctly in ydirection ecause wechoose upward direction as positive. Since theacceleration due to ravity is always downward,it is in the ne ative direction and we have a =

= 9.8 m s 2 The o ject is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore, v 0 = 0 and the equations of motion ecome: v = 0 t = 9.8 t m s 1 y = 0 t 2 = 4.9 t 2

    

PHYSICS50 # ( )(c) Fi . 3.14 Motion of an o ject under free fall.(a) Variation of acceleration with time.( ) Variation of velocity with time.(c) Variation of distance with time # Example 3.6 Galileos law of oddnum ers : The distances traversed, durin equal intervals of time, y a ody fallin from rest, stand to one another in the same ratio as the odd num ers e innin with unity [ namely, 1: 3: 5: 7...]. Prove it. Answer Let us divide the time interval of motion of an o ject under free fall into many equal intervals and find ou he dis ances raversed during successive in ervals of ime. Since ini ial veloci y is zero, we haveUsing his equa ion, we can calcula e heposi ion of he objec af er differen imein ervals, 0, , 2 , 3 which are given insecond column of Table 3.2. If we ake(1/ 2) g 2 as y 0 he posi ion coordina e af er firs ime in erval , hen hird column gives he posi ions in he uni of y o

m v 2 = 0 2 y = 19.6 y m 2 s 2 These equations ive the velocity and thedistance travelled as a function of time and alsothe variation of velocity with distance. Thevariation of acceleration, velocity, and distance,with time have plotted in Fi . 3.14(a), ( )and (c).(a)

 

 

 

 

  

een

. The four hcolumn gives he dis ances raversed insuccessive s. We find ha he dis ances arein he simple ra io 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11 as shownin he las column. This law was es ablishedby Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who was he firs o make quan i a ive s udies of free fall. # Example 3.7 S opping dis ance of vehicles : When brakes are applied o a moving vehicle, he dis ance i ravels befores opping is called s opping dis ance. I isan impor an fac or for road safe y anddepends on he ini ial veloci y ( v 0 ) and hebraking capaci y, or decelera ion, a ha is caused by he braking. Derive anexpression for s opping dis ance of a vehiclein erms of v o and

a . Answer Le he dis ance ravelled by he vehiclebefore i s ops be d s . Then, using equa ion of mo ion v 2 = v o2 + 2 ax , and no ing ha v = 0, wehave he s opping dis anceThus, he s opping dis ance is propor ional o he square of he ini ial veloci y. Doubling he # Table 3.2 2 12 y g = MO ION IN A S RAIGH LINE 51 # initial velocity increases the stopping distanceby a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).For the car of a particular make, the brakingdistance was found to be 10 m, 20 m, 34 m and50 m corresponding to velocities of 11, 15, 20and 25 m/s which are nearly consistent withthe above formula.Stopping distance is an important factor considered in setting speed limits, for example,in school zones. # Example 3.8 Reaction time :

   

 

       

 

 

 

 

  

           

 

 

 

When a situation demands our immediateaction, it takes some time before wereally respond. Reaction time is thetime a person takes to observe, think and act. For example, if a person isdriving and suddenly a boy appears onthe road, then the time elapsed beforehe slams the brakes of the car is thereaction time. Reaction time dependson complexity of the situation and onan individual.You can measure your reaction timeby a simple experiment. ake a ruler and ask your friend to drop it vertically through the gap between your thumband forefinger (Fig. 3.15). After youcatch it, find the distance d travelledby the ruler. In a particular case, d wasfound to be 21.0 cm. Estimate reactiontime. 2 r 1d gt 2 = Or, 2s r d t g = Given d = 21.0 cm and g = 9.8 m s 2 he reac ion ime is2 0.21s 0.2 s.9.8 r

= # 3.7RELATIVE VELOCITY You mus be familiar wi h he experience of ravelling in a rain and being over aken by ano her rain moving in he same direc ion asyou are. While ha rain mus be ravelling fas er han you o be able o pass you, i does seemslower o you han i would be o someones anding on he ground and wa ching bo h he rains. In case bo h he rains have he sameveloci y wi h respec o he ground, hen o you he o her rain would seem o be no moving a all. To unders and such observa ions, we now in roduce he concep of rela ive veloci y.Consider wo objec s A and B movinguniformly wi h average veloci ies v A and v B inone dimension, say along x -axis. (Unlesso herwise specified, he veloci ies men ioned in his chap er are measured wi h reference o heground). If x

 

 

  

 

  

 

                         

 

  

A (0) and x B (0) are posi ions of objec s A and B , respec ively a ime

= 0, heir posi ions x A ( ) and x B ( ) a

ime

are given by: x A ( ) = x A (0) + v A (3.12a) x B ( ) = x B (0) + v B he displacemen from objec

(3.12b)Then, A o objec B is given by x BA ( ) = x

 

 

 

         

B (

amoun

say ha

he veloci y of objec

rela ive o objec A is v B v A : v BA = v B v A (3.14a)Similarly, veloci y of objec A

 

. (3.13)Equa ion (3.13) from objec A , objec B has a veloci y v B v A because he displacemen A o B changes s eadily by he v B v A ineach uni of ime. We B

is easily in erpre ed. I

ells us ha as seen

from

 

 

   

) x A ( )= [ x B (0) x A (0) ] + ( v B v A )

rela ive o objec B is: v AB = v A v B (3.14b) Fig. 3.15 Measuring he reac ion ime. Answer The ruler drops under free fall.Therefore, v o = 0, and g = 9.8 m s 2 . Thedis ance ravelled d and he reac ion ime r arerela ed by PHYSICS52 This shows: v BA = v AB (3.14c)Now we consider some special cases :(a) If v B = v A , v B v A = 0. Then, from Eq. (3.13), x B (

) x A ( ) = x B (0) x

 

 

  

woobjec s s ay a a cons an dis ance (

(0) x A (0)) apar , and heir posi ion ime graphs ares raigh lines parallel o each o her as shownin Fig. 3.16. The rela ive veloci y v AB or v BA iszero in his case.(b) If v A > v B , v B v A is nega ive. One graph iss eeper han he o her and hey mee a common poin . For example, suppose v A = 20 m s -1 and x A (0) = 10 m; and v B = 10 m s -1 , x B (0) = 40m; hen he ime a which hey mee is hey are bo h a a posi ion

= 3 s(Fig. 3.17). A x A (

his ins an

) = x B (

) = 70 m. Thus, objec A over akes objec B

 

   

  

 

 

A (0). Therefore, he x B

  

  

= 1 s(Fig. 3.18). The veloci y of B rela ive o A , v BA = [10 (20)] m s 1 = 30 m s 1 = v AB . In hiscase, he magni ude of v BA or v AB ( = 30 m s 1 ) isgrea er han he magni ude of veloci y of A or ha of B

a his ime. In his case, v BA = 10 m s 1 20 m s 1 = 10 m s 1 = v AB .(c) Suppose v A and v B are of opposi e signs. For example, if in he above example objec A ismoving wi h 20 m s 1 s ar ing a x A (0) = 10 mand objec B is moving wi h 10 m s 1 s ar inga x B (0) = 40 m, he wo objec s mee a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. If he objec s under considera ion are wo rains, hen for a person si ing on ei her of he wo, he o her rain seems o go very fas .No e ha Eq. (3.14) are valid even if v A and v B represen ins an aneous veloci ies. Example 3.9 T wo parallel rail racks runnor h-sou h. Train A moves nor h wi h a speed of 54 km h 1 , and rain B moves sou hwi h a speed of 90 km h 1 . Wha is he(a) veloci y of B wi h respec o A ?,(b) veloci y of ground wi h respec o B ?,and(c) veloci y of a monkey running on heroof of he rain A agains i s mo ion(wi h a veloci y of 18 km h 1 wi hrespec o he rain A) as observed by a man s anding on he ground ? Answer Choose he posi ive direc ion of x -axis o be from sou h o nor h. Then, Fig. 3.16 Posi ion- ime graphs of wo objec s wi h equal veloci ies. Fig. 3.17 Posi ion- ime graphs of wo objec s wi h unequal veloci ies, showing he ime of mee ing. Fig. 3.18 Posi ion- ime graphs of wo objec s wi h veloci ies in opposi e direc ions, showing he ime of mee ing. (s) #

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 53 v A = + 54 km h 1 = 15 m s 1 v B = 90 km h 1 = 25 m s 1 Rela ive veloci y of B wi h respec o A = v B v A

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

       

= 40 m s 1 , i.e. he rain B appears o A o movewi h a speed of 40 m s 1 from nor h o sou h.Rela ive veloci y of ground wi h respec o B = 0 v B = 25 m s 1 .In (c), le he veloci y of he monkey wi h respec o ground be v M .

Rela ive veloci y of he monkey wi h respec o A,v MA = v M v A = 18 km h 1 =5 ms 1 . Therefore, v M = (15 5) m s 1 = 10 m s 1 . %%# SUMMARY 1. An objec is said o be in mo ion if i s posi ion changes wi h ime. The posi ion of heobjec can be specified wi h reference o a convenien ly chosen origin. For mo ion ina s raigh line, posi ion o he righ of he origin is aken as posi ive and o he lef asnega ive.2. Pa h leng h is defined as he o al leng h of he pa h raversed by an objec .3. Displacemen is he change in posi ion : x = x 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

   

 

  

x 1 . Path length is greater or equal tothe magnitude of the displacement between the same points.4. An object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight line if its displacement is equalin equal intervals of time. Otherwise, the motion is said to be non-uniform. 5. Average velocity is the displacement divided by the time interval in which thedisplacement occurs : v x t = On an x-t graph, the average velocity over a time interval is the slope of the lineconnecting the initial and final positions corresponding to that interval.6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length traversed and the corresponding timeinterval.The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the averagevelocity over a given time interval.7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity asthe time interval t becomes infinitesimally small : dd t 0 t 0 x x v lim v lim t t = = = The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn onposition-time graph at that instant.8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during whichthe change occurs : v a t = 9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the timeinterval t goes to zero : dd t 0 t 0 v v a lim a lim t t

 = = = The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-timegraph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line PHYSICS54 parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t 1 and t 2 is equal to the displacement of the object during that interval of time.11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement x , time taken t , initial velocity v 0 , final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :v = v 0 + at x v t 12 at 0 2 = + v v 2ax 2 0 2 = + if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x 0 , x in aboveequations is replaced by ( x x 0 ). MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 55

POINTS TO PONDER 1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the sameas the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points;the path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. In one dimension,the two quantities are equal only if the object does not change its direction during thecourse of motion. In all other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to themagnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.3. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first specify this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration.4. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed isdecreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. Thisstatement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.5. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particles speed is increasing or decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choiceof the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction ischosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity isnegative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negativeacceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.6. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero accelerationat that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zeroacceleration. For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost point but the acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due togravity.7. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (3.11)], the various quantities are algebraic,i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.8. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (3.3) and (3.5)) areexact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (3.11)) are true only for motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant during the course of motion. EXERCISES3.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be consideredapproximately a point object:(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table. 3.2 The position-time ( x-t ) graphs for two children A and B returning from their schoolO to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 3.19. Choose the correct entries in the brackets below ;(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice). PHYSICS56 3.3

A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h1on a straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, andreturns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h1. Choose suitable scales andplot the x t graph of her motion. 3.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1m long and requires 1 s. Plot the x t graph of his motion. Determine graphically and otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from thestart. 3.5 A jet airplane travelling at the speed of 500 km h1ejects its products of combustionat the speed of 1500 km h1relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of thelatter with respect to an observer on the ground ? 3.6 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h1is brought to a stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumeduniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ? 3.7 Two trains A and B of length 400 m each are moving on two parallel tracks with a uniform speed of 72 km h1in the same direction, with A ahead of B. The driver of B decides to overtake A and accelerates by 1 m s 2 . If after 50 s, the guard of B just brushes past the driver of A, what was the original distance between them ? 3.8 On a two-lane road, car A is travelling with a speed of 36 km h1. Two cars B andC approach car A in opposite directions with a speed of 54 km h1each. At a certain instant, when the distance AB is equal to AC, both being 1 km, B decidesto overtake A before C does. What minimum acceleration of car B is required toavoid an accident ? 3.9 Two towns A and B are connected by a regular bus service with a bus leaving ineither direction every T minutes. A man cycling with a speed of 20 km h1in thedirection A to B notices that a bus goes past him every 18 min in the direction of his motion, and every 6 min in the opposite direction. What is the period T of thebus service and with what speed (assumed constant) do the buses ply on theroad? 3.10 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s 1 .(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of itsmotion ?(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at itshighest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of x

-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ballduring its upward, and downward motion.(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to theplayers hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s 2 and neglect air resistance). Fig. 3.19 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 57 3.11 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it istrue or false ;A particle in one-dimensional motion(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant (b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up. 3.12 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motionbetween t = 0 to 12 s. 3.13 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speedover the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time isdefined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)and (b) that the second quantity is either greater than or equal to the first.When is the equality sign true ? [For simplicity, consider one-dimensionalmotion only]. 3.14 A man walks on a straight road from his home to a market 2.5 km away with a speed of 5 km h1. Finding the market closed, he instantly turns and walks back home with a speed of 7.5 km h1. What is the(a) magnitude of average velocity, and(b) average speed of the man over the interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii) 0 to50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ? [Note: You will appreciate from this exercise why it is better to define average speed as total path length divided by time, and not as magnitude of average velocity. You would not like to tell the tired man onhis return home that his average speed was zero !] 3.15 In Exercises 3.13 and 3.14, we have carefully distinguished between average speedand magnitude of average velocity. No such distinction is necessary when weconsider instantaneous speed and magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speedis always equal to the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. Why ? 3.16 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 3.20) carefully and state, with reasons, which of these cannot possibly represent one-dimensional motion of a particle. Fig. 3.20

PHYSICS58 Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.21 3.17 Figure 3.21 shows the x-t plot of one-dimensionalmotion of a particle. Is it correct to say from thegraph that the particle moves in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic path for t >0 ? If not, suggest a suitable physical context for this graph. 3.18 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of 30 km h 1 fires a bullet at a thiefs car speeding away in the same direction with a speed of 192 km h 1 . If the muzzle speed of the bullet is 150 m s 1 , withwhat speed does the bullet hit the thiefs car ? (Note:Obtain that speed which is relevant for damagingthe thiefs car). 3.19 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of thefollowing graphs (Fig 3.22): Fig. 3.22 3.20 Figure 3.23 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simpleharmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter14).Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, 1.2 s. Fig. 3.23 3.21 Figure 3.24 gives the x-t plot of a particle in one-dimensional motion.Three different equal intervals of timeare shown. In which interval is theaverage speed greatest, and in whichis it the least ? Give the sign of averagevelocity for each interval. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 59 3.22 Figure 3.25 gives a speed-time graph of a particle in motion along a constant direction. Three equal intervals of timeare shown. In which interval is theaverage acceleration greatest inmagnitude ? In which interval is theaverage speed greatest ? Choosing thepositive direction as the constant direction of motion, give the signs of v and a in the three intervals. What arethe accelerations at the points A, B, Cand D ? Additional Exercises3.23 A three-wheeler starts from rest, accelerates uniformly with 1 m s 2 on a straight road for 10 s, and then moves with uniform velocity. Plot the distance covered by the vehicle during the n

th second (n = 1,2,3.) versus n. What do you expect thisplot to be during accelerated motion : a straight line or a parabola ? 3.24 A boy standing on a stationary lift (open from above) throws a ball upwards withthe maximum initial speed he can, equal to 49 m s 1 . How much time does the balltake to return to his hands? If the lift starts moving up with a uniform speed of 5 m s -1 and the boy again throws the ball up with the maximum speed he can, how long does the ball take to return to his hands ? 3.25 On a long horizontally moving belt (Fig. 3.26), a child runs to and fro with a speed9 km h 1 (with respect to the belt) between his father and mother located 50 m apart on the moving belt. The belt moves with a speed of 4 km h 1 . For an observer on a stationary platform outside, what is the(a) speed of the child running in the direction of motion of the belt ?.(b) speed of the child running opposite to the direction of motion of the belt ?(c) time taken by the child in (a) and (b) ?Which of the answers alter if motion is viewed by one of the parents ? Fig. 3.26 3.26 Two stones are thrown up simultaneously from the edge of a cliff 200 m high withinitial speeds of 15 m s 1 and 30 m s 1 . Verify that the graph shown in Fig. 3.27correctly represents the time variation of the relative position of the second stonewith respect to the first. Neglect air resistance and assume that the stones do not rebound after hitting the ground. Take g = 10 m s 2 . Give the equations for thelinear and curved parts of the plot. Fig. 3.25 PHYSICS60 Fig. 3.27 3.27 The speed-time graph of a particle moving along a fixed direction is shown inFig. 3.28. Obtain the distance traversed by the particle between (a) t = 0 s to 10 s,(b) t = 2 s to 6 s. Fig. 3.28 What is the average speed of the particle over the intervals in (a) and (b) ? 3.28 The velocity-time graph of a particle in one-dimensional motion is shown inFig. 3.29 : Fig. 3.29 Which of the following formulae are correct for describing the motion of the particleover the time-interval t

1 to t 2 :(a) x(t 2 ) = x(t 1 ) + v (t 1 ) (t 2 t 1 ) + ( ) a (t 2 t 1 ) 2 (b) v(t 2 ) = v(t 1 ) + a (t 2 t 1 ) (c) v average = (x(t 2 ) x(t 1 ))/(t 2 t 1 ) (d) a average = (v(t 2 ) v(t 1 ))/(t 2 t 1 ) (e)

x(t 2 ) = x(t 1 ) + v average (t 2 t 1 ) + ( ) a average (t 2 t 1 ) 2 (f) x(t 2 ) x(t 1 ) = area under the v-t curve bounded by the t -axis and the dotted lineshown. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 61 APPENDIX 3.1 : ELEMENTS OF CALCULUSDifferential Calculus Using the concept of differential coefficient or derivative, we can easily define velocity andacceleration. Though you will learn in detail in mathematics about derivatives, we shall introducethis concept in brief in this Appendix so as to facilitate its use in describing physical quantitiesinvolved in motion.Suppose we have a quantity y whose value depends upon a single variable x , and is expressedby an equation defining y as some specific function of x . This is represented as: y = f ( x ) (1)This relationship can be visualised by drawing a graph of function y = f ( x ) regarding y

and x asCartesian coordinates, as shown in Fig. 3.30 (a).(a) (b) Fig. 3.30 Consider the point P on the curve y = f ( x ) whose coordinates are ( x, y ) and another point Qwhere coordinates are ( x + x, y + y ) . The slope of the line joining P and Q is given by: ( ) x y y y x y tan += = (2)Su ose now that the oint Q moves along the curve towards P. In this rocess, y and x decrease and approach zero; though their ratio y x will not necessarily vanish. What happensto the line PQ as y 0, x 0. You can see that this line becomes a tangent to the curve at point P as shown in Fig. 3.30(b). This means that tan

a roaches the slo e of the tangent at P, denoted by m : x 0 0 ( )lim lim x y y y y m x x + = = (3) The limit of the ratio y/ x as x approaches zero is called the derivative of y with respect to x and is written as d y/ d x . It represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = f ( x ) at thepoint ( x, y ) . Since y = f ( x ) and y + y = f ( x + x ) , we can write the definition of the derivative as: += == x x f x x f x y )( x )( )( limlimdx ddx dy

00x x f Given below are some elementary formulae for derivatives of functions. In these u ( x ) and v ( x )represent arbitrary functions of x, and a and b denote constant quantities that are independent of x. Derivatives of some common functions are also listed . PHYSICS62 x u a x u ddd) (a d = ; d d d= .d d d u u x t x t x u v x v u x uv ) ddddd d ( += ; () 2 d /1 d d d d d u v u v u x x x v = x v x u v u dddddd = ( ) x x x cossindd = ; () dcos sind x x x = 2 d(tan ) secd x x x = ; 2 d(cot ) cosd x ec x x = x x x x

sec tan) (sec dd = ; 2 d(cosec ) cot cosecd x x x x = x u u n u x n n dd)(dd 1 = ;d 1lnd ( u)u u = d(e ) ed u u u = In terms of derivatives, instantaneous velocity and acceleration are defined as t x t x v t ddlim 0 = = 220 d dlimd d t v v x a t t t D D= = =D Integral Calculus You are familiar with the notion of area. The formulae for areas of simple geometrical figures arealso known to you. For example, the area of a rectangle is length times breadth and that of a triangle is half of the product of base and height. But how to deal with the problem of determinationof area of an irregular figure? The mathematical notion of integral is necessary in connection withsuch problems.Let us take a concrete example. Suppose a variable force f ( x ) acts on a particle in its motionalong x axis from x = a to x = b . The problem is to determine the work done ( W ) by the force on theparticle during the motion. This problem is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.Figure 3.31 shows the variation of F (

x ) with x. If the force were constant, work would be simply the area F ( b-a ) as shown in Fig. 3.31(i). But in the general case, force is varying . Fig. 3.31 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 63 To calculate the area under this curve [Fig. 3.31 (ii)], let us employ the following trick. Divide theinterval on x-axis from a to b into a large number ( N ) of small intervals: x 0 ( =a ) to x 1 , x 1 to x 2 ; x 2 to x 3 ,................................ x N-1 to x N ( =b ). The area under the curve is thus divided into N strips. Each stripis approximately a rectangle, since the variation of F ( x ) over a strip is negligible. The area of the i th strip shown [Fig. 3.31(ii)] is then approximately x x F x x x F A i i i i i == )() )(( 1 where

 x is the width of the strip which we have taken to be the same for all the strips. You may wonder whether we should put F ( x i-1 ) or the mean of F ( x i ) and F ( x i-1 ) in the above expression. If wetake N to be very very large ( N ), it does not really matter, since then the strip will be so thin that the difference between F ( x i ) and F ( x i-1 ) is vanishingly small. The total area under the curve then is: == = = N i i N i i x x F A A 11 )( The limit of this sum as N is known as the integral of F ( x ) over x from a

to b. It is given a specialsymbol as shown below: = b a dx x F A )( The integral sign looks like an elongated S , reminding us that it basically is the limit of the sumof an infinite number of terms.A most significant mathematical fact is that integration is, in a sense, an inverse of differentiation.Suppose we have a function g ( x ) whose derivative is f ( x ), i.e. dx x dg x f )()( = The function g ( x ) is known as the indefinite integral of f ( x ) and is denoted as : = dx x f x g )()( An integral with lower and upper limits is known as a definite integral. It is a number. Indefiniteintegral has no limits; it is a function.A fundamental theorem of mathematics states that )( )()()( a g b g x g dx x f b a b a = As an example, suppose f ( x ) = x 2 and we wish to determine the value of the definite integral from x = 1

to x = 2 . The function g ( x ) whose derivative is x 2 is x 3 /3. Therefore, 3731 38 21212 === 3x dx x 3 Clearly, to evaluate definite integrals, we need to know the corresponding indefinite integrals. Somecommon indefinite integrals are PHYSICS64 1 d ( 1)1 n n x x x n n + = + 1( )d ln ( 0) x x x x = > sin d cos cos d sine d e x x x x x x x x x = == This introduction to differential and integral calculus is not rigorous and is intended to convey toyou the basic notions of calculus. C HAPTER F OUR M OTION IN A P LANE

4.1INTRODUCTION In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed todescribe the motion of an object along a straight line. Wefound that the directional aspect of these quantities can betaken care of by + and signs, as in one dimension only twodirections are possible. But in order to describe motion of anobject in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions(space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector? How toadd, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn thisto enable us to use vectors for defining velocity andacceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shalldiscuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detailthe projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions. 4.2SCALARS AND VECTORS In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction isassociated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specifiedcompletely by a single number, along with the proper unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,mass of an object, the temperature of a body and thetime at which a certain event happened. The rules for combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Scalars and vectors 4.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 4.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors graphical method 4.5 Resolution of vectors 4.6 Vector addition analyticalmethod 4.7 Motion in a plane 4.8 Motion in a plane withconstant acceleration 4.9 Relative velocity in twodimensions 4.10 Projectile motion 4.11 Uniform circular motionSummary Points to ponder ExercisesAdditional exercises PHYSICS66 just as the ordinary numbers * . For example,if the length and breadth of a rectangle are1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then itsperimeter is the sum of the lengths of thefour

sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m =3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar and the perimeter is also a scalar. Takeanother example: the maximum andminimum temperatures on a particular day are 35.6 C and 24.2 C respectively. Then,the difference between the two temperaturesis 11.4 C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cubeof aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of 2.7 kg, then its volume is 10 3 m 3 (a scalar)and its density is 2.7 10 3 kg m 3 (a scalar).A vector quantity is a quantity that has botha magnitude and a direction and obeys the triangle law of addition or equivalently the parallelogram law of addition . So, a vector isspecified by giving its magnitude by a number and its direction. Some physical quantities that are represented by vectors are displacement,velocity, acceleration and force.To represent a vector, we use a bold face typein this book. Thus, a velocity vector can berepresented by a symbol v . Since bold face isdifficult to produce, when written by hand, a vector is often represented by an arrow placedover a letter, say ! v . Thus, both v and ! v represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of a vector is often called its absolute value,indicated by v = v . Thus, a vector isrepresented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...x, y , with respective magnitudes denoted by light face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y . 4.2.1Position and Displacement Vectors To describe the position of an object moving ina plane, we need to choose a convenient point,say O as origin. Let P and P be the positions of the object at time t and t , respectively [Fig. 4.1(a)].We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP isthe position vector of the object at time

t . Anarrow is marked at the head of this line. It isrepresented by a symbol r , i.e. OP = r . Point P isrepresented by another position vector, OP denoted by r . The length of the vector r represents the magnitude of the vector and itsdirection is the direction in which P lies as seenfrom O. If the object moves from P to P , thevector PP (with tail at P and tip at P ) is calledthe displacement vector corresponding tomotion from point P (at time t ) to point P (at time t ). Fig. 4.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors. (b) Displacement vector P Q and different courses of motion. It is important to note that displacement vector is the straight line joining the initial andfinal positions and does not depend on the actualpath undertaken by the object between the twopositions. For example, in Fig. 4.1b, given theinitial and final positions as P and Q , thedisplacement vector is the same P Q for different paths of journey, say PABC Q , PD Q , and PBEF Q .Therefore, the magnitude of displacement iseither less or equal to the path length of anobject between two points

. This fact wasemphasised in the previous chapter also whilediscussing motion along a straight line. 4.2.2Equality of Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, andonly if, they have the same magnitude and thesame direction. ** Figure 4.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and B . We can easily check their equality. Shift B parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that of A , i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors aresaid to be equal. In general, equality is indicated * Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply and divide scalars of different units. ** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector unchanged. Such vectors are called f ree vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors. MOTION IN A PLANE 67 as A = B . Note that in Fig. 4.2(b), vectors A and B have the same magnitude but they are not equal because they have different directions.Even if we shift B parallel to itself so that its tail Q coincides with the tail O of A

, the tip S of B does not coincide with the tip P of A . 4.3MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL NUMBERS Multiplying a vector A with a positive number gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by the factor but the direction is the same as that of A : A = A if > 0.For examp e, if A is mu tip ied by 2, the resu tant vector 2 A is in the same direction as A and hasa magnitude twice of A as shown in Fig. 4.3(a).Multiplying a vector A by a negative number gives a vector A whose direction is oppositeto the direction of A and whose magnitude is times A .Multiplying a given vector A by negativenumbers, say 1 and 1.5, gives vectors asshown in Fig 4.3(b).The factor

 by which a vector A is mu tip iedcou d be a sca ar having its own physica dimension. Then, the dimension of A is theproduct of the dimensions of and A . For examp e, if we mu tip y a constant ve ocity vector by duration (of time), we get a disp acement vector. 4.4ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OFVECTORS GRAPHICAL METHOD As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by definition, obey the triang e aw or equiva ent y,the para e ogram aw of addition. We sha now describe this aw of addition using the graphica method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that ie in a p ane as shown in Fig. 4.4(a). The engthsof the ine segments representing these vectorsare proportiona to the magnitude of the vectors.To find the sum A + B , we p ace vector B so that its tai is at the head of the vector A , as inFig. 4.4(b). Then, we join the tai of A to the headof B . This ine O Q represents a vector R, that is,the sum of the vectors A and B . Since, in thisprocedure of vector addition, vectors are Fig. 4.2 (a) Two equa vectors A and B . (b) Two vectors A and B



 

 

 

and the resu tant vector after mu tip ying A by a positive number 2. (b) Vector A and resu tant vectors after mu tip ying it by a negative number 1and 1.5 .(c) (d) Fig. 4.4 (a) Vectors A and B . (b) Vectors A and B added graphica y. (c) Vectors B and A added graphica y. (d) I ustrating the associative aw of vector addition. PHYSICS68 arranged head to tai , this graphica method isca ed the head-to-tai method . The two vectorsand their resu tant form three sides of a triang e,so this method is a so known as triang e methodof vector addition . If we find the resu tant of B + A as in Fig. 4.4(c), the same vector R isobtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative :



are unequa though they are of the same . Fig. 4.3 (a) Vector A

ength







A + B = B + A (4.1)The addition of vectors a so obeys the associative aw as i ustrated in Fig. 4.4(d). The resu t of adding vectors A and B first and then addingvector C is the same as the resu t of adding B and C first and then adding vector A :( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C ) (4.2)What is the resu t of adding two equa andopposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and A shown in Fig. 4.3(b). Their sum is A + ( A ).Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are thesame, but the directions are opposite, theresu tant vector has zero magnitude and isrepresented by 0 ca ed a nu vector or a zerovector : A A = 0 0 = 0 (4.3)Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, itsdirection

 



cannot be specified.The null vector also results when we multiply a vector A by the number zero. The mainproperties of 0 are : A + 0 = A 0 = 0 0 A = 0 (4.4) Fig. 4.5 (a) Two vectors A and B , B is a so shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A the resu t is R 2 . For comparison, addition of vectors A and B , i.e. R 1 is a so shown. What is the physica meaning of a zero vector?Consider the position and disp acement vectorsin a p ane as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). Now supposethat an object which is at P at time t , moves toP and then comes back to P. Then, what is itsdisp acement? Since the initia and fina positions coincide, the disp acement is a nu vector. Subtraction of vectors can be defined in termsof addition of vectors. We define the differenceof two vectors A



  

and B as the sum of two vectors A and B : A B = A + ( B ) (4.5)It is shown in Fig 4.5. The vector B is added tovector A to get R 2 = ( A B ). The vector R 1 = A + B is a so shown in the same figure for comparison.We can a so use the para e ogram method tofind the sum of two vectors. Suppose we havetwo vectors A and B . To add these vectors, webring their tai s to a common origin O asshown in Fig. 4.6(a). Then we draw a ine fromthe head of A para e to B and another ine fromthe head of B para e to A to comp ete a para e ogram O Q SP. Now we join the point of the intersection of these two ines to the originO. The resu tant vector R is directed from thecommon origin O a ong the diagona (OS) of thepara e ogram [Fig. 4.6(b)]. In Fig.4.6(c), thetriang e aw is used to obtain the resu tant of A and B and we see that the two methods yie d thesame resu t. Thus, the two methods areequiva ent.

 

 

 

       

MOTION IN A PLANE 69 ! Examp e 4.1 Rain is fa ing vertica y witha speed of 35 m s 1 . Winds starts b owingafter sometime with a speed of 12 m s 1 ineast to west direction. In which directionshou d a boy waiting at a bus stop ho dhis umbre a ? Fig. 4.7 Answer The ve ocity of the rain and the windare represented by the vectors v r and v w in Fig.4.7 and are in the direction specified by theprob em. Using the ru e of vector addition, wesee that the resu tant of v r and v w is R as shownin the figure. The magnitude of R is R v v r 2 w 2 = + = + = 35 12 m s 37 m s 2 2 1 1 he direction that R makes with the verticalis given by 12tan 0.34335 w r v v = = = Or, ( ) = = tan . 1 0343 19 Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella in the vertical lane at an angle of about 19





 

o with the vertical towards the east. """""""! Fig. 4.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using the arallelogram method. (c) The arallelogram method of vector addition is e uivalent to the triangle method. 4.5RESOLUTION OF VECTORS Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a lane with different directions and let A beanother vector in the same lane(Fig. 4.8). A canbe ex ressed as a sum of two vectors oneobtained by multi lying a by a real number andthe other obtained by multi lying b by another real number. To see this, let O and P be the tailand head of the vector A . Then, through O, draw a straight line arallel to a , and through P, a straight line arallel to b . Let them intersect at Q . Then, we have A = OP = O Q + Q P (4.6)But since O Q is arallel to a , and Q

P is arallelto b , we can write : O Q = a , and Q P = b (4.7)where and are rea numbers.Therefore, A = a + b (4.8) Fig. 4.8 (a) Two non-co inear vectors a and b . (b) Reso ving a vector A in terms of vectors a and b . We say that A has been reso ved into twocomponent vectors a and

b a ong a and b respective y. Using this method one can reso ve PHYSICS70 Fig. 4.9 (a) Unit vectors ! i , j and k ie a ong the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is reso ved into its compo- nents A 1 and A 2 a ong x-, and y- axes. (c) A 1 and A 2 expressed in terms of i and j . a given vector into two component vectors a onga set of two vectors a the three ie in the samep ane. It is convenient to reso ve a genera vector a ong the axes of a rectangu ar coordinatesystem using vectors of unit magnitude. Theseare ca ed unit vectors that we discuss now. Unit vectors : A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particu ar direction.It has no dimension and unit. It is used to specify a direction on y. Unit vectors a ong the x -, yand z -axes of a rectangu ar coordinate systemare denoted by





 

i , j and k , respective y, asshown in Fig. 4.9(a).Since these are unit vectors, we have i = j = k =1 (4.9)These unit vectors are perpendicu ar to eachother. In this text, they are printed in bo d facewith a cap (^) to distinguish them from other vectors. Since we are dea ing with motion in twodimensions in this chapter, we require use of on y two unit vectors. If we mu tip y a unit vector,say n by a sca ar, the resu t is a vector = n . In genera , a vector A can be written as A = A n (4.10)where n is a unit vector along A .We can now resolve a vector A in termsof component vectors that lie along unit vectors i and j . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y plane as shown in Fig. 4.9(b). We draw lines fromthe head of A

perpendicular to the coordinateaxes as in Fig. 4.9(b), and get vectors A 1 and A 2 such that A 1 + A 2 = A . Since A 1 is parallel to i and A 2 is parallel to j , we have : A 1 = A x i , A 2 = A y j (4.11)where A x and A y are real numbers.Thus, A = A x i + A y j (4.12)This is represented in Fig. 4.9(c). The quantities A

x and A y are called x, and ycomponents of thevector A . Note that A x is itself not a vector, but A x i is a vector, and so is A y j . Using simpletrigonometry, we can express A x and A y in termsof the magnitude of A and the angle it makeswith the x -axis : A x = A cos A y = A sin (4.13)As is clear from E . (4.13), a com onent of a vector can be ositive, negative or zerode ending on the value of .Now, we have two ways to s ecify a vector A in a lane. It can be s ecified by :(i) its magnitude A and the direction it makeswith the x -axis; or (ii) its com onents A

x and A y If A and are given, A x and A y can be obtainedusing E . (4.13). If A x and A y are given, A and can be obtained as follows : A A A A x 2 y 2 2 2 2 2 + = + cos sin = A 2 Or, A A A x 2 y 2 = + (4.14)And tan tan A A ,A A y x 1y x = = (4.15) MO ION IN A PLANE 71 ! B i j = + B B x y ! Let R be their sum. We have R = A + B

( ) ( ) = + + + A A B B x y x y ! ! ! ! i j i j (4.19a)Since vectors obey the commutative andassociative laws, we can arrange and regroupthe vectors in Eq. (4.19a) as convenient to us : ( ) ( ) R i j = + + + A B A B x x y y ! (4.19b)Since R i j = + R R x y ! (4.20)we have, x x x y y y R A B , R A B = + = + (4.21) hus, each component of the resultant vector R is the sum of the correspondingcomponents of A and B .In three dimensions, we have A i j k = + + A A A x y z ! ! B i j k = + + B B B x y z ! ! R A B i j k = + = + + R R R x y z ! ! with R A B x x x = + R A B y y y = + R A B z z z = + (4.22) his method can be extended to addition andsubtraction of any number of vectors. For example, if vectors a

, b and c are given as a i j k = + + a a a x y z ! ! b i j k = + + b b b x y z ! ! c i j k = + + c c c x y z ! ! (4.23a)then, a vector = a + b c has components : T a b c x x x x = + a b c y y y y = + (4.23b) a b c z z z z = + . Example 4.2 Find the magnitude anddirection of the resultant of two vectors A and B in terms of their magnitudes andangle between them. Fig. 4.9 (d) A vector A resolved into com onents along x-, y-, and z-axes * Note that angles

 , , and are an les in space. They are etween pairs of lines, which are not coplanar. So far we have considered a vector lyin inan x-y plane. The same procedure can e usedto resolve a eneral vector A into threecomponents alon x, y-, and z -axes in threedimensions. If , , and are the an les * etween A and the x -, y -, and z -axes, respectively Fi . 4.9(d), we have (d) x y z A Acos , A Acos , A Acos = = = (4.16a)In eneral, we have x y z A A A = + + A i j k (4.16 )The ma nitude of vector A is 2 2 2 x y z A A A A = + + (4.16c)A position vector r can e expressed as r i j k = + + x y z ! ! (4.17)where

x, y , and z are the components of r alon x-, y-, zaxes, respectively. 4.6VECTOR ADDITION ANALYTICAL METHOD Althou h the raphical method of addin vectorshelps us in visualisin the vectors and theresultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and haslimited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors y com inin their respective components.Consider two vectors A and B in x y plane withcomponents A x , A y and B x , B y : A i j = + A A x y ! (4.18) PHYSICS72 ! Fi . 4.10 Answer Let OP and O Q represent the two vectors A and B makin an an le (Fig. 4.10). Then,using the arallelogram method of vector addition, OS re resents the resultant vector R

: R = A + B SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS .From the geometry of the figure, OS 2 = ON 2 + SN 2 but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos SN = B sin OS 2 = ( A + B cos ) 2 + ( B sin ) 2 or, R 2 = A

2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos R A B 2AB 2 2 ! " " cos # (4.24a)In OSN, SN = OS sin = R sin , ndin PSN, SN = PS sin = B sin Therefore, R sin = B sin or, R B sin sin # $ ! (4.24b)Similarly,PM = A sin = B sin

or, A B sin sin % $ ! (4.24c)Com inin Eqs. (4.24 ) and (4.24c), we et R A sin sin sin = = B (4.24d)Using Eq. (4.24d), we get: sin sin = B R (4.24e)where R is given by E . (4.24a).or,sintancos SN B OP PN A B = =+ + (4.24f)E uation (4.24a) gives the magnitude of theresultant and E s. (4.24e) and (4.24f) its direction.E uation (4.24a) is known as the Law of cosines and E . (4.24d) as the Law of sines . ! Exam le 4.3 A motorboat is racingtowards north at 25 km/h and the water current in that region is 10 km/h in thedirection of 60 east of south. Find theresultant velocity of the boat. Answer The vector v b re resenting the velocity of the motorboat and the vector v c re resentingthe water current are shown in Fig. 4.11 indirections s ecified by the roblem. Using the arallelogram method of addition, the resultant R is obtained in the direction shown in thefigure. Fig. 4.11 We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law of cosine : R v v v v ! b2c2b c 2 cos120 " " " = 25 10 2 25 10 -1/2 22 km/h 2 2 + +

 ( ) To obtain the direction, we a ly the Law of sines R v c sin sin = or, sin = v R c sin = 10 sin12021.810 32 21.80.397 = " 23.4 ! 4.7MOTION IN A PLANE In this section we shall see how to describemotion in two dimensions using vectors. MOTION IN A PLANE 73 4.7.1Position Vector and Displacement The position vector r o a particle P located in a plane with re erence to the origin o an x-y re erence rame (Fig. 4.12) is given by r i j = + x y ! where x and y are components o r along x -, and y - axes or simply they are the coordinates o the object. (a)(b) Fig. 4.12 (a) Position vector

r . (b) Displacement r and average velocity v of a particle. Suppose a particle moves along the curve shownby the thick line and is at P at time t and P at time t [Fig. 4.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is : r = r r (4.25)and is directed from P to P .We can write Eq. (4.25) in a component form: r ( ) ( = + + x' y' ! ! ! i j i y = + ! ! i j x y where x = x x , y = y y )

x ! j

(4.26) Velocity The average velocity ( ) v of an object is the ratioof the displacement and the corresponding timeinterval : vr i ji j = =+= + t x y t x t y t ! !! ! (4.27)Or, x y v v = + v i j Since vr = t , the direction of the average velocity is the same as that of r (Fig. 4.12). The velocity (instantaneous velocity) is given by the limitingvalue of the average velocity as the time intervalapproaches zero : vr r = = lim t t t 0 dd (4.28)The meaning of the limiting process can be easily understood with the help of Fig 4.13(a) to (d). Inthese figures, the thick line represents the pathof an object, which is at P at time t . P 1 , P 2 andP 3 represent the positions of the object after times t 1 , t 2

, and t 3 . r 1 , r 2 , and r 3 are thedisplacements of the object in times t 1 , t 2 , and Fig. 4.13 As the time interval t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v . The direction of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path. PHYSICS74 t 3 , respectively. The direction of the averagevelocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for three decreasing values of t , i.e. t 1 , t 2 , and t 3 ,( t 1 >

 t 2 > t 3 ). As t 0, r 0and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 4.13(d)].Therefore, the direction of velocity at any pointon the path of an object is tangential to thepath at that point and is in the direction of motion .We can express v in a component form : vr = dd t = + lim x t y t t 0 ! ! i j (4.29) = + ! ! i j lim x t lim y t t t 0 0 Or, v i j i j = + = + ! ! ! dddd x t y t v v x y .where v x t v y t x y = = dddd,(4.30a)So, if the expressions for the coordinates

x and y are known as functions of time, we can usethese equations to find v x and v y .The magnitude of v is then v v v x 2 y 2 = + (4.30b)and the direction of v is given by the angle : tan tan 1 = = v v v v y x y x , (4.30c) v x , v y and angle are shown in Fig. 4.14 or a velocity vector v . Acceleration The average acceleration a o an object or a time interval t moving in x-y plane is the changein velocity divided by the time interval : ( ) avi ji j = =+= + t v v t v t v t

x y x y ! !! (4.31a)Or, a i j = + a a x y ! . (4.31b)The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)is the limiting value of the average accelerationas the time interval approaches zero : av = lim t t 0 (4.32a)Since v = + v v , x y ! i j we have a i j = + ! ! lim v t lim v t t x t y 0 0 Or, a i j = + a a x y ! (4.32b)where, a v t , a v t x x y y = = dddd(4.32c) * As in the case of velocity, we can understandgraphically the limiting process used in definingacceleration on a graph showing the path of theobjects motion. This is shown in Figs. 4.15(a) to(d). P represents the position of the object at time t and P 1 , P

2 , P 3 positions after time t 1 , t 2 , t 3 , respectively ( t 1 > t 2 > t 3 ). The velocity vectors at points P, P 1 , P 2 , P 3 are also shown inFigs. 4.15 (a), (b) and (c). In each case of t , v isobtained using the triangle law of vector addition.By definition, the direction of averageacceleration is the same as that of v . We seethat as t decreases, the direction of v changesand consequently, the direction of theacceleration changes. Finally, in the limit t # 0 Fig. 4.14 The components v

x and v y of velocity v and the angle it makes with x-axis. Note that v x = v cos , v y = v sin . * In terms o x and y, a x and a y can be expressed as 2 2d d d d d d= , =2 2d d d dd d x x y y t t t t t t = = a a x y MOTION IN A PLANE 75 ! x (m) Fig. 4.15(d), the average acceleration becomesthe instantaneous acceleration and has thedirection as shown. Note that in one dimension, the velocity andthe acceleration o an object are always alongthe same straight line (either in the same di-rection or in the opposite direction). However, or motion in two or three dimensions, veloc-ity and acceleration vectors may have anyangle between 0 and 180 between them. Example 4.4 The position o a particle isgiven by r i j k = + + 3.0 t ..2 0 5 0 2 t where t is in seconds and the coe icientshave the proper units or r to be in metres.(a) Find



= + 3.0 .0 ! i j 4 t ( ) avj t t = dd= +4.0 a = 4.0 m s 2 along y - directionAt t = 1.0 s, 3.0 4.0 v = i+ j Its magnitude is 2 2 1 -= 3 4 5.0 m s v + = and direction is -1 1 4= tan tan 533 y x v v =

v ( t ) and a ( t ) o the particle. (b) Findthe magnitude and direction o v ( t ) at t = 1.0 s. Answer ( ) ( ) vri j k t t t t t 2 = = + + dddd3.0 2.0 5.0 ! ! !

 with x axis. ""! 4.8MO ION IN A PLANE WI H CONS AN ACCELERA ION Suppose that an object is moving in x y planeand its acceleration a is constant. Over aninterval of time, the average acceleration willequal this constant value. Now, let the velocity of the object be v 0 at time t = 0 and v at time t . hen, by definition av v v v 0 0 = = t t 0Or, v v a 0 = + t (4.33a)In terms of components : v v a t x ox x = + v v a t y oy y = + (4.33b)Let us now find how the position r changes withtime. We follow the method used in the one dimensional case. Let r o and r be the positionvectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let thevelocities at these instants be v o and v . hen,over this time interval t , the average velocity is( v

o + v )/2. he displacement is the averagevelocity multiplied by the time interval : ( ) 2 2 t t t + ++ = = 0 000 v a vv vr r Fig. 4.15 he average acceleration for three time intervals (a) t 1 , (b) t 2 , and (c) t 3 , ( t 1 > t 2 > t 3 ). (d) In the limit t # 0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration. PHYSICS76 !! 2 12 t t = +

0 v a Or, r r v a 0 0 = + + t t 12 2 (4.34a)It can be easily verified that the derivative of Eq. (4.34a), i.e.dd r t gives Eq.(4.33a) and it alsosatisfies the condition that at t =0, r = r o .Equation (4.34a) can be written in component form as x x v t a t ox x = + + 02 12 2 12 0 oy y y y v t a t = + + (4.34b)One immediate interpretation of Eq.(4.34b) is that the motions in x - and ydirections can be treatedindependently of each other. That is, motion ina plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as twoseparate simultaneous one-dimensionalmotions with constant acceleration along twoperpendicular directions . This is an important result and is useful in analysing motion of objectsin two dimensions . A similar result holds for threedimensions. The choice of perpendicular directions is convenient in many physicalsituations, as we shall see in section 4.10 for projectile motion. Example 4.5 A particle starts from originat t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 m/s and movesin x y plane under action of a force whichproduces a constant acceleration of 3 0 2 0. . i + ()

j # m/s 2 . (a) What is the y -coordinate of the particle at the instant its x -coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is thespeed of the particle at this time ? Answer The position of the particle is given by () 2 12 t t t = + 0 r v a () ( ) 2 5.0 1/2 3.0 2.0 t t = + + i i j ( ) 2 2 5.0 1.5 1.0 t t t = + + i j Therefore, () 2 5.0 1.5 x t t t = + () 2 1.0 y t t = + Given x ( t ) = 84 m, t = ?5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 t = 6 sAt t

= 6 s, y = 1.0 (6) 2 = 36.0 mNow, the velocity () d 5.0 3.0 2.0d t t t = = + + rv i j At t = 6 s, v i j = + 23. ! 0 12.0 speed 2 2 1 23 12 26 m s = = + v . ! 4.9RELA IVE VELOCI Y IN WODIMENSIONS he concept of relative velocity, introduced insection 3.7 for motion along a straight line, canbe easily extended to include motion in a planeor in three dimensions. Suppose that two objectsA and B are moving with velocities v A and v B (each with respect to some common frame of reference, say ground.). hen, velocity of object A relative to that of B is : v AB = v A v B (4.35a)and similarly, the velocity o object B relative to that o A is : v BA = v B

 v A There ore, v AB = v BA (4.35b)and, v v AB BA = (4.35c) Example 4.6 Rain is alling vertically witha speed o 35 m s 1 . A woman rides a bicyclewith a speed o 12 m s 1 in east to west direction. What is the direction in whichshe should hold her umbrella ? Answer In Fig. 4.16 v r represents the velocity o rain and v b , the velocity o the bicycle, thewoman is riding. Both these velocities are withrespect to the ground. Since the woman is ridinga bicycle, the velocity o rain as experienced by Fig. 4.16 her is the velocity o rain relative to the velocity o the bicycle she is riding. That is v rb = v r v b MOTION IN A PLANE 77 This relative velocity vector as shown inFig. 4.16 makes an angle with the vertical. It isgiven by tan12350.343 = = = v v b r Or, 19

There ore, the woman should hold her umbrella at an angle o about 19 with thevertical towards the west. Note care ully the di erence between thisExample and the Example 4.1. In Example 4.1,the boy experiences the resultant (vectorsum) o two velocities while in this example,the woman experiences the velocity o rainrelative to the bicycle (the vector di erenceo the two velocities). ! 4.10PROJECTILE MOTION As an application o the ideas developed in theprevious sections, we consider the motion o a projectile. An object that is in light a ter beingthrown or projected is called a projectile . Sucha projectile might be a ootball, a cricket ball, a baseball or any other object. The motion o a projectile may be thought o as the result o twoseparate, simultaneously occurring componentso motions. One component is along a horizontaldirection without any acceleration and the other along the vertical direction with constant acceleration due to the orce o gravity. It wasGalileo who irst stated this independency o thehorizontal and the vertical components o projectile motion in his Dialogue on the greatworld systems (1632).In our discussion, we shall assume that theair resistance has negligible e ect on the motiono the projectile. Suppose that the projectile islaunched with velocity v o that makes an angle o with the x -axis as shown in Fig. 4.17.A ter the object has been projected, theacceleration acting on it is that due to gravity which is directed vertically downward: a j = g Or, a x = 0, a y = g (4.36)The components o initial velocity v o are : v ox = v o cos

  



 

  



o v oy = v o sin o (4.37)I we take the initial position to be the origin o the re erence rame as shown in Fig. 4.17, wehave : x o = 0, y o = 0Then, E .(4.47b) becomes : x = v ox t = ( v o cos o ) t and y = ( v o sin o ) t ( ) g t 2 (4.38)The components o velocity at time t can beobtained using E .(4.33b) : v x = v ox = v o cos

o v y = v o sin o g t (4.39)E uation (4.38) gives the x -, and y -coordinateso the position o a projectile at time t in terms o two parameters initial speed v o and projectionangle o . Notice that the choice o mutually perpendicular x -, and y -directions or theanalysis o the projectile motion has resulted ina simpli ication. One o the components o velocity, i.e. x -component remains constant throughout the motion and only the y - component changes, like an object in ree allin vertical direction. This is shown graphically at ew instants in Fig. 4.18. Note that at the point o maximum height, v y = 0 and there ore, # ! ! & tan 0 1 v v y x E uation o path o a projectile What is the shape o the path ollowed by theprojectile? This can be seen by eliminating thetime between the expressions or x and y asgiven in E . (4.38). We obtain: Fig 4.17 Motion o an object projected with velocity v o at angle 0

 

. PHYSICS78 !! ( )( ) 2o2o o tan2 cos g y x x v = (4.40)Now, since g , o and v o are constants, E . (4.40)is o the orm y = a x + b x 2 , in which a and b areconstants. This is the e uation o a parabola,i.e. the path o the projectile is a parabola (Fig. 4.18). Fig. 4.18 The path o a projectile is a parabola. Time o maximum height How much time does the projectile take to reachthe maximum height ? Let this time be denotedby t m . Since at this point, v y = 0, we have romE . (4.39): v y = v o sin o g t m = 0Or, t m = v o sin o

/g (4.41a)The total time T

= 2 ( v o sin o )/ g (4.41b) T is known as the time o light o the projectile.We note that T = 2 t m , which is expectedbecause o the symmetry o the parabolic path. Maximum height o a projectile The maximum height h m reached by theprojectile can be calculated by substituting t = t m in E . (4.38) : ( ) y h v v g g v g m 0 0 0 = = sinsin2sin 00 02 Or, ( ) h v m 0 = sin 0 2 2

during which the projectile isin y = 0 inE . (4.38). We get : T

 


light can be obtained by putting

  

g (4.42) Horizontal range o a projectile The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile rom its initial position ( x = y = 0 ) to the positionwhere it passes y = 0 during its all is called the horizontal range , R . It is the distance travelledduring the time o light T . There ore, the range R is R = ( v o cos o ) ( T )=( v o cos o ) (2 v o sin o )/ g Or, R v g 0 2 = sin 2 0 (4.43a)E uation (4.43a) shows that or a givenprojection velocity v o , R is maximum when sin2 0

 

 

is maximum, i.e., when 0 = 45 0 .The maximum horizontal range is, there ore, R v g m 0 2 = (4.43b) Example 4.7 Galileo, in his book Two newsciences, stated that or elevations whichexceed or all short o 45 by e ualamounts, the ranges are e ual. Prove thisstatement. Answer For a projectile launched with velocity v o at an angle o , the range is given by 0 sin2 2 0 v R g = Now, or angles, (45 + ) nd ( 45 ), 2 o is(90 + 2 ) nd ( 90 2 ) , respectively. Thev lues of sin (90 + 2 ) nd sin (90 2 ) rethe s me, equ l to th t of cos 2 . Therefore,r nges re equ l for elev tions which exceed or f ll short of 45 by equ l mounts . ""! Ex mple 4.8 A hiker st nds on the edgeof cliff 490 m bove the ground ndthrows stone horizont lly with n initi lspeed of 15 m s 1 . Neglecting ir resist nce,find the time t ken by the stone to re chthe ground, nd the speed with which it hits the ground. (T ke

g = 9.8 m s 2 ). MOTION IN A PLANE 79 ! Answer We choose the origin of the x , nd y xis t the edge of the cliff nd t = 0 s t theinst nt the stone is thrown. Choose the positivedirection of x xis to be long the initi l velocity nd the positive direction of y xis to be thevertic lly upw rd direction. The x , nd y components of the motion c n be tre tedindependently. The equ tions of motion re : x (t) = x o + v ox t y (t) = y o + v oy t + (1/2) y t 2 Here, x o = y o = 0, v oy = 0, y =

g = 9.8 m s 2 ,v ox = 15 m s 1

.The stone hits the ground when y(t) = 490 m. 490 m = (1/2)(9.8) t 2 .This gives t =10 s.The velocity components re v x = v ox nd v y = v oy g t so th t when the stone hits the ground : v ox = 15 m s 1 v oy = 0 9.8 10 = 98 m s 1 Therefore, the speed of the stone is 2 2 15 98 99m s 2 2 1x y v v + = + = ""! Ex mple 4.9 A cricket b ll is thrown t speed of 28 m s 1 in direction 30 bovethe horizont l. C lcul te ( ) the m ximumheight, (b) the time t ken by the b ll toreturn to the s me level, nd (c) thedist nce from the thrower to the point where the b ll returns to the s me level. Answer ( ) The m ximum height is given by ( ) ()() 22o sin28sin30m2 2 9.8 0 m v h g = = =

= 14 142 9.810.0 m(b) The time taken to return to the same level is T = (2 v o sin o )/ g = (2 28 sin 30 )/9.8= 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s(c) The distance rom the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same level is R ( ) 2o o sin228 28 sin6069 m9.8 o v g = = = ! 4.11UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION When an object ollows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion o the object is called uni orm circular motion . The word uni ormre ers to the speed, which is uni orm (constant)throughout the motion. Suppose an object ismoving with uni orm speed v in a circle o radius R as shown in Fig. 4.19. Since the velocity o theobject is changing continuously in direction, theobject undergoes acceleration. Let us ind themagnitude and the direction o this acceleration. Neglecting air resistance - what doesthe assumption really mean? While treating the topic o projectile motion,we have stated that we assume that theair resistance has no e ect on the motiono the projectile. You must understand what the statement really means. Friction, orcedue to viscosity, air resistance are alldissipative orces. In the presence o any o such orces opposing motion, any object willlose some part o its initial energy andconse uently, momentum too. Thus, a projectile that traverses a parabolic pathwould certainly show deviation rom itsidealised trajectory in the presence o air resistance. It will not hit the ground withthe same speed with which it was projected rom it. In the absence o air resistance, thex-component o the velocity remainsconstant and it is only the y-component that undergoes a continuous change. However,in the presence o air resistance, both o these would get a ected. That would meanthat





 

 

the range would be less than the onegiven by E . (4.43). Maximum height attained would also be less than that predicted by E . (4.42). Can you then,anticipate the change in the time o light?In order to avoid air resistance, we willhave to per orm the experiment in vacuumor under low pressure, which is not easy.When we use a phrase like neglect air resistance, we imply that the change inparameters such as range, height etc. ismuch smaller than their values without air resistance. The calculation without air resistance is much simpler than that withair resistance. PHYSICS80 Let r and r be the position vectors and v and v the velocities o the object when it is at point P and P as shown in Fig. 4.19(a). By de inition,velocity at a point is along the tangent at that point in the direction o motion. The velocity vectors v and v are as shown in Fig. 4.19(a1). v is obtained in Fig. 4.19 (a2) using the trianglelaw of vector addition. Since the path is circular, v is perpendicular to r and so is v to r .Therefore, v is perpendicular to r . Sinceaverage acceleration is along v av =

 

 

t , theaverage acceleration a is perpendicular to r . If we place v on the line that bisects the anglebetween r and r , we see that it is directed towardsthe centre of the circle. Figure 4.19(b) shows thesame quantities for smaller time interval. v andhence a is again directed towards the centre.In Fig. 4.19(c), t $ 0 and the averageacceleration becomes the instantaneousacceleration. It is directed towards the centre * .Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion is always directedtowards the centre of the circle. Let us now findthe magnitude of the acceleration.The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by av = t 0 t Let the angle between position vectors r and r be . Since the velocity vectors v and v arealways perpendicular to the position vectors, theangle between them is also . There ore, thetriangle CPP ormed by the position vectors andthe triangle GHI ormed by the velocity vectors

v , v and v are similar (Fig. 4.19a). Therefore,the ratio of the base-length to side-length for one of the triangles is equal to that of the other triangle. That is : v r v R = Or, vr = v R Therefore, av r r = = = t 0 0R R 0 t t v t v t t If t is small, will also be small and then arc PP can be approximately taken to be r : r v t r t v Or, t 0 t v = r Therefore, the centripetal acceleration a c

is : Fig. 4.19 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval t decreases from (a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of the circle. * In the limit t $ 0, r becomes perpendicular to r . In this limit v 0 and is consequently also perpendicular to V . Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.lim lim lim lim lim MOTION IN A PLANE 81 ! a c = v R v = v 2 /R (4.44)Thus, the acceleration of an object moving withspeed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude v 2 /R and is always directed towards the centre .This is why this acceleration is called centripetalacceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration wasfirst published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it wasprobably known to Newton also some years earlier.Centripetal comes rom a Greek term which meanscentre-seeking. Since v

and R are constant, themagnitude o the centripetal acceleration is alsoconstant. However, the direction changes pointing always towards the centre. There ore, a centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector.We have another way o describing thevelocity and the acceleration o an object inuni orm circular motion. As the object moves rom P to P in time t (= t t ), the line CP(Fig. 4.19) turns through an angle

is called angular distance. Wede ine the angular speed (Greek letter omega)as the time rate of change of angular displacement : = t (4.45)Now, if the distance travelled by the object during the time t is s, i.e. PP is s , then : v s t = but s = R . Therefore : v R t = =

as shownin the

igure.

 

R v = R (4.46)We can express centripetal acceleration a c interms of angular speed : a v R R R R c = = = 2 22 2 a R c = 2 (4.47)The time taken by an object to make one revolutionis kno n as its time period T and the number of revolution made in one second is called itsfre uency (=1/ T ). However, duri g this time thedista ce moved by the object is s = 2 R .Therefore, v = 2 R / T =2 R (4.48)I terms of freque cy , we have = 2 v = 2 R a c = 4 2

a circular groove of radius 12 cm moves alo gthe com letes 7revolutio s i 100 s. (a) What is d the li ear s eed of themotio ? (b) Is the a co sta t vector ? What is its mag itude ?

This is a exam le of u iform circular motio . Here R = 12 cm. The a gular s eed isgiven by = 2 / T = 2 7/100 = 0.44 rad/sThe li ear s eed v is : v = R = 0.44 s -1 12 cm = 5.3 cm s -1 The direction of velocity v is along the tangent to the circle at every point. The acceleration isdirected to ards the centre of the circle. Sincethis direction changes continuously,acceleration here is not a constant vector.Ho ever, the magnitude of acceleration isconstant: a = 2 R = (0.44 s 1 ) 2 (12 cm)= 2.3 cm s -2 ! PHYSICS82

 

 

 

 

2 R (4.49) Exam le 4.10 A i sect tra ed i groove steadily a d thea gular s eed, a acceleratio vector A swer

 

   

SUMMARY 1. Scalar uantities are uantities ith magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,mass and temperature.2. Vector uantities are uantities ith magnitude and direction both. Examples aredisplacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.3. A vector A multiplied by a real number is a so a vector, whose magnitude is timesthe magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite dependingupon whether is positive or negative.4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphica y using head-to-tai method or para e ogram method .5. Vector addition is commutative : A + B = B + A It a so obeys the associative aw :( A + B ) + C = A + ( B + C )6. A nu or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, wedont have to specify its direction. It has the properties :



 

 



A + 0 = A 0 = 0 0 A = 0 7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and B : A B = A + ( B )8. A vector A can be reso ved into component a ong two given vectors a and b ying in thesame p ane : A = a + b where and are rea numbers.9. A unit vector

associated with a vector A has magnitude one and is a ong the vector A : nA A = The unit vectors !! i, j, k are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of the x-, y -, and zaxes, respective y in a right-handed coordinate system.10. A vector A can be expressed as A i+ j = A A x y ! where A x , A y are its components a ong x, and y axes. If vector A makes an ang e ith the x -axis, then A x = A cos , A y = A sin and 2 2 , tan = . y x y x A A A A A = = +

A 11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method . If sum of t o vectors A and B , that lie in x-y plane, is R , then : R i j = + R R x y ! , here, R x = A x + B x , and R y = A y + B y 12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = i j x y ! ! + and the displacement from position r to position r is given by r = r r = +

( x i = + x !

) ( ) x y y j

i j 13. If an object undergoes a displacement r in time t , its average velocity is given by v = r t . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity MOTION IN A PLANE 83 as t tends to zero : v = = t 0 r r t t dd. It can be written in unit vector notation as : v i j k = + + v v v x y z ! ! where t z v t y v t x v z y x dd=,dd= ,dd = When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent tothe curve representing the path of the object.14. If the velocity of an object changes from

v to v in time t , then its average acceleration is given by: av v v = = t t The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as t $ 0 : av v = = t t t 0ddIn component form, we have : a i j k = + + a a a x y z ! ! where, a dv dt , a dv dt , a dv dt x x y y z z = = = 15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration 2 2 = x y a a a = + a andits position vector at time t = 0 is r o , then at any other time t , it will be at a point givenby:

2 12 t t = + + o o r r v a and its velocity is given by : v = v o + a t where v o is the velocity at time t = 0In component form : 2 12 o ox x x x v t a t = + + 2 12 o oy y y y v t a t = + + v v a t x ox x = + v v a t y oy y = + Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one- dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions 16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile . If an object isprojected with initial velocity v o making an angle o ith xaxis and if e assume itsinitial position to coincide ith the origin of the coordinate system, then the positionand velocity of the projectile at time t are given by : x = ( v o cos

 o ) t y = ( v o sin o ) t (1/2) g t 2 v x = v ox = v o cos o v y = v o sin o g t The ath of a rojectile is arabolic a d is give by : ( )( ) 202 ta cos o o gx y x 2 v = The maximum height that a projectile attains is :

lim lim PHYSICS84 () 2 sin o o m v h 2g

is al ays to ards the centre of the circle.The angular speed , is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity v by v = R . The acceleration is a c

= The time taken to reach this height is : g v t o o m sin = The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the positionit passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range , R of the projectile. It is : 2 sin2 o o v R g = 17. When an object follo s a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object iscalled uniform circular motion . The magnitude of its acceleration is a c = v 2 /R . Thedirection of a c

= 2 R .If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and is itsfreque cy, we have = 2 , v = 2 R, a c = 4 2 2 R MOTION IN A PLANE 85 POINTS TO PONDER 1. The ath le gth traversed by a object betwee two oi ts is, i ge eral, ot the same asthe mag itude of dis laceme t. The dis laceme t de e ds o ly o the e d oi ts; the ath le gth (as the ame im lies) de e ds o the actual ath. The two qua tities areequal o ly if the object does ot cha ge its directio duri g the course of motio . I allother cases, the ath le gth is greater tha the mag itude of dis laceme t.2. I view of oi t 1 above, the average s eed of a object is greater tha or equal to themag itude of the average velocity over a give time i terval. The two are equal o ly if the ath le gth is equal to the mag itude of dis laceme t.3. The vector equatio s (4.33a) a d (4.34a) do ot i volve a y choice of axes. Of course,you ca always resolve them alo g a y two i de e de t axes.4. The ki ematic equatio s for u iform acceleratio do ot a ly to the case of u iformcircular motio si ce i this case the mag itude of acceleratio is co sta t but itsdirectio is cha gi g.5. A object subjected to two velocities v 1 a d v 2 has a resulta t velocity v = v 1 + v

  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

  

2 . Takecare to disti guish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v 12 = v 1 v 2 .Here v 1 a d v 2 are velocities with refere ce to some commo refere ce frame.6. The resulta t acceleratio of a object i circular motio is towards the ce tre o ly if the s eed is co sta t.7. The sha e of the trajectory of the motio of a object is ot determi ed by the acceleratio alo e but also de e ds o the i itial co ditio s of motio ( i itial ositio a d i itialvelocity). For exam le, the trajectory of a object movi g u der the same acceleratio due to gravity ca be a straight li e or a arabola de e di g o the i itial co ditio s. EXERCISES4.1 State, for each of the followi g hysical qua tities, if it is a scalar or a vector :volume, mass, s eed, acceleratio , de sity, umber of moles, velocity, a gular freque cy, dis laceme t, a gular velocity. 4.2 Pick out the two scalar qua tities i the followi g list :force, a gular mome tum, work, curre t, li ear mome tum, electric field, averagevelocity, mag etic mome t, relative velocity. 4.3 Pick out the o ly vector qua tity i the followi g list :Tem erature, ressure, im ulse, time, ower, total ath le gth, e ergy, gravitatio al ote tial, coefficie t of frictio , charge. 4.4 State with reaso s, whether the followi g algebraic o eratio s with scalar a d vector hysical qua tities are mea i gful :(a) addi g a y two scalars, (b) addi g a scalar to a vector of the same dime sio s ,(c) multi lyi g a y vector by a y scalar, (d) multi lyi g a y two scalars, (e) addi g a y two vectors, (f) addi g a com o e t of a vector to the same vector. 4.5 Read each stateme t below carefully a d state with reaso s, if it is true or false :(a) The mag itude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each com o e t of a vector isalways a scalar, (c) the total ath le gth is always equal to the mag itude of thedis laceme t vector of a article. (d) the average s eed of a article (defi ed as total ath le gth divided by the time take to cover the ath) is either greater or equal tothe mag itude of average velocity of the article over the same i terval of time, (e)Three vectors ot lyi g i a la e ca ever add u to give a ull vector. 4.6 Establish the followi g vector i equalities geometrically or otherwise :(a) a

   

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

  

+ b < a + b (b) a + b > a b PHYSICS86 Fig. 4.20 (c) a b < a + b (d) a b > a b When does the equality sign above apply? 4.7 Given a + b + c + d = 0 , which of the following statementsare correct :(a) a

, b , c , and d must each be a null vector,(b) The magnitude of ( a + c ) equals the magnitude of ( b + d ),(c) The magnitude of a can never be greater than thesum of the magnitudes of b , c , and d ,(d) b + c must lie in the plane of a and d if a and d arenot collinear, and in the line of a and d , if they arecollinear ? 4.8 Three girls skating on a circular ice ground of radius200 m start from a point P on the edge of the groundand reach a point Q diametrically opposite to P followingdifferent paths as shown in Fig. 4.20. What is themagnitude of the displacement vector for each ? For which girl is this equal to the actual length of path skate ? 4.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO as shown in Fig. 4.21. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the

cyclist ? Fig. 4.21 4.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 60 0 after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement withthe total path length covered by the motorist in each case. 4.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him alonga circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the averagespeed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ? 4.12 Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 30 m s -1 . A woman rides a bicycle with a speedof 10 m s -1 in the north to south direction. What is the direction in which she shouldhold her umbrella ? 4.13 A man can swim with a speed of 4.0 km/h in still water. How long does he take tocross a river 1.0 km wide if the river flows steadily at 3.0 km/h and he makes his MOTION IN A PLANE 87 strokes normal to the river current? How far down the river does he go when hereaches the other bank ? 4.14 In a harbour, wind is blowing at the speed of 72 km/h and the flag on the mast of a boat anchored in the harbour flutters along the N-E direction. If the boat starts moving at a speed of 51 km/h to the north, what is the direction of the flag on the mast of the boat? 4.15 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s -1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ? 4.16 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How muchhigh above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ? 4.17 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude anddirection of acceleration of the stone ? 4.18 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity. 4.19 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of the circle towards the centre(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always

along the tangent to the pathof the particle at that point (c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over onecycle is a null vector 4.20 The position of a particle is given by 2 3.0 2.0 4.0 m t t = + r i j k where t is i seco ds a d the coefficie ts have the ro er u its for r to be i metres.(a) Fi d the v a d a of the article? (b) What is the mag itude a d directio of velocity of the article at t = 2.0 s ? 4.21 A article starts from the origi at t = 0 s with a velocity of 10.0 j m/s a d moves i the x y la e with a co sta t acceleratio of ( ) 8.0 2.0 ! ! i j + m s 2 . (a) At what time isthe x coordi ate of the article 16 m? What is the y coordi ate of the article at that time? (b) What is the s eed of the article at the time ? 4.22i a d j are u it vectors alo g x a d y axis res ectively. What is the mag itudea d directio ! i j + , a d !

of the vectors

  

 

 

i j ? What are the com o e ts of a vector A = 2 ! i j + 3 alo g the directio s of ! i j + a d ! i j ? [You may use gra hical method] 4.23 For a y arbitrary motio i s ace, which of the followi g relatio s are true :(a) v average = (1/2) ( v ( t 1 ) + v ( t 2 ))(b) v average = [ r ( t 2 ) r ( t 1 ) ] /( t 2 t 1 )(c) v ( t ) = v (0) +

 

  

a t (d) r ( t ) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t 2 (e) a average =[ v ( t 2 ) v ( t 1 )] /( t 2 t 1 )(The average sta ds for average of the qua tity over the time i terval t 1 to t 2 ) 4.24 Read each stateme t below carefully a d state, with reaso s a d exam les, if it istrue or false :A scalar qua tity is o e that (a) is co served i a rocess(b) ca ever take egative values(c) must be dime sio less(d) does ot vary from o e oi t to a other i s ace(e) has the same value for observers with differe t orie tatio s of axes. 4.25 A aircraft is flyi g at a height of 3400 m above the grou d. If the a gle subte ded at a grou d observatio oi t by the aircraft ositio s 10.0 s a art is 30, what is thes eed of the aircraft ? PHYSICS88 Additio al Exercises4.26 A vector has mag itude a d directio . Does it have a locatio i s ace ? Ca it vary with time ? Will two equal vectors a a d

   

 

 

 

  

b at differe t locatio s i s ace ecessarily have ide tical hysical effects ? Give exam les i su ort of your a swer. 4.27 A vector has both mag itude a d directio . Does it mea that a ythi g that hasmag itude a d directio is ecessarily a vector ? The rotatio of a body ca be s ecifiedby the directio of the axis of rotatio , a d the a gle of rotatio about the axis. Doesthat make a y rotatio a vector ? 4.28 Ca you associate vectors with (a) the le gth of a wire be t i to a loo , (b) a la earea, (c) a s here ? Ex lai . 4.29 A bullet fired at a a gle of 30 with the horizo tal hits the grou d 3.0 km away. By adjusti g its a gle of rojectio , ca o e ho e to hit a target 5.0 km away ? Assumethe muzzle s eed to the fixed, a d eglect air resista ce. 4.30 A fighter la e flyi g horizo tally at a altitude of 1.5 km with s eed 720 km/h assesdirectly overhead a a ti aircraft gu . At what a gle from the vertical should the gu be fired for the shell with muzzle s eed 600 m s 1 to hit the la e ? At what mi imumaltitude should the ilot fly the la e to avoid bei g hit ? (Take g = 10 m s 2 ). 4.31 A cyclist is ridi g with a s eed of 27 km/h. As he a roaches a circular tur o theroad of radius 80 m, he a lies brakes a d reduces his s eed at the co sta t rate of 0.50 m/s every seco d. What is the mag itude a d directio of the et acceleratio of the cyclist o the circular tur ? 4.32 (a) Show that for a rojectile the a gle betwee the velocity a d the x axis as a fu ctio of time is give by ( ) ox 0y v gt v = 1 ta t ! (b) Shows that the rojectio a gle 0 for a projectile launched from the origin isgiven by 0 R 4h = m 1tan ! here the symbols have their usual meaning.

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

HAPTER F IVE L AWS OF M OTION 5.1INTRODUCTION In the preceding Chapter, our concern as to describe themotion of a particle in space uantitatively. We sa that uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone hereasnon-uniform motion re uires the concept of acceleration inaddition. So far, e have not asked the uestion as to hat governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, e turn to thisbasic uestion.Let us first guess the ans er based on our commonexperience. To move a football at rest, someone must kick it.To thro a stone up ards, one has to give it an up ardpush. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to s ing; a strong ind can even move heavy objects. A boat moves in a flo ing river ithout anyone ro ing it. Clearly, some externalagency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest.Like ise, an external force is needed also to retard or stopmotion. You can stop a ball rolling do n an inclined plane by applying a force against the direction of its motion.In these examples, the external agency of force (hands, ind, stream, etc) is in contact ith the object. This is not al ays necessary. A stone released from the top of a buildingaccelerates do n ard due to the gravitational pull of theearth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance. This sho s that external agencies (e.g. gravitational andmagnetic forces ) can exert force on a body even from adistance. In short, a force is re uired to put a stationary body inmotion or stop a moving body, and some external agency isneeded to provide this force. The external agency may or may not be in contact ith the body.So far so good. But hat if a body is moving uniformly (e.g.a skater moving straight ith constant speed on a horizontalice slab) ? Is an external force re uired to keep a body inuniform motion?5.1 Introduction 5.2 Aristotles fallacy 5.3 The la of inertia 5.4 Ne tons first la of motion 5.5 Ne tons second la of motion 5.6 Ne tons third la of motion 5.7 Conservation of momentum 5.8 E uilibrium of a particle 5.9 Common forces in mechanics 5.10 Circular motion 5.11 Solving problems inmechanicsSummary Points to ponder ExercisesAdditional exercises PHYSICS90

 

 

5.2ARISTOTLES FALLACY The uestion posed above appears to be simple.Ho ever, it took ages to ans er it. Indeed, thecorrect ans er to this uestion given by Galileoin the seventeenth century as the foundationof Ne tonian mechanics, hich signalled thebirth of modern science.The Greek thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C 322B.C.), held the vie that if a body is moving,something external is re uired to keep it moving.According to this vie , for example, an arro shot from a bo keeps flying since the air behindthe arro keeps pushing it. The vie as part of an elaborate frame ork of ideas developed by Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the universe.Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are no kno n to be rong and need not concern us.For our purpose here, the Aristotelian la of motion may be phrased thus: An external forceis re uired to keep a body in motion .Aristotelian la of motion is fla ed, as e shallsee. Ho ever, it is a natural vie that anyone ould hold from common experience. Even a small child playing ith a simple (non-electric)toy-car on a floor kno s intuitively that it needsto constantly drag the string attached to the toy-car ith some force to keep it going. If it releasesthe string, it comes to rest. This experience iscommon to most terrestrial motion. Externalforces seem to be needed to keep bodies inmotion. Left to themselves, all bodies eventually come to rest.What is the fla in Aristotles argument? Theans er is: a moving toy car comes to rest becausethe external force of friction on the car by the floor opposes its motion. To counter this force, the childhas to apply an external force on the car in thedirection of motion. When the car is in uniformmotion, there is no net external force acting on it:the force by the child cancels the force ( friction)by the floor. The corollary is: if there ere no friction,the child ould not be re uired to apply any forceto keep the toy car in uniform motion.The opposing forces such as friction (solids)and viscous forces (for fluids) are al ays present in the natural orld. This explains hy forcesby external agencies are necessary to overcomethe frictional forces to keep bodies in uniformmotion. No e understand here Aristotle ent rong. He coded this practical experiencein the form of a basic argument. To get at thetrue la of nature for forces and motion, one hasto imagine a orld in hich uniform motion ispossible ith no frictional forces opposing. Thisis hat Galileo did. 5.3THE LAW OF INERTIA Galileo studied motion of objects on an inclinedplane. Objects (i) moving do n an inclined planeaccelerate, hile those (ii) moving up retard.(iii) Motion on a horizontal plane is anintermediate situation. Galileo concluded that an object moving on a frictionless horizontalplane must neither have acceleration nor retardation, i.e. it should move ith constant velocity (Fig. 5.1(a)).(i) (ii) (iii) Fig. 5.1(a) Another experiment by Galileo leading to thesame conclusion involves a double inclined plane.A ball released from rest on one of the planes rollsdo n and climbs up the other. If the planes aresmooth, the final height of the ball is nearly thesame as the initial height (a little less but never greater). In the ideal situation, hen friction isabsent, the final height of the ball is the sameas its initial height.If the slope of the second plane is decreasedand the experiment repeated, the ball ill stillreach the same height, but in doing so, it illtravel a longer distance. In the limiting case, henthe slope of the second plane is zero (i.e. is a horizontal) the ball travels an infinite distance.In other ords, its motion never ceases. This is,of course, an idealised situation (Fig. 5.1(b)). Fig. 5.1(b) The la of inertia as inferred by Galileo from observations of motion

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

of a ball on a double inclined plane. LAWS OF MOTION 91 In practice, the ball does come to a stop after moving a finite distance on the horizontal plane,because of the opposing force of friction hichcan never be totally eliminated. Ho ever, if there ere no friction, the ball ould continue to move ith a constant velocity on the horizontal plane.Galileo thus, arrived at a ne insight onmotion that had eluded Aristotle and those hofollo ed him. The state of rest and the state of uniform linear motion (motion ith constant velocity) are e uivalent. In both cases, there isno net force acting on the body. It is incorrect toassume that a net force is needed to keep a body in uniform motion. To maintain a body inuniform motion, e need to apply an externalforce to ecounter the frictional force, so that the t o forces sum up to zero net externalforce.To summarise, if the net external force is zero,a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a body in motion continues to move ith a uniformvelocity. This property of the body is calledinertia. Inertia means resistance to change .A body does not change its state of rest or uniform motion, unless an external forcecompels it to change that state. 5.4NEWTONS FIRST LAW OF MOTION Galileos simple, but revolutionary ideasdethroned Aristotelian mechanics. A ne mechanics had to be developed. This task as Ideas on Motion in Ancient Indian Science Ancient Indian thinkers had arrived at an elaborate system of ideas on motion. Force, the cause of motion, as thought to be of different kinds : force due to continuous pressure (nodan), as the forceof ind on a sailing vessel; impact (abhighat), as hen a potters rod strikes the heel; persistent tendency (sanskara) to move in a straight line(vega) or restoration of shape in an elastic body;transmitted force by a string, rod, etc. The notion of (vega) in the Vaisesika theory of motion perhapscomes closest to the concept of inertia. Vega, the tendency to move in a straight line, as thought tobe opposed by contact ith objects including atmosphere, a parallel to the ideas of friction and air resistance. It as correctly summarised that the different kinds of motion (translational, rotationaland vibrational) of an extended body arise from only the translational motion of its constituent particles. A falling leaf in the ind may have do n ard motion as a hole (patan) and also rotationaland vibrational motion (bhraman, spandan), but each particle of the leaf at an instant only has a definite (small) displacement. There as considerable focus in Indian thought on measurement of motion and units of length and time. It as kno n that the position of a particle in space can beindicated by distance measured along three axes. Bhaskara (1150 A.D.) had introduced the concept of instantaneous motion ( tatkaliki gati ), hich anticipated the modern notion of instantaneousvelocity using Differential Calculus. The difference bet een a ave and a current (of ater) as clearly understood; a current is a motion of particles of ater under gravity and fluidity hile a ave resultsfrom the transmission of vibrations of ater particles. accomplished almost single-handedly by IsaacNe ton, one of the greatest scientists of all times.Ne ton built on Galileos ideas and laid thefoundation of mechanics in terms of three la sof motion that go by his name. Galileos la of inertia as his starting point hich heformulated as the First La of motion : Every body continues to be in its stateof rest or of uniform motion in a

  

 

 

 

   

straightline unless compelled by some externalforce to act other ise. The state of rest or uniform linear motion bothimply zero acceleration. The first la of motion can,therefore, be simply expressed as: If the net external force on a body is zero, itsacceleration is zero. Acceleration can be nonzero only if there is a net external force onthe body. T o kinds of situations are encountered in theapplication of this la in practice. In someexamples, e kno that the net external forceon the object is zero. In that case e canconclude that the acceleration of the object iszero. For example, a spaceship out ininterstellar space, far from all other objects and ith all its rockets turned off, has no net external force acting on it. Its acceleration,according to the First La , must be zero. If it is in motion, it must continue to move ith a uniform velocity. PHYSICS92 More often, ho ever, e do not kno all theforces to begin ith. In that case, if e kno that an object is unaccelerated (i.e. it is either at rest or in uniform linear motion), e can infer from the first la that the net external force onthe object must be zero. Gravity is every here.For terrestrial phenomena, in particular, every object experiences gravitational force due to theearth. Also objects in motion generally experiencefriction, viscous drag, etc. If then, on earth, anobject is at rest or in uniform linear motion, it isnot because there are no forces acting on it, but because the various external forces cancel out i.e. add up to zero net external force.Consider a book at rest on a horizontal surfaceFig. (5.2(a)). It is subject to t o external forces :the force due to gravity (i.e. its eight W ) actingdo n ard and the up ard force on the book by the table, the normal force R . R is a self-adjustingforce. This is an example of the kind of situationmentioned above. The forces are not uite kno nfully but the state of motion is kno n. We observethe book to be at rest. Therefore, e concludefrom the first la that the magnitude of R e ualsthat of W . A statement often encountered is :Since W = R , forces cancel and, therefore, the book is at rest. This is incorrect reasoning. The correct statement is : Since the book is observed to be at rest, the net external force on it must be zero,according to the first la . This implies that the Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa, Italy in 1564 as a key figure in the scientific revolutionin Europe about four centuries ago. Galileo proposed the concept of acceleration.From experiments on motion of bodies on inclined planes or falling freely, hecontradicted the Aristotelian notion that a force as re uired to keep a body inmotion, and that heavier bodies fall faster than lighter bodies under gravity. Hethus arrived at the la of inertia that as the starting point of the subse uent epochal ork of Isaac Ne ton.Galileos discoveries in astronomy ere e ually revolutionary. In 1609, he designedhis o n telescope (invented earlier in Holland) and used it to make a number of startling observations : mountains and depressions on the surface of

 

 

the moon;dark spots on the sun; the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus. He concludedthat the Milky Way derived its luminosity because of a large number of stars not visible to the naked eye.In his masterpiece of scientific reasoning : Dialogue on the T o Chief World Systems, Galileo advocatedthe heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Copernicus, hich eventually got universalacceptance.With Galileo came a turning point in the very method of scientific in uiry. Science as no longer merely observations of nature and inferences from them. Science meant devising and doing experimentsto verify or refute theories. Science meant measurement of uantities and a search for mathematicalrelations bet een them. Not undeservedly, many regard Galileo as the father of modern science. normal force R must be e ual and opposite to the eight W . Fig. 5.2 (a) a book at rest on the table, and (b) a car moving ith uniform velocity. The net force is zero in each case. Consider the motion of a car starting fromrest, picking up speed and then moving on a smooth straight road ith uniform speed (Fig.(5.2(b)). When the car is stationary, there is nonet force acting on it. During pick-up, it accelerates. This must happen due to a net external force. Note, it has to be an external force.The acceleration of the car cannot be accountedfor by any internal force. This might soundsurprising, but it is true. The only conceivableexternal force along the road is the force of friction. It is the frictional force that acceleratesthe car as a hole. (You ill learn about frictionin section 5.9). When the car moves ithconstant velocity, there is no net external force. Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) LAWS OF MOTION 93 ! It relates the net external force to theacceleration of the body. Momentum Momentum, P of a body is defined to be theproduct of its mass m and velocity v , and isdenoted by p : p = m v (5.1)Momentum is clearly a vector uantity. Thefollo ing common experiences indicate theimportance of this uantity for considering theeffect of force on motion. Suppose a light- eight vehicle (say a smallcar) and a heavy eight vehicle (say a loadedtruck) are parked on a horizontal road. We allkno that a much greater force is needed topush the truck than the car to bring them tothe same speed in same time. Similarly, a greater opposing force is needed to stop a heavy body than a light body in the same time,if they are moving ith the same speed.

 If t o stones, one light and the other heavy,are dropped from the top of a building, a person on the ground ill find it easier to catchthe light stone than the heavy stone. Themass of a body is thus an important parameter that determines the effect of forceon its motion. Speed is another important parameter toconsider. A bullet fired by a gun can easily pierce human tissue before it stops, resultingin casualty. The same bullet fired ithmoderate speed ill not cause much damage.Thus for a given mass, the greater the speed,the greater is the opposing force needed to stopthe body in a certain time. Taken together,the product of mass and velocity, that ismomentum, is evidently a relevant variableof motion. The greater the change in themomentum in a given time, the greater is theforce that needs to be applied. A seasoned cricketer catches a cricket ballcoming in ith great speed far more easily than a novice, ho can hurt his hands in theact. One reason is that the cricketer allo s a longer time for his hands to stop the ball. Asyou may have noticed, he dra s in the handsback ard in the act of catching the ball (Fig.5.3). The novice, on the other hand, keepshis hands fixed and tries to catch the ballalmost instantly. He needs to provide a muchgreater force to stop the ball instantly, andThe property of inertia contained in the First la is evident in many situations. Suppose eare standing in a stationary bus and the driver starts the bus suddenly. We get thro nback ard ith a jerk. Why ? Our feet are in touch ith the floor. If there ere no friction, e ouldremain here e ere, hile the floor of the bus ould simply slip for ard under our feet and theback of the bus ould hit us. Ho ever,fortunately, there is some friction bet een thefeet and the floor. If the start is not too sudden,i.e. if the acceleration is moderate, the frictionalforce ould be enough to accelerate our feet along ith the bus. But our body is not strictly a rigid body. It is deformable, i.e. it allo s somerelative displacement bet een different parts.What this means is that hile our feet go iththe bus, the rest of the body remains here it isdue to inertia. Relative to the bus, therefore, eare thro n back ard. As soon as that happens,ho ever, the muscular forces on the rest of thebody (by the feet) come into play to move the body along ith the bus. A similar thing happens hen the bus suddenly stops. Our feet stop dueto the friction hich does not allo relativemotion bet een the feet and the floor of the bus.But the rest of the body continues to movefor ard due to inertia. We are thro n for ard.The restoring muscular forces again come intoplay and bring the body to rest. Example 5.1 An astronaut accidentally gets separated out of his small spaceshipaccelerating in inter stellar space at a constant rate of 100 m s -2 . What is theacceleration of the astronaut the instant after he is outside the spaceship ? (Assume that there are no nearby stars to exert gravitational force on him.) Ans er Since there are no nearby stars to exert gravitational force on him and the smallspaceship exerts negligible gravitationalattraction on him, the net force acting on theastronaut, once he is out of the spaceship, iszero. By the first la of motion the accelerationof the astronaut is zero. """"""""""""" ! 5.5NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION The first la refers to the simple case hen thenet external force on a body is zero. The secondla of motion refers to the general situation

 

  

   

henthere is a net external force acting on the body.

PHYSICS94 this hurts.The conclusion is clear: force not only depends on the change in momentum,but also on ho fast the change is brought about. The same change in momentumbrought about in a shorter time needs a greater applied force. In short, the greater therate of change of momentum, the greater isthe force. Fig. 5.3 Force not only depends on the change in momentum but also on ho fast the change is brought about. A seasoned cricketer dra s in his hands during a catch, allo ing greater time for the ball to stop and hence re uires a smaller force. Observations confirm that the product of mass and velocity (i.e. momentum) is basic tothe effect of force on motion. Suppose a fixedforce is applied for a certain interval of timeon t o bodies of different masses, initially at rest, the lighter body picks up a greater speedthan the heavier body. Ho ever, at the end of the time interval, observations sho that eachbody ac uires the same momentum. Thusthe same force for the same time causesthe same change in momentum fordifferent bodies . This is a crucial clue to thesecond la of motion. In the preceding observations, the vector character of momentum has not been evident.In the examples so far, momentum and changein momentum both have the same direction.But this is not al ays the case. Suppose a stone is rotated ith uniform speed in a horizontal plane by means of a string, themagnitude of momentum is fixed, but itsdirection changes (Fig. 5.4). A force is neededto cause this change in momentum vector.This force is provided by our hand throughthe string. Experience suggests that our handneeds to exert a greater force if the stone isrotated at greater speed or in a circle of smaller radius, or both. This corresponds togreater acceleration or e uivalently a greater rate of change in momentum vector. Thissuggests that the greater the rate of changein momentum vector the greater is the forceapplied. Fig. 5.4 Force is necessary for changing the direction of momentum, even if its magnitude is constant. We can feel this hile rotating a stone in a horizontal circle ith uniform speed by means of a string. These ualitative observations lead to the Second La of motion expressed by Ne ton asfollo s : The rate of change of momentum of a body isdirectly proportional to the applied force andtakes place in the direction in hich the forceacts .Thus, if under the action of a force F for timeinterval t , the velocity of a body of mass m changes from v to v +

i.e. its initial momentum p = m v changes by m = p v . According to theSecond Law, or k t t = p pF F where k is a constant of proportionality. Takingthe limit t 0, the term t p becomes thederivative or differential co-efficient of p withrespect to t , denoted by dd t p . Thus LAWS OF MOTION 95 ! dd k t = pF (5.2)For a body of fixed mass m , () d d dd d d m m m t t t = = = p vv a (5.3)i.e the Second Law can also be written as F = k m a (5.4)which shows that force is proportional to theproduct of mass m and acceleration

a .The unit of force has not been defined so far.In fact, we use Eq. (5.4) to define the unit of force.We, therefore, have the liberty to choose any constant value for k . For simplicity, we choose k = 1. The Second Law then is apF m t dd == (5.5)In SI unit force is one that causes an accelerationof 1 m s -2 to a mass of 1 kg. This unit is known as newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s -2 .Let us note at this stage some important pointsabout the second law :1. In the second law, F = 0 implies a = 0. Thesecond Law is obviously consistent with thefirst law.2. The second law of motion is a vector law. It isequivalent to three equations, one for eachcomponent of the vectors : F p t ma x x x = = dd F p t ma y y y = = dd z z z a m t p F == dd(5.6)This means that if a force is not parallel tothe velocity of the body, but makes some anglewith it, it changes only the component of velocity along the direction of force. Thecomponent of velocity normal to the forceremains unchanged. For example, in themotion of a projectile under the verticalgravitational force, the horizontal component of velocity remains unchanged (Fig. 5.5).3. The second law of motion given by Eq. (5.5) isapplicable to a single point particle. The force F in the law stands for the net external forceon the particle and a stands for accelerationof the particle. It turns out, however, that thelaw in the same form applies to a rigid body or, even more generally, to a system of particles. In that case, F refers to the totalexternal force on the system and a refers tothe acceleration of the system as a whole. Moreprecisely, a is the acceleration of the centreof mass of the system. Any internal forces inthe system are not to be included in

F . Fig. 5.5 Acceleration at an instant is determined by the force at that instant. The moment after a stone is dropped out of an accelerated train,it has no horizontal acceleration or force, if air resistance is neglected. The stone carries no memory of its acceleration with the train a moment ago. 4. The second law of motion is a local relationwhich means that force F at a point in space(location of the particle) at a certain instant of time is related to a at that point at that instant. Acceleration here and now isdetermined by the force here and now, not byany history of the motion of the particle(See Fig. 5.5) . Example 5.2 A bullet of mass 0.04 kgmoving with a speed of 90 m s -1 enters a heavy wooden block and is stopped after a distance of 60 cm. What is the averageresistive force exerted by the block on thebullet? Answer The retardation a of the bullet (assumed constant) is given by 2 2 u a s = = 2 2 90 90m s 6750 m s2 0.6 = PHYSICS96 !! The retardi g force, by the Seco d Law of motio , is= 0.04 kg x 6750 m s 2 = 270 NThe actual resistive force, a d therefore,retardatio of the bullet may ot be u iform. Thea swer therefore, o ly i dicates the averageresistive force. """"""""""""""""" ! Exam le 5.3 The motio of a article of mass m is described by y = ut gt + 12 2 . Fi dthe force acti g o the article. A swer We k ow 2

 

12 y ut gt = + Now,dd y v u gt t = = + acceleratio ,dd v a g t = = The the force is give by Eq. (5.5)F = ma = mg ! Thus the give equatio describes the motio of a article u der acceleratio due to gravity a d y is the ositio coordi ate i the directio of g. Im ulse We sometimes e cou ter exam les where a largeforce acts for a very short duratio roduci g a fi ite cha ge i mome tum of the body. For exam le, whe a ball hits a wall a d bou cesback, the force o the ball by the wall acts for a very short time whe the two are i co tact, yet the force is large e ough to reverse the mome tumof the ball. Ofte , i these situatio s, the forcea d the time duratio are difficult to ascertai se arately. However, the roduct of force a d time,which is the cha ge i mome tum of the body remai s a measurable qua tity. This roduct iscalled im ulse:Im ulse = Force time duratio = Cha ge i mome tum (5.7)A large force acti g for a short time to roduce a fi ite cha ge i mome tum is called a im ulsive force . I the history of scie ce, im ulsive forceswere ut i a co ce tually differe t category fromordi ary forces. Newto ia mecha ics has osuch disti ctio . Im ulsive force is like a y other force exce t that it is large a d acts for a short time. Exam le 5.4 A batsma hits back a ballstraight i the directio of the bowler without cha gi g its i itial s eed of 12 m s 1 .If the mass of the ball is 0.15 kg, determi ethe im ulse im arted to the ball. (Assumeli ear motio of the ball) A swer Cha ge i mome tum= 0.15 12(0.15 12)= 3.6 N s,Im ulse = 3.6 N s,i the directio from the batsma to the bowler.This is a exam le where the force o the ballby the batsma a d the time of co tact of theball a d the bat are difficult to k ow, but theim ulse is readily calculated. """""""""" ! 5.6NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTION The seco d law relates the exter al force o a body to its acceleratio . What is the origi of theexter al force o the body ? What age cy rovides the exter al force ? The sim le a swer i Newto ia mecha ics is that the exter alforce o a body always arises due to some other body. Co sider a air of bodies A a d B . B

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

    

givesrise to a exter al force o A . A atural questio is: Does A i tur give rise to a exter al forceo B ? I some exam les, the a swer seemsclear. If you ress a coiled s ri g, the s ri g iscom ressed by the force of your ha d. Thecom ressed s ri g i tur exerts a force o your ha d a d you ca feel it. But what if the bodiesare ot i co tact ? The earth ulls a sto edow wards due to gravity. Does the sto e exert a force o the earth ? The a swer is ot obvioussi ce we hardly see the effect of the sto e o theearth. The a swer accordi g to Newto is: Yes,the sto e does exert a equal a d o osite forceo the earth. We do ot otice it si ce the earthis very massive a d the effect of a small force o its motio is egligible.Thus, accordi g to Newto ia mecha ics,force ever occurs si gly i ature. Force is themutual i teractio betwee two bodies. Forces LAWS OF MOTION 97 always occur i airs. Further, the mutual forcesbetwee two bodies are always equal a do osite. This idea was ex ressed by Newto i the form of the third law of motio . To every actio , there is always a equal a do osite reactio . Newto s wordi g of the third law is so cris a dbeautiful that it has become a art of commo la guage. For the same reaso erha s,misco ce tio s about the third law abou d. Let us ote some im orta t oi ts about the thirdlaw, articularly i regard to the usage of theterms : actio a d reactio . 1. The terms actio a d reactio i the third law mea othi g else but force. Usi g differe t terms for the same hysical co ce t ca sometimes be co fusi g. A sim lea d clear way of stati g the third law is asfollows: Forces always occur i airs. Force o abody A by B is equal a d o osite to theforce o the body B by A. 2. The terms actio a d reactio i the third law may give a wro g im ressio that actio comes before reactio i.e actio is the causea d reactio the effect. There is o cause effect relatio im lied i the third law. Theforce o A by B a d the force o B by A actat the same i sta t. By the same reaso i g,a y o e of them may be called actio a d theother reactio .3. Actio a d reactio forces act o differe t bodies, ot o the same body. Co sider a air of bodies A a d B . Accordi g to the third law, F AB =

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

  

 

    

 

     

 

  

      

 

 

  

   

 

   

of a y o e body (

t. It is a error to add u the is zero.However, if you are a whole,

a d F BA arei ter al forces of the system ( A + B ). They addu to give a ull force. I ter al forces i a body or a system of articles thus ca cel away i airs. This is a im orta t fact that e ables the seco d law to be a licable to a body or a system of articles (See Cha ter 7). Isaac Newto (1642 1727) Isaac Newto was bor i Woolsthor e, E gla d i 1642, the year Galileo died.His extraordi ary mathematical ability a d mecha ical a titude remai ed hidde from others i his school life. I 1662, he we t to Cambridge for u dergraduatestudies. A lague e idemic i 1665 forced the u iversity tow to close a d Newto had to retur to his mothers farm. There i two years of solitude, his dorma t creativity blossomed i a deluge of fu dame tal discoveries i mathematics a d hysics : bi omial theorem for egative a d fractio al ex o e ts, the begi i g of calculus, the i verse square law of gravitatio , the s ectrum of white light, a d soo . Retur i g to Cambridge, he ursued his i vestigatio s i o tics a d devised a reflecti g telesco e.I 1684, e couraged by his frie d Edmu d Halley, Newto embarked o writi g what was to be o e of the greatest scie tific works ever ublished : The Pri ci ia Mathematica. I it, he e u ciated the threelaws of motio a d the u iversal law of gravitatio , which ex lai ed all the three Ke lers laws of la etary motio . The book was acked with a host of ath breaki g achieveme ts : basic ri ci les of fluid mecha ics, mathematics of wave motio , calculatio of masses of the earth, the su a d other la ets, ex la atio of the recessio of equi oxes, theory of tides, etc. I 1704, Newto brought out a other master iece O ticks that summarized his work o light a d colour.The scie tific revolutio triggered by Co er icus a d steered vigorously ahead by Ke ler a d Galileowas brought to a gra d com letio by Newto . Newto ia mecha ics u ified terrestrial a d celestial he ome a. The same mathematical equatio gover ed the fall of a a le to the grou d a d themotio of the moo arou d the earth. The age of reaso had daw ed. PHYSICS98 ! Exam le 5.5

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

F BA (5.8)(force o A by B ) = (force o B by A )Thus if we are co sideri g the motio A or B ), o ly o e of the two forces isreleva two forcesa d claim that the et force co sideri g the systemof two bodies as F AB

  

 

 

 

 

    

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

     

Two ide tical billiard ballsstrike a rigid wall with the same s eed but at differe t a gles, a d get reflected without a y cha ge i s eed, as show i Fig. 5.6.What is (i) the directio of the force o thewall due to each ball? (ii) the ratio of themag itudes of im ulses im arted to theballs by the wall ? Fig. 5.6 A swer A i sti ctive a swer to (i) might bethat the force o the wall i case (a) is ormal tothe wall, while that i case (b) is i cli ed at 30to the ormal. This a swer is wro g. The forceo the wall is ormal to the wall i both cases.How to fi d the force o the wall? The trick isto co sider the force (or im ulse) o the balldue to the wall usi g the seco d law, a d the use the third law to a swer (i). Let u be the s eedof each ball before a d after collisio with thewall, a d m the mass of each ball. Choose the x a d y axes as show i the figure, a d co sider the cha ge i mome tum of the ball i eachcase :Case (a) ( ) ( ) i itiali itial 0 x y mu = = ( ) ( ) fi alfi al 0 x y mu = = Im ulse is the cha ge i mome tum vector.Therefore, x com o e t of im ulse = 2 m u y com o e t of im ulse = 0Im ulse a d force are i the same directio .Clearly, from above, the force o the ball due tothe wall is ormal to the wall, alo g the egativex directio . Usi g Newto s third law of motio ,the force o the wall due to the ball is ormal tothe wall alo g the ositive x directio . Themag itude of force ca ot be ascertai ed si cethe small time take for the collisio has ot bee s ecified i the roblem.Case (b) ( ) cos 30 i itial x m u = o , ( ) si 30 i itial y m u = o

 

 

 

 

 

   

  

 

      

 

  

 

 

          

( ) cos 30 fi al x m u = o , ( ) si 30 fi al y m u = o Note, while x cha ges sig after collisio ,

y does ot. Therefore, x com o e t of im ulse = 2 m u cos 30 y com o e t of im ulse = 0The directio of im ulse (a d force) is the sameas i (a) a d is ormal to the wall alo g the egative x directio . As before, usi g Newto sthird law, the force o the wall due to the ball is ormal to the wall alo g the ositive x directio .The ratio of the mag itudes of the im ulsesim arted to the balls i (a) a d (b) is ( ) 22 / 2 cos30 1.23 mu mu = o """"""""" ! 5.7CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM The seco d a d the third laws of motio lead toa im orta t co seque ce: the law of co servatio of mome tum. Take a familiar exam le. A bullet is fired from a gu . If the forceo the bullet by the gu is F , the force o the gu by the bullet is F , accordi g to the third law.The two forces act for a commo i terval of time t . According to the second law, F t is thechange in momentum of the bullet and

 

 

 

 

  

 

  

F t isthe change in momentum of the gun. Sinceinitially, both are at rest, the change inmomentum equals the final momentum for each.Thus if p b is the momentum of the bullet after firing and p g is the recoil momentum of the gun, p g = p b i.e. p b + p g = 0. That is, the totalmomentum of the (bullet + gun) system isconserved.Thus in an isolated system (i.e. a system withno external force), mutual forces between pairsof particles in the system can cause momentumchange in individual particles, but since themutual forces for each pair are equal andopposite, the momentum changes cancel in pairsand the total momentum remains unchanged.This fact is known as the law of conservationof momentum : LAWS OF MOTION 99 ! The total momentum of an isolated systemof interacting particles is conserved. An important example of the application of thelaw of conservation of momentum is the collisionof two bodies. Consider two bodies A and B, withinitial momenta p A and p B . The bodies collide,get apart, with final momenta p A and p B respectively. By the Second Law F p p AB A A t

 = a d F BA B B t = (where we have take a commo i terval of timefor both forces i.e. the time for which the twobodies are i co tact.)Si ce F F AB BA = by the third law, ( ) =

A A B B i.e. + = +

A B A B (5.9)which shows that the total fi al mome tum of the isolated system equals its i itial mome tum.Notice that this is true whether the collisio iselastic or i elastic. I elastic collisio s, there isa seco d co ditio that the total i itial ki etice ergy of the system equals the total fi al ki etice ergy (See Cha ter 6). 5.8EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE Equilibrium of a article i mecha ics refers tothe situatio whe the et exter al force o the article is zero. * Accordi g to the first law, thismea s that, the article is either at rest or i u iform motio .If two forces F 1 a d F 2 , act o a article,equilibrium requires F 1 = F 2 (5.10)i.e. the two forces o the article must be equala d o osite. Equilibrium u der threeco curre t forces F 1

 

 

 

 

, F 2 a d F 3 requires that the vector sum of the three forces is zero. F 1 + F 2 + F 3 = 0 (5.11) * Equilibrium of a body requires ot o ly tra slatio al equilibrium (zero et exter al force) but also rotatio al equilibrium (zero et exter al torque), as we shall see i Cha ter 7. Fig. 5.7 Equilibrium u der co curre t forces. I other words, the resulta t of a y two forcessay F 1 a d F 2 , obtai ed by the arallelogramlaw of forces must be equal a d o osite to thethird force, F 3 . As see i Fig. 5.7, the threeforces i equilibrium ca be re rese ted by thesides of a tria gle with the vector arrows take i the same se se. The result ca bege eralised to a y umber of forces. A articleis i equilibrium u der the actio of forces F 1 , F 2 ,... F if they ca be re rese ted by the sidesof a closed sided olygo with arrows directedi the same se se.Equatio (5.11) im lies that F 1x + F 2x + F 3x = 0 F 1y + F 2y + F 3y

  

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

= 0 F 1z + F 2z + F 3z = 0 (5.12)where F 1x , F 1y a d F 1z are the com o e ts of F 1 alo g x , y a d z directio s res ectively. Exam le 5.6 See Fig. 5.8 A mass of 6 kgis sus e ded by a ro e of le gth 2 mfrom the ceili g. A force of 50 N i thehorizo tal directio is a lied at the mid oi t P of the ro e, as show . What is thea gle the ro e makes with the vertical i equilibrium ? (Take g = 10 m s 2 ). Neglect the mass of the ro e. (a) (b) (c) Fig. 5.8 PHYSICS100 A swer Figures 5.8(b) a d 5.8(c) are k ow asfree body diagrams. Figure 5.8(b) is the free body diagram of W a d Fig. 5.8(c) is the free body diagram of oi t P.Co sider the equilibrium of the weight W.Clearly, T 2 = 6 10 = 60 N.Co sider the equilibrium of the oi t P u der the actio of three forces the te sio s T 1 a d T 2 , a d the horizo tal force 50 N. The horizo tala d vertical com o e ts of the resulta t forcemust va ish se arately : T

 

  

     

   

1 cos = T 2 = 60 N T 1 sin = 50 N hich gives that 1 5 5tan or tan 406 6 = = = o ! ! Note the a swer does ot de e d o the le gthof the ro e (assumed massless) or o the oi t at which the horizo tal force is a lied. ! 5.9COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS I mecha ics, we e cou ter several ki ds of forces. The gravitatio al force is, of course, all ervasive. Every object o the earth ex erie cesthe force of gravity due to the earth. Gravity alsogover s the motio of celestial bodies. Thegravitatio al force ca act at a dista ce without the eed of a y i terve i g medium.All the other forces commo i mecha ics areco tact forces. * As the ame suggests, a co tact force o a object arises due to co tact with someother object: solid or fluid. Whe bodies are i co tact (e.g. a book resti g o a table, a systemof rigid bodies co ected by rods, hi ges a dother ty es of su orts), there are mutualco tact forces (for each air of bodies) satisfyi gthe third law. The com o e t of co tact force ormal to the surfaces i co tact is called ormal reactio . The com o e t arallel to thesurfaces i co tact is called frictio . Co tact forces arise also whe solids are i co tact withfluids. For exam le, for a solid immersed i a fluid, there is a u ward bouya t force equal tothe weight of the fluid dis laced. The viscousforce, air resista ce, etc are also exam les of co tact forces (Fig. 5.9).Two other commo forces are te sio i a stri g a d the force due to s ri g. Whe a s ri gis com ressed or exte ded by a exter al force,a restori g force is ge erated. This force isusually ro ortio al to the com ressio or elo gatio (for small dis laceme ts). The s ri gforce F is writte as F = k x where x is thedis laceme t a d k is the force co sta t. The egative sig de otes that the force is o ositeto the dis laceme t from the u stretched state.For a i exte sible stri g, the force co sta t isvery high. The restori g force i a stri g is calledte sio . It is customary to use a co sta t te sio T throughout the stri g. This assum tio is truefor a stri g of egligible

  

 

 

  



 

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

    

  

 

   

 

mass.I Cha ter 1, we lear t that there are four fu dame tal forces i ature. Of these, the weak a d stro g forces a ear i domai s that do ot co cer us here. O ly the gravitatio al a delectrical forces are releva t i the co text of mecha ics. The differe t co tact forces of mecha ics me tio ed above fu dame tally arisefrom electrical forces. This may seem sur risi g * We are ot co sideri g, for sim licity, charged a d mag etic bodies. For these, besides gravity, there are electrical a d mag etic o co tact forces. Fig. 5.9 Some exam les of co tact forces i mecha ics.

LAWS OF MOTION 101 si ce we are talki g of u charged a d o mag etic bodies i mecha ics. At the microsco iclevel, all bodies are made of charged co stitue ts( uclei a d electro s) a d the various co tact forces arisi g due to elasticity of bodies, molecular collisio s a d im acts, etc. ca ultimately betraced to the electrical forces betwee the chargedco stitue ts of differe t bodies. The detailedmicrosco ic origi of these forces is, however,com lex a d ot useful for ha dli g roblems i mecha ics at the macrosco ic scale. This is why they are treated as differe t ty es of forces withtheir characteristic ro erties determi edem irically. 5.9.1Frictio Let us retur to the exam le of a body of mass mat rest o a horizo tal table. The force of gravity ( mg ) is ca celled by the ormal reactio force(N) of the table. Now su ose a force F is a liedhorizo tally to the body. We k ow fromex erie ce that a small a lied force may ot be e ough to move the body. But if the a liedforce F were the o ly exter al force o the body,it must move with acceleratio F/m , however small. Clearly, the body remai s at rest becausesome other force comes i to lay i thehorizo tal directio a d o oses the a liedforce F , resulti g i zero et force o the body.This force f s arallel to the surface of the body i co tact with the table is k ow as frictio alforce, or sim ly frictio (Fig. 5.10(a)). Thesubscri t sta ds for static frictio to disti guishit from ki etic frictio f k that we co sider later (Fig. 5.10(b)). Note that static frictio does ot Fig. 5.10 Static a d slidi g frictio : (a) Im e di g motio of the body is o osed by static frictio . Whe exter al force exceeds the maximum limit of static frictio , the body begi s to move. (b) O ce the body is i motio , it is subject to slidi g or ki etic frictio which o oses relative motio betwee the two surfaces i co tact. Ki etic frictio is usually less tha the maximum value of static frictio . exist by itself. Whe there is o a lied force,there is o static frictio . It comes i to lay themome t there is a a lied force. As the a liedforce F

  

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

    

  

   

 

 

 

    

 

 

  

  

                  

 

   

  

  

 

i creases, f s also i creases, remai i gequal a d o osite to the a lied force (u to a certai limit), kee i g the body at rest. He ce, it is called static frictio . Static frictio o oses im e di g motio . The term im e di g motio mea s motio that would take lace (but does ot actually take lace) u der the a lied force,if frictio were abse t.We k ow from ex erie ce that as the a liedforce exceeds a certai limit, the body begi s tomove. It is fou d ex erime tally that the limiti gvalue of static frictio ( ) max s f is i de e de t of the area of co tact a d varies with the ormalforce (N) a roximately as : ( ) max N s s f = (5.13) here s is a constant of proportionality depending only on the nature of the surfaces incontact. The constant s is called the coefficient of static friction. The la of static friction may thus be ritten as f s s N (5.14)If the applied force F exceeds ( ) max s f the body begins to slide on the surface. It is foundexperimentally that hen relative motion hasstarted, the frictional force decreases from thestatic maximum value ( ) max s

 

 

 

  

    

  

  

 

f . Frictional forcethat opposes relative motion bet een surfacesin contact is called kinetic or sliding friction andis denoted by f k . Kinetic friction, like staticfriction, is found to be independent of the area of contact. Further, it is nearly independent of the velocity. It satisfies a la similar to that for static friction: k k f = N (5.15) here k the coefficient of kinetic friction,depends only on the surfaces in contact. Asmentioned above, experiments sho that k isless than s . When relative motion has begun,the acceleration of the body according to theSecond La is ( F f k )/m. For a body moving ith constant velocity, F = f k . If the applied forceon the body is removed, its acceleration is f k /m and it eventually comes to a stop.The la s of friction given above do not havethe status of fundamental la s like those for gravitational, electric and magnetic forces. They are empirical relations that are only PHYSICS102 !! approximately true. Yet they are very useful inpractical calculations in mechanics.Thus, hen t o bodies are in contact, eachexperiences a contact force by the other. Friction,by definition, is the component of the contact forceparallel to the surfaces in contact, hich opposesimpending or actual relative motion bet een thet o surfaces. Note that it is not motion, but relative motion that the frictional force opposes.Consider a box lying in the compartment of a trainthat is accelerating. If the box is stationary relative to the train, it is in fact accelerating along ith the train. What forces cause the accelerationof the box? Clearly, the only conceivable force inthe horizontal direction is the force of friction. If there ere no friction, the floor of the train ouldslip by and the box ould remain at its initialposition due to inertia (and hit the back side of the train). This impending relative motion isopposed by the static friction

f s . Static frictionprovides the same acceleration to the box as that of the train, keeping it stationary relative to thetrain. Example 5.7 Determine the maximumacceleration of the train in hich a box lying on its floor ill remain stationary,given that the co-efficient of static frictionbet een the box and the trains floor is0.15. Ans er Since the acceleration of the box is dueto the static friction, ma = f s s N = s m g i.e. a s g a max = s g = 0.15 x 10 m s 2 = 1.5 m s 2 ! Example 5.8 See Fig. 5.11. A mass of 4 kgrests on a horizontal plane. The plane isgradually inclined until at an angle = 15 ith the horizontal, the mass just begins toslide. What is the coefficient of static frictionbet een the block and the surface ? Fig. 5.11 Ans er The forces acting on a block of mass m at rest on an inclined plane are (i) the eight mg acting vertically do n ards (ii) the normalforce N of the plane on the block, and (iii) thestatic frictional force f s opposing the impendingmotion. In e uilibrium, the resultant of theseforces must be zero. Resolving the eight mg

 

 

 

along the t o directions sho n, e have m g sin = f s , m g cos = N As increases, the self-adjusting frictional force f s increases until at = max , f s achieves itsmaximum value, ( ) max s f = s N .Therefore,tan max = s or max = tan 1 s When becomes just a little more than max ,there is a small net force on the block and it begins to slide. Note that

max depends only on s and is independent of the mass of the block.For max = 15 , s = tan 15= 0.27 ! Example 5.9 What is the acceleration of the block and trolley system sho n in a Fig. 5.12(a), if the coefficient of kinetic frictionbet een the trolley and the surface is 0.04?What is the tension in the string? (Take g =10 m s -2 ). Neglect the mass of the string.(a)(b) (c) Fig. 5.12 ! LAWS OF MOTION 103 is the reason hy discovery of the heel hasbeen a major milestone in human history.Rolling friction again has a complex origin,though some hat different from that of staticand sliding friction. During rolling, the surfacesin contact get momentarily deformed a little, andthis results in a finite area (not a point) of thebody being in contact ith the surface. The net effect is that the component of the contact forceparallel to the surface opposes motion.We often regard friction as somethingundesirable. In many situations, like in a machine ith different moving parts, frictiondoes have a negative role. It opposes relativemotion and thereby dissipates po er in the formof heat, etc. Lubricants are a ay of reducingkinetic friction in a machine. Another ay is touse ball bearings bet een t o moving parts of a machine. (Fig. 5.13(a)) Since the rolling frictionbet een ball bearings and the surfaces incontact is very small, po er dissipation isreduced. A thin cushion of air maintainedbet een solid surfaces in relative motion isanother effective ay of reducing friction (Fig.5.13(a)).In many practical situations, ho ever, frictionis critically needed. Kinetic friction that dissipates po er is nevertheless important for uickly stopping relative motion. It is made useof by brakes in machines and automobiles.Similarly, static friction is important in daily life. We are able to alk because of friction. It is impossible for a car to move on a very slippery road. On an ordinary road, the friction bet eenthe tyres and the road provides the necessary external force to accelerate the car. Ans er As the string is inextensible, and thepully is smooth, the 3 kg block and the 20 kgtrolley both have same magnitude of acceleration. Applying second la to motion of the block (Fig. 5.12(b)),30 T = 3 a Apply the second la to motion of the trolley (Fig.5.12(c)), T f

 

k = 20 a .No f k = k N ,Here k = 0.04, N = 20 x 10= 200 N.Thus the e uation for the motion of the trolley is T 0.04 x 200 = 20 a Or T 8 = 20 a .These e uations give a = 2223 m s 2 = 0.96 m s -2 and T = 27.1 N. ! Rolling friction A body like a ring or a sphere rolling ithout slipping over a horizontal plane ill suffer nofriction, in principle. At every instant, there isjust one point of contact bet een the body andthe plane and this point has no motion relativeto the plane. In this ideal situation, kinetic or static friction is zero and the body shouldcontinue to roll ith constant velocity. We kno ,in practice, this ill not happen and someresistance to motion (rolling friction) does occur,i.e. to keep the body rolling, some applied forceis needed. For the same eight, rolling frictionis much smaller (even by 2 or 3 orders of magnitude) than static or sliding friction. This Fig. 5.13 Some ays of reducing friction. (a) Ball bearings placed bet een moving parts of a machine.(b) Compressed cushion of air bet een surfaces in relative motion. PHYSICS104 5.10CIRCULAR MOTION We have seen in Chapter 4 that acceleration of a body moving in a circle of radius R ith uniformspeed v is v

 

2 / R directed to ards the centre.According to the second la , the force f providingthis acceleration is : f =mv R 2 (5.16) here m is the mass of the body. This forcedirected for ards the centre is called thecentripetal force. For a stone rotated in a circleby a string, the centripetal force is provided by the tension in the string. The centripetal forcefor motion of a planet around the sun is theis the static friction that provides the centripetalacceleration. Static friction opposes theimpending motion of the car moving a ay fromthe circle. Using e uation (5.14) & (5.16) e get the result 2 s mv f N R = 2 s s RN v Rg m = [ Q N = mg ] hich is independent of the mass of the car.This sho s that for a given value of s and R,there is a maximum speed of circular motion of the car possible, namely max s v Rg = (5.18) (a) (b) Fig. 5.14 Circular motion of a car on (a) a level road, (b) a banked road. gravitational force on the planet due to the sun.For a car taking a circular turn on a horizontalroad, the centripetal force is the force of friction.The circular motion of a car on a flat andbanked road give interesting application of thela s of motion. Motion of a car on a level road Three forces act on the car. (Fig. 5.14(a)(i) The eight of the car, mg (ii) Normal reaction, N (iii) Frictional force, f

As there is no acceleration in the verticaldirection N mg = 0 N = mg (5.17)The centripetal force re uired for circular motionis along the surface of the road, and is providedby the component of the contact force bet eenroad and the car tyres along the surface. Thisby definition is the frictional force. Note that it Motion of a car on a banked road We can reduce the contribution of friction to thecircular motion of the car if the road is banked(Fig. 5.14(b)). Since there is no acceleration alongthe vertical direction, the net force along thisdirection must be zero. Hence, N cos = mg + f sin (5.19a)The centripetal force is provided by the horizontalcomponents of N and f . N sin + f cos = 2 mv R (5.20a)But f s N Thus to obtain v max

e put s f N = .Then E s. (5.19) & (5.20) become N cos

 = mg + s N sin (5.19b) LAWS OF MOTION 105 ! ! N sin + s N cos = mv 2 / R (5.20b)We obtain s mg N cos sin = Substituting value of N in E . (5.20b), ( ) 2max s s mg sin cos mv cos sin R = or 12max 1 s s tan v Rg tan +=

e get

(5.21)Comparing this ith E . (5.18) e see that maximum possible speed of a car on a bankedroad is greater than that on a flat road.For s = 0 in E . (5.21 ), v o = ( R g tan ) (5.22)At this speed, frictional force is not needed at allto provide the necessary centripetal force.Driving at this speed on a banked road ill causelittle ear and tear of the tyres. The samee uation also tells you that for v < v o , frictionalforce ill be up the slope and that a car can beparked only if tan s . Example 5.10 A cyclist speeding at 18km/h on a level road takes a sharp circular turn of radius 3 m ithout reducing thespeed. The co-efficient of static frictionbet een the tyres and the road is 0.1. Willthe cyclist slip hile taking the turn ? Ans er On an unbanked road, frictional forcealone can provide the centripetal force neededto keep the cyclist moving on a circular turn ithout slipping. If the speed is too large, or if the turn is too sharp (i.e. of too small a radius)or both, the frictional force is not sufficient toprovide the necessary centripetal force, and thecyclist slips. The condition for the cyclist not toslip is given by E . (5.18) : v 2 s R g No , R = 3 m , g

= 9.8 m s -2 , s = 0.1. That is, s R g = 2.94 m 2 s -2 . v = 18 km/h = 5 m s -1 ; i.e., v 2 = 25 m 2 s -2 . The condition is not obeyed.The cyclist ill slip circular turn. ! Example 5.11

A circular racetrack of radius 300 m is banked at an angle of 15.If the coefficient of friction bet een the heels of a race-car and the road is 0.2, hat is the (a) optimum speed of the race-car to avoid ear and tear on its tyres, and(b) maximum permissible speed to avoidslipping ? Ans er On a banked road, the horizontalcomponent of the normal force and the frictionalforce contribute to provide centripetal force tokeep the car moving on a circular turn ithout slipping. At the optimum speed, the normalreactions component is enough to provide theneeded centripetal force, and the frictional forceis not needed. The optimum speed v o is given by E . (5.22): v O = (R g tan ) 1/2

hile taking the

Here R = 300 m , = 15, g = 9.8 m s -2 ; ehave v O = 28.1 m s -1 .The maximum permissible speed v max is given by E . (5.21): 1 tang 38.1 m s1 tan 1/2 s max s v R += = ! 5.11 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS The three laws of motio that you have lear t i this cha ter are the fou datio of mecha ics.You should ow be able to ha dle a large variety of roblems i mecha ics. A ty ical roblem i mecha ics usually does ot merely i volve a si gle body u der the actio of give forces.More ofte , we will eed to co sider a assembly of differe t bodies exerti g forces o each other.Besides, each body i the assembly ex erie cesthe force of gravity. Whe tryi g to solve a roblem of this ty e, it is useful to remember the fact that we ca choose a y art of theassembly a d a ly the laws of motio to that art rovided we i clude all forces o the chose art due to the remai i g arts of the assembly.We may call the chose art of the assembly asthe system a d the remai i g art of theassembly ( lus a y other age cies of forces) asthe e viro me t. We have followed the same PHYSICS106

 

 

 

  

 

   

! method i solved exam les. To ha dle a ty ical roblem i mecha ics systematically, o eshould use the followi g ste s :(i) Draw a diagram showi g schematically thevarious arts of the assembly of bodies, theli ks, su orts, etc.(ii) Choose a co ve ie t art of the assembly as o e system.(iii) Draw a se arate diagram which shows thissystem a d all the forces o the system by the remai i g art of the assembly. I cludealso the forces o the system by other age cies. Do ot i clude the forces o thee viro me t by the system . A diagram of this ty e is k ow as a free body diagram.(Note this does ot im ly that the systemu der co sideratio is without a et force).(iv) I a free body diagram, i clude i formatio about forces (their mag itudes a ddirectio s) that are either give or you aresure of (e.g., the directio of te sio i a stri g alo g its le gth). The rest should betreated as u k ow s to be determi ed usi glaws of motio .(v) If ecessary, follow the same rocedure for a other choice of the system. I doi g so,em loy Newto s third law. That is, if i thefree body diagram of A , the force o A due to B is show as F, the i the free body diagram of B , the force o B due to A shouldbe show as F. The followi g exam le illustrates the above rocedure : Exam le 5.12 See (Fig. 5.15) A woode block of mass 2 kg rests o a soft horizo talfloor. Whe a iro cyli der of mass 25 kgis laced o to of the block, the floor yieldssteadily a d the block a d the cyli der together go dow with a acceleratio of 0.1 m s 2 . What is the actio of the block o the floor (a) before a d (b) after the floor yields ? Take g = 10 m s 2 . Ide tify theactio reactio airs i the roblem. A swer (a) The block is at rest o the floor. Its free body diagram shows two forces o the block, theforce of gravitatio al attractio by the earthequal to 2 10 = 20 N; a d the ormal force R of the floor o the block. By the First Law,the et force o the block must be zero i.e., R = 20 N. Usi g third law the actio of theblock (i.e. the force exerted o the floor by the block) is equal to 20 N a d directedvertically dow wards.(b) The system (block + cyli der) acceleratesdow wards with 0.1 m s

 

              

 

 

 

    

         

 

 

     

  

 

   

 

   

 

2 . The free body diagram of the system shows two forces o the system : the force of gravity due to theearth (270 N); a d the ormal force R by thefloor. Note, the free body diagram of thesystem does ot show the i ter al forcesbetwee the block a d the cyli der. A lyi gthe seco d law to the system,270 R = 27 0.1N ie. R = 267.3 N Fig. 5.15 By the third law, the actio of the system o the floor is equal to 267.3 N vertically dow ward. Actio reactio airs For (a): (i) the force of gravity (20 N) o the block by the earth (say, actio ); the force of gravity o the earth by the block (reactio ) equal to 20 N directedu wards ( ot show i the figure).(ii) the force o the floor by the block (actio ); the force o the block by thefloor (reactio ).For (b): (i) the force of gravity (270 N) o thesystem by the earth (say, actio ); theforce of gravity o the earth by thesystem (reactio ), equal to 270 N, LAWS OF MOTION 107 directed u wards ( ot show i thefigure).(ii) the force o the floor by the system(actio ); the force o the system by thefloor (reactio ). I additio , for (b), theforce o the block by the cyli der a dthe force o the cyli der by the block also co stitute a actio reactio air.The im orta t thi g to remember is that a actio reactio air co sists of mutual forceswhich are always equal a d o osite betwee two bodies. Two forces o the same body whichha e to be equal a d o osite ca ever co stitute a actio reactio air. The force of gravity o the mass i (a) or (b) a d the ormalforce o the mass by the floor are ot actio reactio airs. These forces ha e to be equala d o osite for (a) si ce the mass is at rest.They are ot so for case (b), as see already.The weight of the system is 270 N, while the ormal force R is 267.3 N. ""! The ractice of drawi g free body diagrams isof great hel i solvi g roblems i mecha ics.It allows you to clearly defi e your system a dco sider all forces o the system due to objectsthat are ot art of the system itself. A umber of exercises i this a d subseque t cha ters willhel you cultivate this ractice. SUMMARY 1. Aristotles view that a force is ecessary to kee a body i u iform motio is wro g. A force is ecessary i ractice to cou ter the o osi g force of frictio .2. Galileo extra olated sim le observatio s o motio of bodies o i cli ed la es, a darrived at the law of i ertia. Newto s first law of motio is the same law re hrasedthus:

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

  

 

    

  

Everybody co ti ues to be i its state of rest or of u iform motio i a straight li e,u less com elled by some exter al force to act otherwise . I sim le terms, the First Law is If exter al force o a body is zero, its acceleratio is zero .3. Mome tum ( ) of a body is the (m) a d velocity ( v ) : roduct of its mass

= m v 4. Newto s seco d law of motio : The rate of cha ge of mome tum of a body is ro ortio al to the a lied force a d takes lace i the directio i which the force acts. Thusdd k k m t = = F a where F

is the et exter al force o the body a d a its acceleratio . We set the co sta t of ro ortio ality k = 1 i S.I. The dd m t = = F a The SI u it of force is ewto : 1 N = 1

licable to a article, a d rovided a d

is the acceleratio of the system asa whole.(d)

kg m s 2 . (a) The seco d law is co siste t with the F = 0 im lies a = 0)(b) It is a vector equatio (c) It is a also to a body or a system of articles, F is the total exter al force o the system a

First Law (

 

 

 

        

   

 

F at a oi t at a certai i sta t determi es a at the same oi t at that i sta t.That is the Seco d Law is a local law; a at a i sta t does ot de e d o thehistory of motio .5. Im ulse is the roduct of force a d time which equals cha ge i mome tum.The otio of im ulse is useful whe a large force acts for a short time to roduce a measurable cha ge i mome tum. Si ce the time of actio of the force is very short,o e ca assume that there is o a reciable cha ge i the ositio of the body duri gthe actio of the im ulsive force.6. Newto s third law of motio : To every actio , there is always a equal a d o osite reactio

PHYSICS108 I sim le terms, the law ca be stated thus : Forces i ature always occur betwee airs of bodies. Force o a body A by body B is equal a d o osite to the force o the body B by A. Actio a d reactio forces are simulta eous forces. There is o cause effect relatio betwee actio a d reactio . A y of the two mutual forces ca becalled actio a d the other reactio . Actio a d reactio act o differe t bodies a d so they ca ot be ca celled out. The i ter al actio a d reactio forces betwee differe t arts of a body do, however, sum to zero.7. Law of Co servatio of Mome tum The total mome tum of a isolated system of articles is co served. The law follows from the seco d a d third law of motio .8. Frictio Frictio al force o oses (im e di g or actual) relative motio betwee twosurfaces i co tact. It is the com o e t of the co tact force alo g the commo ta ge t to the surface i co tact. Static frictio f s o oses im e di g relativemotio ; ki etic frictio f k o oses actual relative motio . They are i de e de t of the area of co tact a d satisfy the followi g a roximate laws : ( ) max f f R s s s = k k f R = s (co-efficient of static friction) and k (co-efficient of kinetic friction) areconstants characteristic of the pair of surfaces in contact. It is foundexperimentally that k is less than s .

 

 

  

  

   



  

 

   

  

    

   

    

 

 

  

 

     

 

 

    

   

 

POINTS TO PONDER 1. Force is not al ays in the direction of motion. Depending on the situation, F may be along v , opposite to v , normal to v or may make some other angle ith v . In every case, it is parallel to acceleration.2. If v = 0 at an instant, i.e. if a body is momentarily at rest, it does not mean that force or acceleration are necessarily zero at that instant. For example, hen a ball thro n up ard reaches its maximum height, v = 0 but the force continuesto be its eight mg and the acceleration is not zero but g .3. Force on a body at a given time is determined by the situation at the location of the body at that time. Force is not carried by the body from its earlier history of motion. The moment after a stone is released out of an accelerated train,there is no horizontal force (or acceleration) on the stone, if the effects of thesurrounding air are neglected. The stone then has only the vertical force of gravity.4. In the second la of motion F = m a , F stands for the net force due to allmaterial agencies external to the body. a is the effect of the force. m a should LAWS OF MOTION 109 not be regarded as yet another force, besides F .5. The centripetal force should not be regarded as yet another kind of force. It issimply a name given to the force that provides in ard radial acceleration to a body in circular motion. We should al ays look for some material force liketension, gravitational force, electrical force, friction, etc as the centripetal forcein any circular motion.6. Static friction is a self-adjusting force up to its limit s N (f s s N) . Do not put

 

f s = s N

 

 

  

ithout being sure that the maximum value of static friction is cominginto play.7. The familiar e uation mg = R for a body on a table is true only if the body is ine uilibrium. The t o forces mg and R can be different (e.g. a body in anaccelerated lift). The e uality of mg and R has no connection ith the thirdla .8. The terms action and reaction in the third La of Motion simply stand for simultaneous mutual forces bet een a pair of bodies. Unlike their meaning inordinary language, action does not precede or cause reaction. Action and reactionact on different bodies.9. The different terms like friction, normal reaction tension, air resistance,viscous drag, thrust, buoyancy eight centripetal force all stand for forcein different contexts. For clarity, every force and its e uivalent termsencountered in mechanics should be reduced to the phrase force on A by B .10. For applying the second la of motion, there is no conceptual distinction bet eeninanimate and animate objects. An animate object such as a human alsore uires an external force to accelerate. For example, ithout the externalforce of friction, e cannot alk on the ground.11. The objective concept of force in physics should not be confused ith thesubjective concept of the feeling of force. On a merry-go-around, all parts of our body are subject to an in ard force, but e have a feeling of being pushedout ard the direction of impending motion. EXERCISES (For simplicity in numerical calculations, take g = 10 m s -2 ) 5.1 Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on(a) a drop of rain falling do n ith a constant speed,(b) a cork of mass 10 g floating on ater,(c) a kite skillfully held stationary in the sky,(d) a car moving ith a constant velocity of 30 km/h on a rough road,(e) a high-speed electron in space far from all material objects, and free of electric and magnetic fields. 5.2 A pebble of mass 0.05 kg is thro n vertically up ards. Give the directionand magnitude of the net force on the pebble,(a) during its up ard motion,(b) during its do n ard motion,(c) at the highest point here it is momentarily at rest. Do your ans erschange if the pebble as thro n at an angle of 45 ith the horizontaldirection?Ignore air resistance. 5.3

Give the magnitude and direction of the net force acting on a stone of mass0.1 kg,(a) just after it is dropped from the indo of a stationary train,(b) just after it is dropped from the indo of a train running at a constant velocity of 36 km/h,(c ) just after it is dropped from the indo of a train accelerating ith 1 m s -2 ,(d) lying on the floor of a train hich is accelerating ith 1 m s -2 , the stonebeing at rest relative to the train.

PHYSICS110 Neglect air resistance throughout. 5.4 One end of a string of length l is connected to a particle of mass m and theother to a small peg on a smooth horizontal table. If the particle moves in a circle ith speed v the net force on the particle (directed to ards the centre)is :(i) T, (ii) l mv T 2 , (iii) l mv +T 2 , (iv) 0 T is the te sio i the stri g. [Choose the correct alter ative]. 5.5 A co sta t retardi g force of 50 N is a lied to a body of mass 20 kg movi gi itially with a s eed of 15 m s 1 . How lo g does the body take to sto ? 5.6 A co sta t force acti g o a body of mass 3.0 kg cha ges its s eed from 2.0 m s 1 to 3.5 m s 1 i 25 s. The directio of the motio of the body remai su cha ged. What is the mag itude a d directio of the force ? 5.7 A body of mass 5 kg is acted u o by two er e dicular forces 8 N a d 6 N.Give the mag itude a d directio of the acceleratio of the body. 5.8 The driver of a three wheeler movi g with a s eed of 36 km/h sees a childsta di g i the middle of the road a d bri gs his vehicle to rest i 4.0 s just i time to save the child. What is the average retardi g force o the vehicle ?The mass of the three wheeler is 400 kg a d the mass of the driver is 65 kg. 5.9 A rocket with a lift off mass 20,000 kg is blasted u wards with a i itialacceleratio of 5.0 m s 2 . Calculate the i itial thrust (force) of the blast. 5.10

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

A body of mass 0.40 kg movi g i itially with a co sta t s eed of 10 m s 1 tothe orth is subject to a co sta t force of 8.0 N directed towards the southfor 30 s. Take the i sta t the force is a lied to be t = 0, the ositio of thebody at that time to be x = 0, a d redict its ositio at t = 5 s, 25 s, 100 s. 5.11 A truck starts from rest a d accelerates u iformly at 2.0 m s 2 . At t = 10 s, a sto e is dro ed by a erso sta di g o the to of the truck (6 m high fromthe grou d). What are the (a) velocity, a d (b) acceleratio of the sto e at t =11s ? (Neglect air resista ce.) 5.12 A bob of mass 0.1 kg hu g from the ceili g of a room by a stri g 2 m lo g isset i to oscillatio . The s eed of the bob at its mea ositio is 1 m s 1 .What is the trajectory of the bob if the stri g is cut whe the bob is (a) at o eof its extreme ositio s, (b) at its mea ositio . 5.13 A ma of mass 70 kg sta ds o a weighi g scale i a lift which is movi g(a) u wards with a u iform s eed of 10 m s 1 ,(b) dow wards with a u iform acceleratio of 5 m s 2 ,(c) u wards with a u iform acceleratio of 5 m s 2 .What would be the readi gs o the scale i each case?(d) What would be the readi g if the lift mecha ism failed a d it hurtleddow freely u der gravity ? 5.14 Figure 5.16 shows the ositio time gra h of a article of mass 4 kg. What isthe (a) force o the article for t < 0 , t > 4 s, 0 < t < 4 s? (b) im ulse at t = 0 a d t = 4 s ? (Co sider o e dime sio al motio o ly). Fig. 5.16 5.15 Two bodies of masses 10 kg a d 20 kg res ectively ke t o a smooth, horizo talsurface are tied to the e ds of a light stri g. a horizo tal force F = 600 N isa lied to (i) A, (ii) B alo g the directio of stri g. What is the te sio i the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

LAWS OF MOTION 111 stri g i each case? 5.16 Two masses 8 kg a d 12 kg are co ected at the two e ds of a light i exte siblestri g that goes over a frictio less ulley. Fi d the acceleratio of the masses, a dthe te sio i the stri g whe the masses are released. 5.17 A ucleus is at rest i the laboratory frame of refere ce. Show that if it disi tegratesi to two smaller uclei the roducts must move i o osite directio s. 5.18 Two billiard balls each of mass 0.05 kg movi g i o osite directio s with s eed 6 m s 1 collide a d rebou d with the same s eed. What is the im ulse im arted to each ball dueto the other ? 5.19 A shell of mass 0.020 kg is fired by a gu of mass 100 kg. If the muzzle s eed of theshell is 80 m s 1 , what is the recoil s eed of the gu ? 5.20 A batsma deflects a ball by a a gle of 45 without cha gi g its i itial s eed which isequal to 54 km/h. What is the im ulse im arted to the ball ? (Mass of the ball is 0.15 kg.) 5.21 A sto e of mass 0.25 kg tied to the e d of a stri g is whirled rou d i a circle of radius1.5 m with a s eed of 40 rev./mi i a horizo tal la e. What is the te sio i thestri g ? What is the maximum s eed with which the sto e ca be whirled arou d if the stri g ca withsta d a maximum te sio of 200 N ? 5.22 If, i Exercise 5.21, the s eed of the sto e is i creased beyo d the maximum ermissiblevalue, a d the stri g breaks sudde ly, which of the followi g correctly describes thetrajectory of the sto e after the stri g breaks :(a) the sto e moves radially outwards,(b) the sto e flies off ta ge tially from the i sta t the stri g breaks,(c) the sto e flies off at a a gle with the ta ge t whose mag itude de e ds o thes eed of the article ? 5.23 Ex lai why (a) a horse ca ot ull a cart a d ru i em ty s ace,(b) asse gers are throw forward from their seats whe a s eedi g bus sto ssudde ly,(c) it is easier to ull a law mower tha to ush it,(d) a cricketer moves his ha ds backwards while holdi g a catch. Additio al Exercises5.24 Figure 5.17 shows the ositio time gra h of a body of mass 0.04 kg. Suggest a suitable hysical co text for this motio . What is the time betwee two co secutiveim ulses received by the body ? What is the mag itude of each im ulse ? Fig. 5.17 5.25 Figure 5.18 shows a ma sta di g statio ary with res ect to a horizo tal co veyor belt that is accelerati g with 1 m s 2 . What is the et force o the ma ? If thecoefficie t of static frictio betwee the ma s shoes a d the belt is 0.2, u to what acceleratio of the belt ca the ma co ti ue to be statio ary relative to the belt ?(Mass of the ma = 65 kg.) Fig. 5.18

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

   

         

   

 

 

   

 

 



 

 

     

  

 

   

  

 

 

 

PHYSICS112 Fig. 5.19 5.26 A sto e of mass m tied to the e d of a stri g revolves i a vertical circle of radius R .The et forces at the lowest a d highest oi ts of the circle directed vertically dow wards are : [Choose the correct alter ative]Lowest Poi t Highest Poi t (a) mg T 1 mg + T 2 (b) mg + T 1 mg T 2 (c) mg + T 1 ( m v 21 ) / R mg T 2 + ( m v 21 ) / R (d) mg T 1 ( m v 21 ) / R mg + T 2 + ( m v 21 ) / R T 1 a d v 1 de ote the te sio a d s eed at the lowest oi t. T 2 a d

 

 

 

 

v 2 de otecorres o di g values at the highest oi t. 5.27 A helico ter of mass 1000 kg rises with a vertical acceleratio of 15 m s 2 . The crew a d the asse gers weigh 300 kg. Give the mag itude a d directio of the(a) force o the floor by the crew a d asse gers,(b) actio of the rotor of the helico ter o the surrou di g air,(c) force o the helico ter due to the surrou di g air. 5.28 A stream of water flowi g horizo tally with a s eed of 15 m s 1 gushes out of a tube of cross sectio al area 10 2 m 2 , a d hits a vertical wall earby. What is the force exertedo the wall by the im act of water, assumi g it does ot rebou d ? 5.29 Te o e ru ee coi s are ut o to of each other o a table. Each coi has a mass m .Give the mag itude a d directio of (a) the force o the 7 th coi (cou ted from the bottom) due to all the coi s o its to ,(b) the force o the 7 th coi by the eighth coi ,(c) the reactio of the 6 th coi o the 7 th coi . 5.30 A aircraft executes a horizo tal loo at a s eed of 720 km/h with its wi gs ba kedat 15. What is the radius of the loo ? 5.31 A trai ru s alo g a u ba ked circular track of radius 30 m at a s eed of 54 km/h.The mass of the trai is 10 6 kg. What rovides the ce tri etal force required for this ur ose The e gi e or the rails ? What is the a gle of ba ki g required to reve t weari g out of the rail ? 5.32 A block of mass 25 kg is raised by a 50 kg ma i two differe t ways as show i Fig. 5.19. What is the actio o the floor by the ma i the two cases ? If the floor yields to a ormal force of 700 N, which mode should the ma ado t to lift the block without the floor yieldi g ? LAWS OF MOTION 113 5.33 A mo key of mass 40 kg climbs o a ro e (Fig. 5.20) whichca sta d a maximum te sio of 600 N. I which of thefollowi g cases will the ro e break: the mo key (a) climbs u with a acceleratio of 6 m s 2 (b) climbs dow with a acceleratio of 4 m s 2 (c) climbs u with a u iform s eed of 5 m s 1 (d) falls dow the ro e early freely u der gravity?

  

 

 

 

 

         

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Ig ore the mass of the ro e). 5.34 Two bodies A a d B of masses 5 kg a d 10 kg i co tact witheach other rest o a table agai st a rigid wall (Fig. 5.21). Thecoefficie t of frictio betwee the bodies a d the table is0.15. A force of 200 N is a lied horizo tally to A . What are(a) the reactio of the artitio (b) the actio reactio forcesbetwee A a d B ? What ha e s whe the wall is removed?Does the a swer to (b) cha ge, whe the bodies are i motio ?Ig ore the differe ce betwee s and k . 5.35 A block of mass 15 kg is placed on a long trolley. The coefficient of static frictionbet een the block and the trolley is 0.18. The trolley accelerates from rest ith0.5 m s -2 for 20 s and then moves ith uniform velocity. Discuss the motion of theblock as vie ed by (a) a stationary observer on the ground, (b) an observer moving iththe trolley. 5.36 The rear side of a truck is open and a box of 40 kgmass is placed 5 m a ay from the open end as sho nin Fig. 5.22. The coefficient of friction bet een thebox and the surface belo it is 0.15. On a straight road, the truck starts from rest and accelerates ith2 m s -2 . At hat distance from the starting point does the box fall off the truck? (Ignore the size of the box). 5.37 A disc revolves ith a speed of 3313 rev/min, and has a radius of 15 cm. T o coins areplaced at 4 cm and 14 cm a ay from the centre of the record. If the co-efficient of frictionbet een the coins and the record is 0.15, hich of the coins ill revolve ith the record ? 5.38 You may have seen in a circus a motorcyclist driving in vertical loops inside a death- ell (a hollo spherical chamber ith holes, so the spectators can atch from outside).Explain clearly hy the motorcyclist does not drop do n hen he is at the uppermost point, ith no support from belo . What is the minimum speed re uired at theuppermost position to perform a vertical loop if the radius of the chamber is 25 m ? 5.39 A 70 kg man stands in contact against the inner all of a hollo cylindrical drum of radius 3 m rotating about its vertical axis ith 200 rev/min. The coefficient of friction bet een the all and his clothing is 0.15. What is the minimum rotationalspeed of the cylinder to enable the man to remain stuck to the all ( ithout falling) hen the floor is suddenly removed ?

 

 

   

 

  

  

5.40 A thin circular loop of radius R rotates about its vertical diameter ith an angular fre uency . Sho that a small bead on the ire loop remains at its lo ermost point for g / R . What is the angle made by the radius vector joining the centre tothe bead ith the vertical do n ard direction for = 2 g / R ? Neglect friction. Fig. 5.20 Fig. 5.21Fig. 5.22 C HAPTER S IX W ORK , E NERGY AND P OWER 6.1INTRODUCTION The terms ork, energy and po er are fre uently usedin everyday language. A farmer ploughing the field, a construction orker carrying bricks, a student studying for a competitive examination, an artist painting a beautifullandscape, all are said to be orking. In physics, ho ever,the ord Work covers a definite and precise meaning.Somebody ho has the capacity to ork for 14-16 hours a day is said to have a large stamina or energy. We admire a long distance runner for her stamina or energy. Energy isthus our capacity to do ork. In Physics too, the term energyis related to ork in this sense, but as said above the term ork itself is defined much more precisely. The ord po eris used in everyday life ith different shades of meaning. Inkarate or boxing e talk of po erful punches. These aredelivered at a great speed. This shade of meaning is close tothe meaning of the ord po er used in physics. We shallfind that there is at best a loose correlation bet een thephysical definitions and the physiological pictures theseterms generate in our minds. The aim of this chapter is todevelop an understanding of these three physical uantities.Before e proceed to this task, e need to develop a mathematical prere uisite, namely the scalar product of t ovectors. 6.1.1The Scalar Product We have learnt about vectors and their use in Chapter 4.Physical uantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,force etc. are vectors. We have also learnt ho vectors areadded or subtracted. We no need to kno ho vectors aremultiplied. There are t o ays of

 

 

 

 

 

  

multiplying vectors hich e shall come across : one ay kno n as the scalar product gives a scalar from t o vectors and the other kno n as thevector product produces a ne vector from t o vectors. Weshall look at the vector product in Chapter 7. Here e takeup the scalar product of t o vectors. The scalar product or dot product of any t o vectors A and B , denoted as A .B (read 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Notions of ork and kineticenergy : The ork-energy theorem 6.3 Work 6.4 Kinetic energy 6.5 Work done by a variableforce 6.6 The ork-energy theorem for a variable force 6.7 The concept of potentialenergy 6.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 6.9 The potential energy of a spring 6.10 Various forms of energy : thela of conservation of energy 6.11 Po er 6.12 CollisionsSummary Points to ponder ExercisesAdditional exercisesAppendix 6.1 A dot B ) is defined as A .B = A B cos (6.1a) here is the angle bet een the t o vectors assho n in Fig. 6.1a. Since A, B and cos arescalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar uantity. Each vector, A and

 

B , has a directionbut their scalar product does not have a direction.From E . (6.1a), e have A .B = A ( B cos )= B ( A cos )Geometrically, B cos is the projection of B onto A in Fig.6.1 (b) and A cos is the projection of A onto B in Fig. 6.1 (c). So, A .B is the product of the magnitude of A and the component of B along A . Alternatively, it is the product of themagnitude of B and the component of A along B .E uation (6.1a) sho s that the scalar product follo s the commutative la : A .B = B.A Scalar product obeys the distributivela : A . ( B + C

) = A .B + A .C Further, A . ( B ) = ( A .B )where is a rea number.The proofs of the above equations are eft toyou as an exercise.For unit vectors !! i,j,k we have !! !! !! i i j j k k = = = 1 !! !! !! i j j k k i = = = 0 Given two vectors A i j k = + + A A A x y z ! ! B i j k = + + B B B x y z ! ! their sca ar product is ( ) ( ) . . x y z x y z A A A B B B = + + + + A B i j k i j k = + +

A B A B A B x x y y z z (6.1b)From the definition of sca ar product and, (Eq.6.1b) we have :( i ) x x y y z z A A A A A A = + + A A . Or, A A A A 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 = + + (6.1c)since A .A = A A cos 0 = A 2 .(ii) A .B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular. Example 6.1 Find the angle between force F = (3 i + 4 j 5 k) ! ! " unit and displacement d = (5 i + 4 j + 3 k) ! ! " unit. Also find theprojection of F on d . Answer F . d = x x y y z z F d F d F d + + = 3 (5) + 4 (4) + ( 3) (3)= 16 unit Hence F . d =d cos

F = 16 unit No F . F = 2 2 2 2 x F = = d . d = d 2 = 2 y F + 9

z F F + + 16 + 25= 50 unit and

2 2

x y z d d d + + = 25 + 16 + 9= 50 unit cos = 16 16= =0.325050 50 , = cos 1 0.32 ! Fig. 6.1 (a) The scalar product of t o vectors A and B is a scalar : A .B = A B cos . (b) B cos is the projection of B

onto A . (c) A cos is the projection of A onto B . WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 115 " PHYSICS116 ! kno n to be proportional to the speed of the drop but is undetermined.Consider a drop of mass1.00 g falling froma It hits the ground itha speed of 50.0 m s -1 . (a) What is the ork done by the gravitational force ? done by the unkno n resistiveforce? Ans er (a) The change in kinetic energy of thedrop is 2 102 K m v = = 1210 50 50 3 = 1.25 Jwhere we have assumed that the dro is i itially rest.Assumi g that g is a co sta t with a value10 m/s 2 , the work do e by the gravitatio al forceis, W g = mgh = 10 3 10 10 3 = 10.0 J(b) From the work e ergy theorem g r K W W

other ise height 1.00 km. What isthe

at

 

ork

 = + where W r is the work done by the resistive forceon the raindrop. Thus W r = K W g = 1.25 10= 8.75 Jis egative. ! 6.3WORK As see earlier, work is related to force a d thedis laceme t over which it acts. Co sider a co sta t force F acti g o a object of mass m .The object u dergoes a dis laceme t d i the ositive x directio as show i Fig. 6.2. Fig. 6.2 A object u dergoes a dis laceme t d u der the i flue ce of the force F . 6.2NOTIONS OF WORK AND KINETICENERGY: THE WORK ENERGY THEOREM The followi g relatio for rectili ear motio u der co sta t acceleratio a has bee e cou teredi Cha ter 3, v 2 u 2 = 2 as where u a d v are the i itial a d fi al s eedsa d s the dista ce traversed. Multi lyi g bothsides by m

 

 

 

 

   

   

 u 2 = 2 a.d O ce agai multi lyi g both sides by m / 2 , weobtai 2 2 1 1. .2 2 mv mu m a d F d = = (6.2b)The above equatio rovides a motivatio for the defi itio s of work a d ki etic e ergy. Theleft side of the equatio is the differe ce i thequa tity half the mass times the square of thes eed from its i itial value to its fi al value. Wecall each of these qua tities the ki etic e ergy,de oted by K . The right side is a roduct of thedis laceme t a d the com o e t of the forcealo g the dis laceme t. This qua tity is calledwork a d is de oted by W. Eq. (6.2) is the K f K i = W (6.3)where K i a d K f are res ectively the i itial a dfi al ki etic e ergies of the object. Work refersto the force a d the dis laceme t over which it acts. Work is do e by a force o the body overa certai dis laceme t .Equatio (6.2) is also a s ecial case of thework e ergy (WE) theorem : The cha ge i ki etic e ergy of a article is equal to thework do e o it by the et force . We shallge eralise the above derivatio to a varyi g forcei a later sectio .

  

/ 2 , we have 2 2 1 12 2 mv mu mas Fs = = (6.2a)where the last ste follows from Newto sSeco d Law. We ca ge eralise Eq. (6.1)to three dime sio s by em loyi gvectors v 2

  

  

 

  

 

   

Exam le 6.2 It is well k ow that a rai dro falls u der the i flue ce of thedow ward gravitatio al force a d theo osi g resistive force. The latter is WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 117 ! Table 6.1Alter ative U its of Work/E ergy i J Exam le 6.3 A cyclist comes to a skiddi gsto i 10 m. Duri g this rocess, the forceo the cycle due to the road is 200 N a dis directly o osed to the motio . (a) How much work does the road do o the cycle ?(b) How much work does the cycle do o the road ? A swer Work do e o the cycle by the road isthe work do e by the sto i g (frictio al) forceo the cycle due to the road.(a) The sto i g force a d the dis laceme t makea a gle of 180 o ( rad) with each other.Thus, work do e by the road, W r = Fd cos = 200 10 cos = 2000 JIt is this egative work that bri gs the cycleto a halt i accorda ce with WE theorem.(b) From Newto s Third Law a equal a do osite force acts o the road due to thecycle. Its mag itude is 200 N. However, theroad u dergoes o dis laceme t. Thus,work do e by cycle o the road is zero. ! The lesso of this exam le is that thoughthe force o a body A exerted by the body B isalways equal a d o osite to that o B by A (Newto s Third Law); the work do e o A by Bis ot ecessarily equal a d o osite to the work do e o B by A. 6.4KINETIC ENERGY As oted earlier, if a object of mass m hasvelocity v , its ki etic e ergy K is 2 K m mv 1 1= =2 2 v v . (6.5)Ki etic e ergy is a scalar qua tity. The ki etice ergy of a object

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

     

 

 

  

is a measure of the work a The work do e by the force is defi ed to bethe roduct of com o e t of the force i thedirectio of the dis laceme t a d themag itude of this dis laceme t . Thus W = ( F cos ) d = F.d (6.4)We see that if there is no displacement, thereis no ork done even if the force is large. Thus, hen you push hard against a rigid brick all,the force you exert on the all does no ork. Yet your muscles are alternatively contracting andrelaxing and internal energy is being used upand you do get tired. Thus, the meaning of ork in physics is different from its usage in everyday language.No ork is done if :(i) the displacement is zero as seen in theexample above. A eightlifter holding a 150kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 sdoes no ork on the load during this time.(ii) the force is zero. A block moving on a smoothhorizontal table is not acted upon by a horizontal force (since there is no friction), but may undergo a large displacement.(iii) the force and displacement are mutually perpendicular. This is so since, for = /2 rad(= 90 o ), cos ( / 2) = 0. For the block movi g o a smooth horizo tal table, the gravitatio alforce mg does o work si ce it acts at right a gles to the dis laceme t. If we assume that the moo s orbits arou d the earth is erfectly circular the the earthsgravitatio al force does o work. The moo si sta ta eous dis laceme t is ta ge tialwhile the earths force is radially i wards a d = /2.Work ca be both ositive a d egative. If isbet een 0 o and 90 o , cos in E . (6.4) is positive.If is bet een 90 o and 180 o

    

  

 

 

 

  

     

, cos is negative.In many examples the frictional force opposesdisplacement and = 180 o . Then the ork doneby friction is negative (cos 180 o = 1).From E . (6.4) it is clear that ork and energy have the same dimensions, [ML 2 T 2 ]. The SI unit of these is joule (J), named after the famous Britishphysicist James Prescott Joule (1811-1869). Since ork and energy are so idely used as physicalconcepts, alternative units abound and some of these are listed in Table 6.1. PHYSICS118 ! object can do by the virtue of its motion. Thisnotion has been intuitively kno n for a long time.The kinetic energy of a fast flo ing streamhas been used to grind corn. Sailingships employ the kinetic energy of the ind. Table6.2 lists the kinetic energies for variousobjects. Example 6.4 In a ballistics demonstrationa police officer fires a bullet of mass 50.0 g ith speed 200 m s -1 (see Table 6.2) on soft ply ood of thickness 2.00 cm. The bullet emerges ith only 10% of its initial kineticenergy. What is the emergent speed of thebullet ? Ans er The initial kinetic energy of the bullet is mv 2 /2 = 1000 J. It has a final kinetic energy of 0.1 1000 = 100 J. If v f is the emergent speedof the bullet, 12= mv f 2 100 J kg 05.0 J 1002 = f v = 63.2 m s 1 The speed is reduced by approximately 68%(not 90%) . !

6.5WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE A constant force is rare. It is the variable force, hich is more commonly encountered. Fig. 6.2is a plot of a varying force in one dimension.If the displacement x is small, we can takethe force F ( x ) as approximately constant andthe work done is then W = F ( x ) x Table 6.2Typical kinetic energies ( K ) This is illustrated in Fig. 6.3(a). Addingsuccessive rectangular areas in Fig. 6.3(a) weget the total work done as ( ) f i x x x x F W (6.6)where the summation is from the initial position x i to the final position x f .If the displacements are allowed to approachzero, then the number of terms in the sumincreases without limit, but the sum approachesa definite value equal to the area under the curvein Fig. 6.3(b). Then the work done is () d f i x x F x x = (6.7)where lim stands for the limit of the sum when x tends to zero. Thus, for a varying forcethe work done can be expressed as a definiteintegral of force over displacement (see alsoAppendix 3.1). lim W =x ( )

 f i x x x x F 0 Fig. 6.3(a) WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 119 ! Fig. 6.3 (a) The shaded rectangle represents the work done by the varying force F ( x ) , over the small displacement x, W = F ( x ) x.(b) adding the areas of all the rectangles we find that for x 0 , the area under the curve is exactly equal to the work done by F ( x ) . Example 6.5 A woman pushes a trunk ona railway platform which has a roughsurface. She applies a force of 100 N over a distance of 10 m. Thereafter, she getsprogressively tired and her applied forcereduces linearly with distance to 50 N. Thetotal distance through which the trunk hasbeen moved is 20 m. Plot the force appliedby the woman and the frictional force,which is 50 N. Calculate the work done by the two forces over 20 m. Answer Fig. 6.4 Plot of the force F applied by the woman and the opposing frictional force f. The plot of the applied force is shown in Fig.6.4. At x = 20 m, F = 50 N ( 0). We are giventhat the frictional force f is f = 50 N. It opposesmotion and acts in a direction opposite to

F . It is therefore, shown on the negative side of theforce axis.The work done by the woman is W F area of the rectangle ABCD + area of the trapezium CEID ( ) W F = + + 100 1012100 50 10 = 1000 + 750 = 1750 JThe work done by the frictional force is W F area of the rectangle AGHI W f = ( 50) 20 = 1000 JThe area o the egative side of the force axishas a egative sig . ! 6.6THE WORK ENERGY THEOREM FOR A VARIABLE FORCE We are ow familiar with the co ce ts of work a d ki etic e ergy to rove the work e ergy theorem for a variable force. We co fi eourselves to o e dime sio . The time rate of cha ge of ki etic e ergy is 2 d d 1d d 2 K m v t t = dd v m v t = v F = (from Newto s Seco d Law) dd x F t = Thusd K = F d x

  

 

 

 

I tegrati g from the i itial ositio x i ) to fi al ositio ( x f ), we haved d f f i i K x K x K F x = where, K i

a d K f are the i itial a d fi al ki etice ergies corres o di g to x i a d x f .or d f i x f i x K K F x = (6.8a)From Eq. (6.7), it follows that K f K i = W (6.8b)Thus, the WE theorem is roved for a variableforce.While the WE theorem is useful i a variety of roblems, it does ot, i ge eral, i cor orate thecom lete dy amical i formatio of Newto sSeco d Law. It is a i tegral form of Newto sseco d law. Newto s seco d law is a relatio betwee acceleratio a d force at a y i sta t of time. Work e ergy theorem i volves a i tegralover a i terval of time. I this se se, the tem oral(time) i formatio co tai ed i the stateme t of Newto s seco d law is i tegrated over a d is PHYSICS120 ! ot available ex licitly. A other observatio is that Newto s seco d law for two or three dime sio sis i vector form whereas the work e ergy theorem is i scalar form. I the scalar form,i formatio with res ect to directio s co tai edi Newto s seco d law is ot rese t.

 

  

          

 

 

      

 

  

 

 

     

   

Exam le 6.6 A block of mass m = 1 kg,movi g o a horizo tal surface with s eed v i = 2 ms 1 e ters a rough atch ra gi gfrom x = 0.10 m to x = 2.01 m. The retardi gforce F r o the block i this ra ge is i versely ro ortio al to x over this ra ge, F k x r = for 0.1 < x < 2.01 m= 0 for x < 0.1m a d x > 2.01 mwhere k = 0.5 J. What is the fi al ki etice ergy a d s eed v f of the block as it crosses this atch ? A swer From Eq. (6.8a) () d 2.01f i 0.1 k K K x x = + () 2.010.1 1l 2 2 i mv k x = () 1l 2.01/0.12 2 i mv k = =

 

  

is a symbol for the aturallogarithm to the base e a d ot the logarithm tothe base 10 [l X = log e X = 2.303 log 10 X]. ! 6.7THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY The word ote tial suggests ossibility or ca acity for actio . The term ote tial e ergy bri gs to o es mi d stored e ergy. A stretchedbow stri g ossesses ote tial e ergy. Whe it is released, the arrow flies off at a great s eed.The earths crust is ot u iform, but hasdisco ti uities a d dislocatio s that are calledfault li es. These fault li es i the earths crust are like com ressed s ri gs. They ossess a large amou t of ote tial e ergy. A earthquakeresults whe these fault li es readjust. Thus, ote tial e ergy is the stored e ergy by virtueof the ositio or co figuratio of a body. Thebody left to itself releases this stored e ergy i the form of ki etic e ergy. Let us make our otio of ote tial e ergy more co crete.The gravitatio al force o a ball of mass m is mg . g may be treated as a co sta t ear the earthsurface. By ear we im ly that the height h of the ball above the earths surface is very smallcom ared to the earths radius R E ( h <<R E )

so that we ca ig ore the variatio of g ear the earthssurface

   

 

 

  

 

 

(20.1) = 2 1.5 = 0.5 J 1 sm1/2 == m K v f f Here, ote that l

  

2 0.5 l

   

* . I what follows we have take theu ward directio to be ositive. Let us raise theball u to a height h . The work do e by the exter alage cy agai st the gravitatio al force is mgh . Thiswork gets stored as ote tial e ergy.Gravitatio al ote tial e ergy of a object, as a fu ctio of the height h , is de oted by V ( h ) a d it is the egative of work do e by the gravitatio alforce i the object to that hei g ht. V ( h ) = raisi g

mgh If h is take as a variable, it is easily see that the gravitatio al force F equals the egative of the derivative of V ( h ) with res ect to h . Thus,dd F V(h) m g h = = The egative sig i dicates that thegravitatio al force is dow ward. Whe released,the ball comes dow with a i creasi g s eed.Just before it hits the grou d, its s eed is give by the ki ematic relatio , v 2 = 2 gh This equatio ca be writte as 21 m v 2 = m g h which shows that the gravitatio al ote tiale ergy of the object at height h , whe the object is released, ma ifests itself as ki etic e ergy of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

object o reachi g the grou d.Physically, the otio of ote tial e ergy isa licable o ly to the class of forces where work do e agai st the force gets stored u as e ergy.Whe exter al co strai ts are removed, it ma ifests itself as ki etic e ergy. Mathematically,(for sim licity, i o e dime sio ) the ote tial * The variatio of g with height is discussed i Cha ter 8 o Gravitatio . WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 121 e ergy V ( x ) is defi ed if the force F ( x ) ca bewritte as () dd V F x x = This im lies that d d f f i i x V i f x V F(x) x V V V = = The work do e by a co servative force such asgravity de e ds o the i itial a d fi al ositio so ly. I the revious cha ter we have workedo exam les deali g with i cli ed la es. If a object of mass m is released from rest, from theto of a smooth (frictio less) i cli ed la e of height h, its s eed at the bottomis gh 2 irres ective of the a gle of i cli atio .Thus, at the bottom of the i cli ed la e it acquires a ki etic e ergy, mgh .

If the work do eor the ki etic e ergy did de e d o other factorssuch as the velocity or the articular ath take by the object, the force would be called o co servative.The dime sio s of ote tial e ergy are[ML 2 T 2 ] a d the u it is joule (J), the same aski etic e ergy or work. To reiterate, the cha gei ote tial e ergy, for a co servative force, V is equal to the negative of the work done by the force V =

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

    

 F ( x ) x (6.9)In the example of the falling ball considered inthis section we saw how potential energy wasconverted to kinetic energy. This hints at animportant principle of conservation in mechanics,which we now proceed to examine. 6.8THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY For simplicity we demonstrate this important principle for one-dimensional motion. Supposethat a body undergoes displacement x under the action of a conservative force F . Then fromthe WE theorem we have, K = F ( x ) x If the force is conservative, the potential energy function V ( x ) can be defined such that V = F ( x ) x The above equations imply that K + V = 0 ( K + V ) = 0 (6.10)which means that K + V, the sum of the kineticand potential energies of the body is a constant.Over the whole path,

x i to x f , this means that K i + V ( x i ) = K f + V ( x f ) (6.11)The quantity K + V ( x ), is called the totalmechanical energy of the system. Individually the kinetic energy K and the potential energy V ( x ) may vary from point to point, but the sumis a constant. The aptness of the termconservative force is now clear.Let us consider some of the definitions of a conservative force. ! A force F ( x ) is conservative if it can be derivedfrom a scalar quantity V ( x ) by the relationgiven by Eq. (6.9). The three-dimensionalgeneralisation requires the use of a vector derivative, which is outside the scope of thisbook. !

The work done by the conservative forcedepends only on the end points. This can beseen from the relation, W = K f K i = V ( x i ) V ( x f )which depends on the end points. ! A third definition states that the work doneby this force in a closed path is zero. This isonce again apparent from Eq. (6.11) since x i = x f . Thus, the principle of conservation of totalmechanical energy can be stated as The total mechanical energy of a system isconserved if the forces, doing work on it, areconservative .The above discussion can be made moreconcrete by considering the example of thegravitational force once again and that of thespring force in the next section. Fig. 6.5 depictsa ball of mass m being dropped from a cliff of height H . Fig. 6.5 The conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy for a ball of mass m dropped from a height H. PHYSICS122 ! The total mechanical energies E 0 , E h , and E H of the ball at the indicated heights zero (groundlevel), h and H , are E H = mgH

(6.11 a)12 2 h h E mgh mv = + (6.11 b) E 0 = ( 1/2 ) mv 2 (6.11 c)The constant force is a special case of a spatially dependent force F ( x ). Hence, the mechanicalenergy is conserved. Thus E H = E 0 or,12 2 f mgH mv = 2 f v gH = a result that was obtained in section 3.7 for a freely falling body.Further, E H = E h which implies, v g(H h) h2 2 = (6.11 d)a d is a familiar result from ki ematics.At the height H , the e ergy is urely ote tial.It is artially co verted to ki etic at height h a dis fully ki etic at grou d level. This illustratesthe co servatio of mecha ical e ergy. Exam le 6.7 A bob of mass m is sus e dedby a light stri g of le gth L . It is im arted a horizo tal velocity v o at the lowest oi t A such that it com letes a semi circular trajectory i the vertical la e with the stri gbecomi g slack o ly o reachi g the to most oi t, C. This is show i Fig. 6.6. Obtai a ex ressio for (i) v

  

 

  

 

 

o ; (ii) the s eeds at oi tsB a d C; (iii) the ratio of the ki etic e ergies( K B /K C ) at B a d C. Comme t o the atureof the trajectory of the bob after it reachesthe oi t C. Fig. 6.6 A swer (i) There are two exter al forces o the bob : gravity a d the te sio ( T ) i thestri g. The latter does o work si ce thedis laceme t of the bob is always ormal to thestri g. The ote tial e ergy of the bob is thusassociated with the gravitatio al force o ly. Thetotal mecha ical e ergy E of the system isco served. We take the ote tial e ergy of thesystem to be zero at the lowest oi t A . Thus,at A : E mv 0 2 = 12(6.12) L mv mg T 2 0 A = [Newto s Seco d Law]where T A

zero.Thus, at C

Seco d Law] (6.14)

is the s eed at C. From Eqs. (6.13) a d(6.14) 5E mgL 2 = Equati g this to the e ergy at A 52 2 2 0 m mgL v

 

is the te slacke s, T C ) becomes 2mgL mv E c += 2 21 (6.13) L mv mg 2 c = [Newto s where v C

sio i the stri g at A. At thehighest oi t C, the stri g as thete sio i the stri g (

 

 

  

 

 

= or, 5 0 v gL = (ii) It is clear from Eq. (6.14) gL v C = At B, the e ergy is12 2 B E mv mgL = + Equati g this to the e ergy at A a d em loyi gthe result from (i), amely gL v 2 0 5 = ,1 12 2 2 2 B 0 mv mgL mv + = 52 m g L = WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 123 gL v B 3 = (iii) The ratio of the ki etic e ergies at B a d Cis : 13 2121 == 2 C 2 B C B mv mv K K At oi t C, the stri g becomes slack a d thevelocity of the bob is horizo tal a d to the left. If the co ecti g stri g is cut at this i sta t, thebob will execute a rojectile motio withhorizo tal rojectio aki to a rock kickedhorizo tally from the edge of a cliff. Otherwisethe bob will co ti ue o its circular ath a dcom lete the revolutio . #############! 6.9THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING The s ri g force is a exam le of a variable forcewhich is co servative. Fig. 6.7 shows a block attached to a s ri g a d resti g o a smoothhorizo tal surface. The other e d of the s ri gis attached to a rigid wall. The s ri g is light a d may be treated as massless. I a ideals ri g, the s ri g force F s is ro ortio al to x where x is the dis laceme t of the block fromthe equilibrium ositio . The dis laceme t couldbe either ositive [Fig. 6.7(b)] or egative[Fig. 6.7(c)]. This force law for the s ri g is calledHookes law a d is mathematically stated as

 

 

 

 

 

    

F s = kx The co sta t k is called the s ri g co sta t. Itsu it is N m 1 . The s ri g is said to be stiff if k islarge a d soft if k is small.Su ose that we ull the block outwards as i Fig. 6.7(b). If the exte sio is x m , the work do e by the s ri g force isd m x s s 0 W F x = d m x 0 kx x = 2 2 m x k = (6.15)This ex ressio may also be obtai ed by co sideri g the area of the tria gle as i Fig. 6.7(d). Note that the work do e by theexter al ulli g force F is ositive si ce it overcomes the s ri g force. 2 2 m x k W += (6.16) Fig. 6.7 Illustratio of the s ri g force with a block attached to the free e d of the s ri g.(a) The s ri g force F s is zero whe the dis laceme t x from the equilibrium ositio is zero. (b) For the stretched s ri g x > 0 a d F s < 0 (c) For the com ressed s ri g x < 0 a d F s > 0.(d) The lot of F s versus x.The area of the shaded tria gle re rese ts the work do e by the s ri g force. Due to the o osi g sig s of F s a d x, this work do e is egative,

 

 

 

 

 

 

W kx / s m 2 = 2 . The same is true whe the s ri g iscom ressed with a dis laceme t x c (< 0). Thes ri g force does work 2/ 2 c s kx W = while the PHYSICS124 Fig. 6.8 Parabolic lots of the ote tial e ergy V a d ki etic e ergy K of a block attached to a s ri g obeyi g Hookes law. The two lots are com leme tary, o e decreasi g as the other i creases. The total mecha ical e ergy E = K + V remai s co sta t. ! exter al force F does work + kx c 2 /2 . If the block is moved from x i to a fi al dis laceme t x f , the work do e by thes ri g W s is 22 d2 2 f i x i s x k x k x W k x x = = (6.17)Thus the work do e by oi ts. S ecifically, if the x i a d allowed to retur to x i ;

a i itial dis laceme t

force

the s ri g force de e dso ly o the e d block is ulled from

 

  

  

 

 

2 2 d2 2 i i x i i s x k x k x W k x x = = = 0 (6.18)The work do e by the s ri g force i a cyclic rocess is zero. We have ex licitly demo stratedthat the s ri g force (i) is ositio de e de t o ly as first stated by Hooke, ( F s = kx ); (ii)does work which o ly de e ds o the i itial a dfi al ositio s, e.g. Eq. (6.17). Thus, the s ri gforce is a co servative force . We defi e the ote tial e ergy V ( x ) of the s ri gto be zero whe block a d s ri g system is i theequilibrium ositio . For a exte sio (or com ressio ) x the above a alysis suggests that V(x)kx 2 = 2(6.19)You may easily verify that d V/ d x = k x , thes ri g force. If the block of mass m i Fig. 6.7 isexte ded to x m a d released from rest, the itstotal mecha ical e ergy at a y arbitrary oi t x ,where x lies betwee x m a d

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

+ x m , will be give by 2 2 2 m v m x k x k 212121 += where we have i voked the co servatio of mecha ical e ergy. This suggests that the s eeda d the ki etic e ergy will be maximum at theequilibrium ositio , x = 0, i.e., 2 m 2 m x k v m 2121 = where v m is the maximum s eed.or m m x m k v = Note that k/m has the dime sio s of [T 2 ] a dour equatio is dime sio ally correct. Theki etic e ergy gets co verted to ote tial e ergy a d vice versa, however, the total mecha icale ergy remai s co sta t. This is gra hically de icted i Fig. 6.8. Exam le 6.8 To simulate car accide ts, automa ufacturers study the collisio s of movi gcars with mou ted s ri gs of differe t s ri gco sta ts. Co sider a ty ical simulatio witha car of mass 1000 kg movi g with a s eed18.0 km/h o a smooth road a d collidi gwith a horizo tally mou ted s ri g of s ri gco sta t 6.25 10 3 N m 1 . What is themaximum com ressio of the s ri g ? A swer At maximum com ressio the ki etice ergy of the car is co verted e tirely i to the ote tial e ergy of the s ri g.The ki etic e ergy of the movi g car is K mv 2 = 12 551021 3 = K = 1.25 10

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4 Jwhere we have co verted 18 km h 1 to 5 m s 1 [It isuseful to remember that 36 km h 1 = 10 m s 1 ] .At maximum com ressio x m , the ote tiale ergy V of the s ri g is equal to the ki etice ergy K of the movi g car from the ri ci le of co servatio of mecha ical e ergy. 2 m x k V 21 = WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 125 ! = 1.25 10 4 JWe obtai x m = 2.00 mWe ote that we have idealised the situatio .The s ri g is co sidered to be massless. Thesurface has bee co sidered to ossess egligible frictio . ! We co clude this sectio by maki g a few remarks o co servative forces.(i) I formatio o time is abse t from the abovediscussio s. I the exam le co sideredabove, we ca calculate the com ressio , but ot the time over which the com ressio occurs. A solutio of Newto s Seco d Law for this system is required for tem orali formatio .(ii) Not all forces are co servative. Frictio , for exam le, is a o co servative force. The ri ci le of co servatio of e ergy will haveto be modified i this case. This is illustratedi Exam le 6.9.(iii) The zero of the ote tial e ergy is arbitrary.It is set accordi g to co ve ie ce. For thes ri g force we took V ( x ) = 0, at x = 0, i.e. theu stretched s ri g had zero ote tiale ergy. For the co sta t gravitatio al force mg , we took V = 0 o the earths surface. I a later cha ter we shall see that for the forcedue to the u iversal law of gravitatio , thezero is best defi ed at

  

   

 

  

 

 

    

 

 

a i fi ite dista cefrom the gravitatio al source. However, o cethe zero of the ote tial e ergy is fixed i a give discussio , it must be co siste tly adhered to throughout the discussio . Youca ot cha ge horses i midstream ! Exam le 6.9 Co sider Exam le 6.7 taki gthe coefficie t of frictio , , to be 0.5 andcalculate the maximum compression of thespring. Ans er In presence of friction, both the springforce and the frictional force act so as to opposethe compression of the spring as sho n inFig. 6.9.We invoke the ork-energy theorem, rather than the conservation of mechanical energy.The change in kinetic energy is Fig. 6.9 The forces acting on the car. K = K f K i 2 v m 210 = The work do e by the et force is12 2 m m W kx m g x = ! Equati g we have 1 12 2 2 2 m m m v k x m g x = + ! Now mg = 0.5 10 3 10 = 5 10 3 N (taking g =10.0 m s -2



 

  

  

    

). After rearranging the abovee uation e obtain the follo ing uadratice uation in the unkno n x m . 2 2 2 m m k x m g x m v 0 + = ! 1/2 2 2 2 2 m m g m g m k v x k + + = where we take the ositive square root si ce x m is ositive. Putti g i umerical values weobtai x m

= 1.35 mwhich, as ex ected, is less tha the result i Exam le 6.8.If the two forces o the body co sist of a co servative force F c a d a o co servativeforce F c , the co servatio of mecha ical e ergy formula will have to be modified. By the WEtheorem( F c + F c ) x = K But F c x = V Hence, ( K + V

 

 

  

 

) = F nc x E = F nc x where E is the total mechanical energy. Over the path this assumes the form E f E i = W c Where W c is the total work do e by the o co servative forces over the ath. Note that

PHYSICS126 u like the co servative force, W c de e ds o the articular ath i to f. ! 6.10VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY : THE LAWOF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY I the revious sectio we have discussedmecha ical e ergy. We have see that it ca beclassified i to two disti ct categories : o e basedo motio , amely ki etic e ergy; the other o co figuratio ( ositio ), amely ote tial e ergy.E ergy comes i ma y a forms which tra sformi to o e a other i ways which may ot ofte be clear to us. 6.10.1Heat We have see that the frictio al force is excludedfrom the category of co servative forces. However,work is associated with the force of frictio . A block of mass m slidi g o a rough horizo talsurface with s eed v 0 comes to a halt over a dista ce x 0 . The work do e by the force of ki eticfrictio f over

  

 

  

 

  

 

  

x 0 is f x 0 . By the work e ergy theorem 2 o 0 m v /2 f x . = If we co fi e our sco eto mecha ics, we would say that the ki etice ergy of the block is lost due to the frictio alforce. O exami atio of the block a d the tablewe would detect a slight i crease i their tem eratures. The work do e by frictio is ot lost, but is tra sferred as heat e ergy. Thisraises the i ter al e ergy of the block a d thetable. I wi ter, i order to feel warm, wege erate heat by vigorously rubbi g our almstogether. We shall see later that the i ter ale ergy is associated with the ceaseless, ofte ra dom, motio of molecules. A qua titative idea of the tra sfer of heat e ergy is obtai ed by oti g that 1 kg of water releases about 42000 Jof e ergy whe it cools by10C. 6.10.2Chemical E ergy O e of the greatest tech ical achieveme ts of huma ki d occurred whe we discovered how to ig ite a d co trol fire. We lear t to rub twofli t sto es together (mecha ical e ergy), got them to heat u a d to ig ite a hea of dry leaves(chemical e ergy), which the rovidedsustai ed warmth. A matchstick ig ites i to a bright flame whe struck agai st a s ecially re ared chemical surface. The lightedmatchstick, whe a lied to a firecracker,results i a s ectacular dis lay of sou d a dlight.Chemical e ergy arises from the fact that themolecules artici ati g i the chemical reactio have differe t bi di g e ergies. A stable chemicalcom ou d has less e ergy tha the se arated arts.A chemical reactio is basically a rearra geme t of atoms. If the total e ergy of the reacta ts is moretha the roducts of the reactio , heat is releaseda d the reactio is said to be a exothermic reactio . If the reverse is true, heat is absorbed a dthe reactio is e dothermic . Coal co sists of carbo a d a kilogram of it whe bur t releases3 10 7 J of e ergy.Chemical e ergy is associated with the forcesthat give rise to the stability of substa ces. Theseforces bi d atoms i to molecules, molecules i to olymeric chai s, etc. The chemical e ergy arisi g from the combustio of coal, cooki g gas,wood a d etroleum is i dis e sable to our daily existe ce. 6.10.3Electrical E ergy The flow of electrical curre t causes bulbs toglow, fa s to rotate a d bells to ri g. There arelaws gover i g the attractio a d re ulsio of charges a d curre ts, which we shall lear later. E ergy is associated with a electriccurre t. A urba I dia household co sumesabout 200 J of e ergy er seco d o a average. 6.10.4The Equivale ce of Mass a d E ergy Till the e d of the i etee th ce tury, hysicistsbelieved that i every hysical a d chemical rocess, the mass of a isolated system isco served. Matter might cha ge its hase, e.g.glacial ice could melt i to a gushi g stream, but matter is either created or destroyed;

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

  

       

 

 

 

 

 

    

      

  

 

  

     

Albert Ei stei (1879 1955) however, showed that massa d e ergy are equivale t a d are related by the relatio E = m c 2 (6.20)where c , the s eed of light i vacuum isa roximately 3 10 8 m s 1 . Thus, a staggeri gamou t of e ergy is associated with a merekilogram of matter E = 1 (3 10 8 ) 2 J = 9 10 16 J.This is equivale t to the a ual electrical out ut of a large (3000 MW) ower ge erati g statio . 6.10.5Nuclear E ergy The most destructive wea o s made by ma , thefissio a d fusio bombs are ma ifestatio s of WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 127 the above equivale ce of mass a d e ergy [Eq.(6.20)]. O the other ha d the ex la atio of thelife ourishi g e ergy out ut of the su is alsobased o the above equatio . I this caseeffectively four light hydroge uclei fuse to forma helium ucleus whose mass is less tha thesum of the masses of the reacta ts. This massdiffere ce, called the mass defect m is thesource of energy ( m ) c 2 . In fission, a heavy nucleus like uranium U 23592 , is split by a neutroninto lighter nuclei. Once again the final mass isless than the initial mass and the mass differencetranslates into energy, which can be tapped toprovide electrical energy as in nuclear power plants (controlled nuclear fission) or can beemployed in making nuclear weapons(uncontrolled nuclear fission). Strictly, the energy E

 

     



 

 

 

 

 

released in a chemical reaction can also berelated to the mass defect m = E/c 2 . However,for a chemical reaction, this mass defect is muchsmaller than for a nuclear reaction. Table 6.3lists the total energies for a variety of events andphenomena. Table 6.3 Approximate energy associated with various phenomena Example 6.10 Examine Tables 6.1-6.3and express (a) The energy required tobreak one bond in DNA in eV; (b) Thekinetic energy of an air molecule (10 21 J)in eV; (c) The daily intake of a human adult in kilocalories. Answer (a) Energy required to break one bondof DNA is 2019 10 J~0.06 eV 1.6 10 J/eV where the symbol ~ sta ds for a roximate.Note 0.1 eV = 100 meV (100 millielectro volt).(b) The ki etic e ergy of a air molecule is 2119 10 J~0.0062 eV 1.6 10 J/eV This is the same as 6.2 meV.(c) The average huma co sum tio 7 3 10 J~2400 kcal4.2 10 J/kcal ! PHYSICS128 We oi t out a commo misco ce tio createdby ews a ers a d magazi es. They me tio food values i calories a d urge us to restrict diet i take to below 2400 calories. What they should be sayi g is kilocalories (kcal) a d ot calories. A erso co sumi g 2400 calories a day will soo starve to death! 1 food calorie is1 kcal. ! 6.10.6The Pri ci le of Co servatio of E ergy We have see that the total mecha ical e ergy of the system is co served if the forces doi g work o it are co servative. If some of the forcesi volved are o co servative, art of themecha ical e ergy may get tra sformed i toother forms such as heat, light a d sou d.However, the total e ergy of a isolated systemdoes ot cha ge, as lo g as o e accou ts for allforms of e ergy. E ergy may be tra sformed fromo e form to a other but the total e ergy of a isolated system remai s co sta t. E ergy ca either be created, or destroyed.Si ce the u iverse as a whole may be viewedas a isolated system, the total e ergy of theu iverse is co sta t. If o e art of the u iverseloses e ergy,

i a day is

 

  

  

 

 

 

  

   

 

 

  

  

  

  

    

a other art must gai a equalamou t of e ergy.The ri ci le of co servatio of e ergy ca ot be roved. However, o violatio of this ri ci lehas bee observed. The co ce t of co servatio a d tra sformatio of e ergy i to various formsli ks together various bra ches of hysics,chemistry a d life scie ces. It rovides a u ifyi g, e duri g eleme t i our scie tific ursuits. From e gi eeri g oi t of view allelectro ic, commu icatio a d mecha icaldevices rely o some forms of e ergy tra sformatio . 6.11POWER Ofte it is i teresti g to k ow ot o ly the work do e o a object, but also the rate at whichthis work is do e. We say a erso is hysically fit if he ot o ly climbs four floors of a buildi gbut climbs them fast. Power is defi ed as thetime rate at which work is do e or e ergy istra sferred.The average ower of a force is defi ed as theratio of the work, W , to the total time t take P W t av = The i sta ta eous ower is defi ed as thelimiti g value of the average ower as timei terval a roaches zero,dd W P t = (6.21)The work dW do e by a force F for a dis laceme t d r is dW = F. d r . The i sta ta eous ower ca also be ex ressed asdd P t = F. r = F.v (6.22)where v is the i sta ta eous velocity whe theforce is F .Power, like work a d e ergy, is a scalar qua tity. Its dime sio s are [ML 2 T 3 ]. I the SI,its u it is called a watt (W). The watt is 1 J s 1 .The u it of ower is amed after James Watt,o e of the i ovators of the steam e gi e i theeightee th ce tury.There is a other u it of ower, amely thehorse ower (h )1 h = 746 W This u it is still used to describe the out ut of automobiles,

   

   

 

 

 

 

 

  

    

 

         

  

 

 

 

 

 

             

motorbikes, etc.We e cou ter the u it watt whe we buy electrical goods such as bulbs, heaters a drefrigerators. A 100 watt bulb which is o for 10hours uses 1 kilowatt hour (kWh) of e ergy.100 (watt) 10 (hour)= 1000 watt hour =1 kilowatt hour (kWh)= 10 3 (W) 3600 (s)= 3.6 10 6 JOur electricity bills carry the e ergy co sum tio i u its of kWh. Note that kWh isa u it of e ergy a d ot of ower. Exam le 6.11 A elevator ca carry a maximum load of 1800 kg (elevator + asse gers) is movi g u with a co sta t s eed of 2 m s 1 . The frictio al force o osi gthe motio is 4000 N. Determi e themi imum ower delivered by the motor tothe elevator i watts as well as i horse ower. " WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 129 A swer The dow ward force o the elevator is F = m g + F f = (1800 10) + 4000 = 22000 NThe motor must su ly e ough ower to bala cethis force. He ce, P = F. v = 22000 2 = 44000 W = 59 h #! 6.12COLLISIONS I hysics we study motio (cha ge i ositio ).At the same time, we try to discover hysicalqua tities, which do ot cha ge i a hysical rocess. The laws of mome tum a d e ergy co servatio are ty ical exam les. I thissectio we shall a ly these laws to a commo ly e cou tered he ome a, amely collisio s.Several games such as billiards, marbles or carrom i volve collisio s.We shall study thecollisio of two masses i a idealised form.Co sider two masses

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m 1 a d m 2 . The article m 1 is movi g with s eed v 1i , the subscri t i im lyi g i itial. We ca cosider m 2 to be at rest.No loss of ge erality is i volved i maki g sucha selectio . I this situatio the mass m 1 collides with the statio ary mass m 2 a d thisis de icted i Fig. 6.10. Fig. 6.10 Collisio of mass m 1 , with a statio ary mass m 2 . The masses m 1 a d m 2 fly off i differe t directio s. We shall see that there arerelatio shi s, which co ect the masses, thevelocities a d the a gles. 6.12.1Elastic a d I elastic Collisio s I all collisio s the total li ear mome tum isco served; the i itial mome tum of the systemis equal to the fi al mome tum of the system.O e ca argue this as follows. Whe two objectscollide, the mutual im ulsive forces acti g over the collisio time t cause a change in their respective momenta : p 1 = F 12 t p

 

 



 

 

   

2 = F 21 t where F 12 is the force exerted on the first particleby the second particle. F 21 is likewise the forceexerted on the second particle by the first particle.Now from Newtons Third Law, F 12 = F 21 . Thisim lies p 1 + p 2 = 0 The above conclusion is true even though theforces vary in a complex fashion during thecollision time t . Since the third law is true at every instant, the total impulse on the first object is equal and opposite to that on the second.On the other hand, the total kinetic energy of the system is not necessarily conserved. Theimpact and deformation during collision may generate heat and sound. Part of the initial kineticenergy is transformed into other forms of energy.A useful way to visualise the deformation duringcollision is in terms of a compressed spring. If the spring connecting the two masses regainsits original shape without loss in energy, thenthe initial kinetic energy is equal to the finalkinetic energy but the kinetic energy during thecollision time t is not constant. Such a collisionis called an elastic collision . On the other handthe deformation may not be relieved and the twobodies could move together after the collision. A collision in which the two particles move together after the collision is called a completely inelasticcollision . The intermediate case where thedeformation is partly relieved and some of theinitial kinetic energy is lost is more common andis appropriately called an inelastic collision

. 6.12.2Collisions in One Dimension Consider first a completely inelastic collision in one dimension. Then, in Fig. 6.10, 1 = 2 = 0 m 1 v 1 i = ( m 1 +m 2 ) v f (momentum conservation) 111 2 f i m v v m m =+ (6.23)The loss in kinetic energy on collision is 2 21 1 2 1 12 2 1i f K m v m m v = + ( ) 22 211 1 11 2 1 12 2 i i m m v v m m = + [usi g Eq. (6.23)] 211 11 2 112 i m m v m m

= + PHYSICS130 ! 21 211 2 12 i m m v m m =+ which is a ositive qua tity as ex ected.Co sider . Usi g theabove ome clature with 1 = 2 = 0, themomentum and kinetic energy conservatione uations are m 1 v 1 i = m 1 v 1 f + m 2 v 2 f (6.24) 2 2 21 1 1 1 2 2 i f f m v m v m v = + (6.25)From E s. (6.24) and (6.25) it follo s that, 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 ( ) ( ) i f i f f f m v v v m v v v = or, 2 22 1 1 1 1 ( ) f i f i f v v v v v =

ext a elastic collisio

 1 1 1 1 ( )( ) i f i f v v v v = + He ce, 2 1 1 f i f v v v = + (6.26)Substituti g this i Eq. (6.24), we obtai 1 21 11 2 ( ) f i m m v v m m =+ (6.27)a d 1 121 2 2 i f m v v m m =+ (6.28)Thus, the u k ow s { v 1 f , v 2f } are obtai ed i terms of the k ow s { m 1 , m 2 , v 1 i }. S ecial casesof our a alysis are i teresti g. Case I : If the two masses are equal v 1 f = 0 v 2 f = v 1 i The first mass comes to rest a d ushes off theseco d mass with its i itial s eed o collisio .

 

 

Case II : If o e mass domi ates, e.g. m 2 > > m 1 v 1 f ~ v 1 i v 2 f ~ 0The heavier mass is u disturbed while thelighter mass reverses its velocity. Exam le 6.12 Slowi g dow of eutro s :I a uclear reactor a eutro of highs eed (ty ically 10 7 m s 1 ) must be slowed A ex erime t o head o collisio I erformi g a ex erime t o collisio o a horizo tal surface, we face three difficulties.O e, there will be frictio a d bodies will ot travel with u iform velocities. Two, if two bodiesof differe t sizes collide o a table, it would be difficult to arra ge them for a head o collisio u less their ce tres of mass are at the same height above the surface. Three, it will be fairly difficult to measure velocities of the two bodies just before a d just after collisio .By erformi g this ex erime t i a vertical directio , all the three difficulties va ish. Taketwo balls, o e of which is heavier (basketball/football/volleyball) a d the other lighter (te isball/rubber ball/table te is ball). First take o ly the heavier ball a d dro it vertically fromsome height, say 1 m. Note to which it rises. This gives the velocities ear the floor or grou d,just before a d just after the bou ce (by usi g 2 2 v gh = ). He ce youwill get the coefficie t of restitutio .Now take the big ball a d a small ball a d hold them i your ha ds o e over the other, with the heavier ball below the lighter o e, as show here. Dro them together, taki g care that they remai together while falli g, a d see what ha e s. You will fi d that theheavier ball rises less tha whe it was dro ed alo e, while thelighter o e shoots u to about 3 m. With ractice, you will be able tohold the ball ro erly so that the lighter ball rises vertically u a ddoes ot fly sideways. This is head o collisio .You ca try to fi d the best combi atio of balls which gives

 



 

  

 

 



 

   

 

 

  

  

 

 

  

youthe best effect. You ca measure the masses o a sta dard bala ce.We leave it to you to thi k how you ca determi e the i itial a dfi al velocities of the balls. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 131 ! to 10 3 m s 1 so that it ca have a high robability of i teracti g with isoto e 92235 U a d causi g it to fissio . Show that a eutro ca lose most of its ki etic e ergy i a elastic collisio with a light ucleilike deuterium or carbo which has a massof o ly a few times the eutro mass. Thematerial maki g u the light uclei, usually heavy water (D 2 O) or gra hite, is called a moderator. A swer The i itial ki etic e ergy of the eutro is 21 1 1 12 i i K m v = while its fi al ki etic e ergy from Eq. (6.27) 22 21 21 1 1 1 11 2 1 12 2 f f i m m K m v m v m m = = + The fractio al ki etic e ergy lost is 211 211 1 2 f i K m m f K m m = = + while the fractio al ki etic e ergy gai ed by themoderati g uclei K 2f / K 1i is f 2 = 1 f 1

 

 

 

 

  

 

(elastic collisio ) () 1 221 2 4 m m m m =+ O e ca also verify this result by substituti gfrom Eq. (6.28).For deuterium m 2 = 2 m 1 a d we obtai f 1 = 1/9 while f 2 = 8/9. Almost 90% of the eutro s e ergy is tra sferred to deuterium. For carbo f 1 = 71.6% a d f 2 = 28.4%. I ractice,however, this umber is smaller si ce head o collisio s are rare. ! If the i itial velocities a d fi al velocities of both the bodies are alo g the same straight li e,the it is called a o e dime sio al collisio , or head o collisio . I the case of small s hericalbodies, this is ossible if the directio of travelof body 1 asses through the ce tre of body 2which is at rest. I ge eral, the collisio is two dime sio al, where the i itial velocities a d thefi al velocities lie i a la e. 6.12.3Collisio s i Two Dime sio s Fig. 6.10 also de icts the collisio of a movi gmass m 1 with the statio ary mass m 2 . Li ear mome tum is co served i such a collisio .Si ce mome tum is a vector this im lies threeequatio s for the three directio s { x, y, z }.Co sider the la e determi ed by the fi alvelocity directio s of m 1 a d m 2

   

 

 

 

    

cos 1 + m 2 v 2 f cos 2 (6.29)0 = m 1 v 1 f sin 1 m 2 v 2 f si 2 (6.30)One kno s { m 1

 

 

  

   

a d choose it tobe the x y la e. The co servatio of the z com o e t of the li ear mome tum im liesthat the e tire collisio is i x y la e. The x a d y com o e t equatio s are m 1 v 1 i = m 1 v 1 f

the

in most situations. Thereare thus four unkno ns {

and 2 }, andonly t o e uations. If 1 = 2 = 0, e regainE . (6.24) for one dimensional collision.If, further the collision is elastic, 2 2 21 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 12 2 2 i f f m v m v m v = + (6.31)We obtain an additional e uation. That stillleaves us one e uation short. At least one of the four unkno ns, say 1 , must be made kno nfor the problem to be solvable. For example, 1 can be determined by moving a detector in anangular fashion from the x to the y axis. Given{ m 1 , m 2 , v 1i , 1

, 2 , 1 i } v 1 f , 2 f , 1

m v

} e can determine { v 1f , v 2f , 2 }from E s. (6.29)-(6.31). Example 6.13 Consider the collisiondepicted in Fig. 6.10 to be bet een t obilliard balls ith e ual masses m 1 = m 2 .The first ball is called the cue hile thesecond ball is called the target. Thebilliard player ants to sink the target ball in a corner pocket, hich is at anangle 2 = 37. Assume that the collisionis elastic and that friction and rotationalmotion are not important. Obtain 1 . Ans er From momentum conservation, sincethe masses are e ual 2f 1f 1i vvv = or ( ) ( ) 21 2 1 2 1i v = + + v v v v f f f f 2 2 f v = v 21 2 1 2 . f f f v + + v

PHYSICS132 () } 2 21 2 1 2 1 2 cos 37 f f f f v v v v

 = + + + (6.32)Since the collision is elastic and m 1 = m 2 it follo sfrom conservation of kinetic energy that 2 2 21 1 2 i f f v v v = + (6.33)Comparing E s. (6.32) and (6.33), e get cos ( 1 + 37) = 0or 1 + 37 = 90Thus, 1 = 53This proves the follo ing result : hen t o e ualmasses undergo a glancing elastic collision ithone of them at rest, after the collision, they illmove at right angles to each other. #! The matter simplifies greatly if e consider spherical masses ith smooth surfaces, andassume that collision takes place only hen thebodies touch each other. This is hat happensin the games of marbles, carrom and billiards.In our everyday orld, collisions take place only hen t o bodies touch each other. But consider a comet coming from far distances to the sun, or alpha particle coming to ards a nucleus andgoing a ay in some direction. Here e have todeal ith forces involving action at a distance.Such an event is called scattering. The velocitiesand directions in hich the t o particles go a ay depend on their initial velocities as ell as thetype of interaction bet een them, their masses,shapes and sizes. SUMMARY 1. The ork-energy theorem states that the change in kinetic energy of a body is the ork done by the net force on the body. K f - K i = W net 2. A force is conservative if (i) ork done by it on an object is path independent anddepends only on the end points {

 

 

 

 

x i , x j }, or (ii) the ork done by the force is zero for anarbitrary closed path taken by the object such that it returns to its initial position.3. For a conservative force in one dimension, e may define a potential energy function V ( x )such that F x V x x () = () dd or V V = F x x i f x x i f () d 4. The ri ci le of co servatio of mecha ical e ergy states that the total mecha icale ergy of a body remai s co sta t if the o ly forces that act o the body are co servative.5. The gravitatio al ote tial e ergy of a article of mass m at a height x about the earthssurface is V ( x ) = m g x where the variatio of g with height is ig ored.6. The elastic ote tial e ergy of a s ri g of force co sta t k a d exte sio x is V x k x () = 12 2 7. The scalar or dot roduct of two vectors A a d B is writte as A.B a d is a scalar qua tity give by : A .B

 

 

      

   

= AB cos , here

is the angle bet een A and B . It can bepositive, negative or zero depending upon the value of . The scalar product of t ovectors can be interpreted as the product of magnitude of one vector and component of the other vector along the first vector. For unit vectors : i i j j k k = = = 1 and i j j k k i = = = 0 Sca ar products obey the commutative and the distributive aws. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 133 POINTS TO PONDER 1. The phrase ca cu ate the work done is incomp ete. We shou d refer (or imp y c ear y by context) to the work done by a specific force or a group of forces on a given body over a certain disp acement.2. Work done is a sca ar quantity. It can be positive or negative un ike mass andkinetic energy which are positive sca ar quantities. The work done by the frictionor viscous force on a moving body is negative.3. For two bodies, the sum of the mutua forces exerted between them is zero fromNewtons Third Law, F 12 + F 21 = 0But the sum of the work done by the two forces need not a ways cance , i.e.W 12 + W 21

 

0 However, it may sometimes be true. 4. The work done by a force can be ca cu ated sometimes even if the exact nature of the force is not known. This is c ear from Examp e 6.1 where the WE theorem isused in such a situation.5. The WE theorem is not independent of Newtons Second Law. The WE theoremmay be viewed as a sca ar form of the Second Law. The princip e of conservationof mechanica energy may be viewed as a consequence of the WE theorem for conservative forces.6. The WE theorem ho ds in a inertia frames. It can a so be extended to non-inertia frames provided we inc ude the pseudoforces in the ca cu ation of thenet force acting on the body under consideration.7. The potentia energy of a body subjected to a conservative force is a waysundetermined upto a constant. For examp e, the point where the potentia energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the gravitationa potentia energy m g h ,the zero of the potentia energy is chosen to be the ground. For the springpotentia energy kx 2 / 2 , the zero of the potentia energy is the equi ibrium positionof the osci ating mass.8. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an associated potentia energy. For examp e, work done by friction over a c osed path is not zero and nopotentia energy can be associated with friction.9. During a co ision : (a) the tota inear momentum is conserved at each instant of the co ision ; (b) the kinetic energy conservation (even if the co ision is e astic)app ies after the co ision is over and does not ho d at every instant of the co ision.In fact the two co iding objects are deformed and may be momentari y at rest with respect to each other. PHYSICS134 EXERCISES6.1 The sign of work done by a force on a body is important to understand. State carefu y if the fo owing quantities are positive or negative:(a) work done by a man in ifting a bucket out of a we by means of a rope tied to thebucket.(b) work done by gravitationa force in the above case,(c) work done by friction on a body s iding down an inc ined p ane,(d) work done by an app ied force ona body moving on a roughhorizonta p ane with uniformve ocity,(e) work done by the resistive force of air on a vibrating pendu um inbringing it to rest. 6.2 A body of mass 2 kg initia y at rest moves under the action of an app iedhorizonta force of 7 N on a tab e withcoefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1.Compute the(a) work done by the app ied force in10 s,(b) work done by friction in 10 s,(c) work done by the net force on thebody in 10 s,(d) change in kinetic energy of thebody in 10 s,and interpret your resu ts. 6.3 Given in Fig. 6.11 are examp es of somepotentia energy functions in onedimension. The tota energy of thepartic e is indicated by a cross on theordinate axis. In each case, specify theregions, if any, in which the partic ecannot be found for the given energy.A so, indicate the minimum

 

 





 

      









 



 





 



 



 

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 135 6.4 The potentia energy function for a partic e executing inear simp eharmonic motion is given by V ( x ) =kx 2 / 2, where k is the force constant of the osci ator. For k = 0.5 N m -1 ,the graph of V ( x ) versus x is shownin Fig. 6.12. Show that a partic e of tota energy 1 J moving under thispotentia must turn back when it reaches x = 2 m. 6.5 Answer the fo owing :(a) The casing of a rocket in f ight burns up due to friction. At whose expense is the heat energy required for burningobtained? The rocket or theatmosphere?(b) Comets move around the sunin high y e iptica orbits. Thegravitationa force on thecomet due to the sun is not norma to the comets ve ocity in genera . Yet the work done by the gravitationa force over every comp ete orbit of the comet is zero. Why ?(c) An artificia sate ite orbiting the earth in very thin atmosphere oses its energy gradua y due to dissipation against atmospheric resistance, however sma . Why then does its speed increase progressive y as it comes c oser and c oser to the earth ?(d) In Fig. 6.13(i) the man wa ks 2 m carrying a mass of 15 kg on his hands. In Fig.6.13(ii), he wa ks the same distance pu ing the rope behind him. The rope goesover a pu ey, and a mass of 15 kg hangs at its other end. In which case is the work done greater ? 6.6 Under ine the correct a ternative :(a) When a conservative force does positive work on a body, the potentia energy of the body increases/decreases/remains una tered.(b) Work done by a body against friction a ways resu ts in a oss of its kinetic/potentia energy.(c) The rate of change of tota momentum of a many-partic e system is proportiona to the externa force/sum of the interna forces on the system.(d) In an ine astic co ision of two bodies, the quantities which do not change after the co ision are the tota kinetic energy/tota inear momentum/tota energy of the system of two bodies. 6.7 State if each of the fo owing statements is true or fa se. Give reasons for your answer.(a) In an e astic co ision of two bodies, the momentum and energy of each body isconserved.(b) Tota energy of a system is

tota energy the partic e must have in eachcase. Think of simp e physica contextsfor which these potentia energy shapesare re evant. Fig. 6.11

 



  











 

  





 

a ways conserved, no matter what interna and externa forces on the body are present.(c) Work done in the motion of a body over a c osed oop is zero for every force innature.(d) In an ine astic co ision, the fina kinetic energy is a ways ess than the initia kinetic energy of the system. 6.8 Answer carefu y, with reasons :(a) In an e astic co ision of two bi iard ba s, is the tota kinetic energy conservedduring the short time of co ision of the ba s (i.e. when they are in contact) ?(b) Is the tota inear momentum conserved during the short time of an e astic co isionof two ba s ? Fig. 6.13Fig. 6.12 PHYSICS136 (c) What are the answers to (a) and (b) for an ine astic co ision ?(d) If the potentia energy of two bi iard ba s depends on y on the separation distancebetween their centres, is the co ision e astic or ine astic ? (Note, we are ta kinghere of potentia energy corresponding to the force during co ision, not gravitationa potentia energy). 6.9 A body is initia y at rest. It undergoes one-dimensiona motion with constant acce eration. The power de ivered to it at time t is proportiona to(i) t 1/2 (ii) t (iii) t 3/2 (iv) t 2 6.10 A body is moving unidirectiona y under the inf uence of a source of constant power.Its disp acement in time t is proportiona to(i) t 1/2 (ii) t (iii) t 3/2 (iv) t 2 6.11 A body constrained to move a ong the z-axis of a coordinate system is subject to a constant force F given by N 3 2 kjiF ++ = where



 



 







 









   





k ,j ,i are u it vectors alo g the x , y a d z axis of the system res ectively.What is the work do e by this force i movi g the body a dista ce of 4 m alo g the z axis ? 6.12 A electro a d a roto are detected i a cosmic ray ex erime t, the first with ki etice ergy 10 keV, a d the seco d with 100 keV. Which is faster, the electro or the roto ? Obtai the ratio of their s eeds. (electro mass = 9.11 10 31 kg, roto mass= 1.67 10 27 kg, 1 eV = 1.60 10 19 J). 6.13 A rai dro of radius 2 mm falls from a height of 500 m above the grou d. It falls withdecreasi g acceleratio (due to viscous resista ce of the air) u til at half its origi alheight, it attai s its maximum (termi al) s eed, a d moves with u iform s eedthereafter. What is the work do e by the gravitatio al force o the dro i the first a d seco d half of its jour ey ? What is the work do e by the resistive force i thee tire jour ey if its s eed o reachi g the grou d is 10 m s 1 ? 6.14 A molecule i a gas co tai er hits a horizo tal wall with s eed 200 m s 1 a d a gle 30with the ormal, a d rebou ds with the same s eed. Is mome tum co served i thecollisio ? Is the collisio elastic or i elastic ? 6.15 A um o the grou d floor of a buildi g ca um u water to fill a ta k of volume 30 m 3 i 15 mi . If the ta k is 40 m above the grou d, a d the efficie cy of the um is 30%,how much electric ower is co sumed by the um ? 6.16 Two ide tical ball beari gs i co tact with each other a d resti g o a frictio lesstable are hit head o by a other ball beari g of the same mass movi g i itially with a s eed V . If the collisio is elastic, which of the followi g (Fig. 6.14) is a ossible result after collisio ? Fig. 6.14 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 137

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

   

6.17 The bob A of a e dulum released from 30 o to thevertical hits a other bob B of the same mass at rest o a table as show i Fig. 6.15. How high doesthe bob A rise after the collisio ? Neglect the size of the bobs a d assume the collisio to be elastic. 6.18 The bob of a e dulum is released from a horizo tal ositio . If the le gth of the e dulum is 1.5 m,what is the s eed with which the bob arrives at thelowermost oi t, give that it dissi ated 5% of itsi itial e ergy agai st air resista ce ? 6.19 A trolley of mass 300 kg carryi g a sa dbag of 25 kgis movi g u iformly with a s eed of 27 km/h o a frictio less track. After a while, sa d starts leaki gout of a hole o the floor of the trolley at the rate of 0.05 kg s 1 . What is the s eed of the trolley after the e tire sa d bag is em ty ? 6.20 A body of mass 0.5 kg travels i a straight li e with velocity v = a x 3/2 where a = 5 m 1/2 s 1 . What is the work do e by the et force duri g its dis laceme t from x = 0 to x = 2 m ? 6.21 The blades of a wi dmill swee out a circle of area A . (a) If the wi d flows at a velocity v er e dicular to the circle, what is the mass of the air assi g through it i time t ? (b) What is the ki etic e ergy of the air ? (c) Assume that the wi dmillco verts 25% of the wi ds e ergy i to electrical e ergy, a d that A = 30 m 2 , v = 36km/h a d the de sity of air is 1.2 kg m 3 . What is the electrical ower roduced ? 6.22 A erso tryi g to lose weight (dieter) lifts a 10 kg mass, o e thousa d times, to a height of 0.5 m each time. Assume that the ote tial e ergy

   

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

lost each time shelowers the mass is dissi ated. (a) How much work does she do agai st the gravitatio alforce ? (b) Fat su lies 3.8 10 7 J of e ergy er kilogram which is co verted tomecha ical e ergy with a 20% efficie cy rate. How much fat will the dieter use u ? 6.23 A family uses 8 kW of ower. (a) Direct solar e ergy is i cide t o the horizo talsurface at a average rate of 200 W er square meter. If 20% of this e ergy ca beco verted to useful electrical e ergy, how large a area is eeded to su ly 8 kW?(b) Com are this area to that of the roof of a ty ical house. Additio al Exercises6.24 A bullet of mass 0.012 kg a d horizo tal s eed 70 m s 1 strikes a block of wood of mass 0.4 kg a d i sta tly comes to rest with res ect to the block. The block issus e ded from the ceili g by mea s of thi wires. Calculate the height to whichthe block rises. Also, estimate the amou t of heat roduced i the block. 6.25 Two i cli ed frictio less tracks, o e gradual a d the other stee meet at A fromwhere two sto es are allowed to slide dow from rest, o e o each track (Fig. 6.16).Will the sto es reach the bottom at the same time? Will they reach there with thesame s eed? Ex lai . Give 1 = 30 0 , 2 = 60 0 , and h = 10 m, hat are the speeds andtimes taken by the t o stones ? Fig. 6.16 Fig. 6.15 PHYSICS138 6.26 A 1 kg block situated on a rough incline is connected to a spring of spring constant 100N m 1 as sho n in Fig. 6.17. The block is released from rest ith the spring in theunstretched position. The block moves 10 cm do n the incline before coming to rest.Find the coefficient of friction bet een the block and the incline. Assume that thespring has a negligible mass and the pulley is frictionless. Fig. 6.17 6.27 A bolt of mass 0.3 kg falls from the ceiling of an elevator moving do n ith an uniformspeed of 7 m s 1 . It hits the floor of the elevator (length of the elevator = 3 m) and doesnot rebound. What is the heat produced by the impact ? Would your ans er be different if the elevator ere stationary ? 6.28 A trolley of mass 200 kg moves ith a uniform speed of 36 km/h on a

  

 

 

  

  

 

frictionless track.A child of mass 20 kg runs on the trolley from one end to the other (10 m a ay) ith a speed of 4 m s 1 relative to the trolley in a direction opposite to the its motion, andjumps out of the trolley. What is the final speed of the trolley ? Ho much has thetrolley moved from the time the child begins to run ? 6.29 Which of the follo ing potential energy curves in Fig. 6.18 cannot possibly describe theelastic collision of t o billiard balls ? Here r is the distance bet een centres of the balls. Fig. 6.18 6.30 Consider the decay of a free neutron at rest : n $ p + e WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 139 Sho that the t o-body decay of this type must necessarily give an electron of fixedenergy and, therefore, cannot account for the observed continuous energy distributionin the -decay of a neutron or a nucleus (Fi . 6.19). Fi . 6.19 [Note: The simple result of this exercise was one amon the several ar uments advanced y W.Pauli to predict the existence of a third particle in the decay products of -decay. Thisparticle is known as neutrino. We now know that it is a particle of intrinsic spin (like e , p or n ), ut is neutral, and either massless or havin an extremely small mass(compared to the mass of electron) and which interacts very weakly with matter. Thecorrect decay process of neutron is : n $# p + e + ] PHYSICS140 APPENDIX 6.1 : POWER CONSUMPTION IN WALKING The table below lists the a roximate ower ex e ded by a adult huma of mass 60 kg. Table 6.4A roximate ower co sum tio Mecha ical work must ot be co fused with the everyday usageof the term work. A woma sta di g with a very heavy load o her head may get very tired. But o mecha ical work is i volved.That is ot to say that mecha ical work ca ot be estimated i ordi ary huma activity.Co sider a

 

 

   

  

erso walki g with co sta t s eed v 0 . The mecha ical work he does may be estimated sim ly with the hel of the work e ergy theorem. Assume :(a) The major work do e i walki g is due to the acceleratio a d deceleratio of the legs with each stride(See Fig. 6.20).(b) Neglect air resista ce.(c) Neglect the small work do e i lifti g the legs agai st gravity.(d) Neglect the swi gi g of ha ds etc. as is commo i walki g.As we ca see i Fig. 6.20, i each stride the leg is brought from rest to a s eed, a roximately equal to thes eed of walki g, a d the brought to rest agai . Fig. 6.20 A illustratio of a si gle stride i walki g. While the first leg is maximally off the rou d, the seco d leg is o the grou d a d vice versa The work do e by o e leg i each stride is 2 0 l v m by the work e ergy theorem. Here m l is the mass of the leg.Note 2/ 2 0 l v m e ergy is ex e ded by o e set of leg muscles to bri g the foot from rest to s eed v 0 while a additio al 2/ 2 0 l v m is ex e ded by a com leme tary set of leg muscles to bri g the foot to rest from s eed v 0 .He ce work do e by both legs i o e stride is (study Fig. 6.20 carefully) 2 0 l s v m W 2 = (6.34)Assumi g m l = 10 kg a d slow ru i g of a i e mi ute mile which tra slates to 3 m s 1 i SI u its, we obtai W s = 180 J/strideIf we take a stride to be 2 m lo g, the erso covers 1.5 strides er seco d at his s eed of 3 m s 1 . Thus the ower ex e ded seco dstride1.5strideJ180 = P = 270 W We must bear i mi d that this is a lower estimate si ce several ave ues of ower loss (e.g. swi gi g of ha ds,air resista ce etc.) have bee ig ored. The i teresti g oi t is that we did ot worry about the

  

 

 

  

 

 

    

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

 

forces i volved.The forces, mai ly frictio a d those exerted o the leg by the muscles of the rest of the body, are hard toestimate. Static frictio does o work a d we by assed the im ossible task of estimati g the work do e by themuscles by taki g recourse to the work e ergy theorem. We ca also see the adva tage of a wheel. The wheel ermits smooth locomotio without the co ti ual starti g a d sto i g i mammalia locomotio . C HAPTER S EVEN S YSTEMS OF P ARTICLES AND R OTATIONAL M OTION 7.1INTRODUCTION I the earlier cha ters we rimarily co sidered the motio of a si gle article (A article is re rese ted as a oi t mass.It has ractically o size). We a lied the results of our study eve to the motio of bodies of fi ite size, assumi gthat motio of such bodies ca be described i terms of themotio of a article.A y real body which we e cou ter i daily life has a fi ite size. I deali g with the motio of exte ded bodies(bodies of fi ite size) ofte the idealised model of a article isi adequate. I this cha ter we shall try to go beyo d thisi adequacy. We shall attem t to build a u dersta di g of the motio of exte ded bodies. A exte ded body, i thefirst lace, is a system of articles. We shall begi with theco sideratio of motio of the system as a whole. The ce treof mass of a system of articles will be a key co ce t here.We shall discuss the motio of the ce tre of mass of a systemof articles a d useful ess of this co ce t i u dersta di gthe motio of exte ded bodies.A large class of roblems with exte ded bodies ca besolved by co sideri g them to be rigid bodies. Ideally arigid body is a body with a erfectly defi ite a du cha gi g sha e. The dista ces betwee differe t airsof such a body do ot cha ge. It is evide t from thisdefi itio of a rigid body that o real body is truly rigid, si cereal bodies deform u der the i flue ce of forces. But i ma y situatio s the deformatio s are egligible. Thus, i a umber of situatio s i volvi g bodies such as wheels, to s, steelbeams, molecules a d la ets o the other ha d, we ca ig orethat they war , be d or vibrate a d treat them as rigid. 7.1.1What ki d of motio ca a rigid body have? Let us try to ex lore this questio by taki g some exam lesof the motio of rigid bodies. Let us begi with a recta gular block slidi g dow a i cli ed la e without a y sidewise 7.1 I troductio 7.2 Ce tre of mass 7.3 Motio of ce tre of mass 7.4

 

 

 

  

   

        

 

  

 

      

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

    

  

 

 

      

     

Li ear mome tum of a system of articles 7.5 Vector roduct of twovectors 7.6 A gular velocity a d itsrelatio with li ear velocity 7.7 Torque a d a gular mome tum 7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 7.9 Mome t of i ertia 7.10 Theorems of er e dicular a d arallel axes 7.11 Ki ematics of rotatio almotio about a fixed axis 7.12 Dy amics of rotatio almotio about a fixed axis 7.13 A gular mome tum i caseof rotatio about a fixed axis 7.14 Rolli g motio Summary Poi ts to Po der ExercisesAdditio al exercises 142 PHYSICS moveme t. The block is a rigid body. Its motio dow the la e is such that all the articles of the body are movi g together, i.e. they have thesame velocity at a y i sta t of time. The rigidbody here is i ure tra slatio al motio (Fig. 7.1). I ure tra slatio al motio at a yi sta t of time every article of the body hasthe same velocity. Co sider ow the rolli g motio of a solidmetallic or woode cyli der dow the samei cli ed la e (Fig. 7.2). The rigid body i this roblem, amely the cyli der, shifts from theto to the bottom of the i cli ed la e, a d thus,has tra slatio al motio . But as Fig. 7.2 shows,all its articles are ot movi g with the samevelocity at a y i sta t. The body therefore, is ot i ure tra slatio . Its motio is tra slatio lus somethi g else.I order to u dersta d what this somethi gelse is, let us take a rigid body so co strai edthat it ca ot have tra slatio al motio . Themost commo way to co strai a rigid body sothat it does ot have tra slatio al motio is tofix it alo g a straight li e. The o ly ossiblemotio of such a rigid body is rotatio . Theli e alo g which the body is fixed is termed asits axis of rotatio . If you look arou d, youwill come across ma y exam les of rotatio about a axis, a ceili g fa , a otters wheel, a gia t wheel i a fair, a merry go rou d a d soo (Fig 7.3(a) a d (b)).(a)(b) Fig. 7.3 Rotatio about a fixed axis (a) A ceili g fa (b) A otters wheel .Let us try to u dersta d what rotatio is,what characterises rotatio . You may oticethat i rotatio of a rigid body about a fixed Fig 7.1 Tra slatio al (slidi g) motio of a block dow a i cli ed la e.(A y oi t like P 1 or P 2 of the block moves with the same velocity at a y i sta t of time.) Fig. 7.2 Rolli g motio of a cyli der It is ot ure tra slatio al motio . Poi ts P

 

  



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

   

1 , P 2 , P 3 a d P 4 have differe t velocities (show by arrows)at a y i sta t of time. I fact, the velocity of the oi t of co tact P 3 is zero at a y i sta t,if the cyli der rolls without sli i g.

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 143 axis, every article of the body moves i acircle, which lies i a la e er e dicular tothe axis a d has its ce tre o the axis . Fig.7.4 shows the rotatio al motio of a rigid body about a fixed axis (the z axis of the frame of refere ce). Let P 1 be a article of the rigid body,arbitrarily chose a d at a dista ce r 1 from fixedaxis. The article P 1 describes a circle of radius r 1 with its ce tre C 1 o the fixed axis. The circlelies i a la e er e dicular to the axis. Thefigure also shows a other article P 2 of the rigidbody, P 2 is at a dista ce r 2 from the fixed axis.The article P 2 moves i a circle of radius r 2 a dwith ce tre C 2 o the axis. This circle, too, liesi a la e er e dicular to the axis. Note that the circles described by P 1 a d P 2 may lie i differe t la es; both these la es, however,are er e dicular to the fixed axis. For a y article o the axis like P 3 , r = 0. A y such article remai s statio ary while the body rotates. This is ex ected si ce the axis is fixed. Fig. 7.5 (a)

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

    

A s i i g to (The oi t of co tact of the to with the grou d, its ti O, is fixed.) Fig. 7.5 (b) A oscillati g table fa . The ivot of the fa , oi t O, is fixed. I some exam les of rotatio , however, theaxis may ot be fixed. A romi e t exam le of this ki d of rotatio is a to s i i g i lace[Fig. 7.5(a)]. (We assume that the to does ot sli from lace to lace a d so does ot havetra slatio al motio .) We k ow from ex erie cethat the axis of such a s i i g to movesarou d the vertical through its oi t of co tact with the grou d, swee i g out a co e as show i Fig. 7.5(a). (This moveme t of the axis of theto arou d the vertical is termed recessio . )Note, the oi t of co tact of the to withgrou d is fixed . The axis of rotatio of the to at a y i sta t asses through the oi t of co tact. A other sim le exam le of this ki d of rotatio is the oscillati g table fa or a edestalfa . You may have observed that the axis of Fig. 7.4 A rigid body rotatio about the z axis ( Each oi t of the body such as P 1 or P 2 describes a circle with its ce tre (C 1 or C 2 ) o the axis. The radius of the circle ( r 1 or r 2 ) is the er e dicular dista ce of the oi t ( P 1 or P 2 ) from the axis. A oi t o the axis like P 3 remai s statio ary). 144 PHYSICS rotatio of such a fa has a oscillati g(sidewise) moveme t i a horizo tal la e about the vertical through the oi t at which the axisis ivoted ( oi t O i Fig. 7.5(b)).While the fa rotates a d its axis movessidewise, this oi t is fixed. Thus, i morege eral cases of rotatio , such as the rotatio of a to or a edestal fa , o e oi t a d oto e li e, of the rigid body is fixed. I this casethe axis is ot fixed, though it always assesthrough the fixed oi t. I our study, however,we mostly deal with the sim ler a d s ecial caseof rotatio i which o e li e

                                          

 

    

 

              

  

(i.e. the axis) isfixed. Thus, for us rotatio will be about a fixedaxis o ly u less stated otherwise.The rolli g motio of a cyli der dow a i cli ed la e is a combi atio of rotatio about a fixed axis a d tra slatio . Thus, thesomethi g else i the case of rolli g motio which we referred to earlier is rotatio al motio .You will fi d Fig. 7.6(a) a d (b) i structive fromthis oi t of view. Both these figures show motio of the same body alo g ide ticaltra slatio al trajectory. I o e case, Fig. 7.6(a),the motio is a ure tra slatio ; i the other case [Fig. 7.6(b)] it is a combi atio of tra slatio a d rotatio . (You may try tore roduce the two ty es of motio show usi ga rigid object like a heavy book.)We ow reca itulate the most im orta t observatio s of the rese t sectio : The motio of a rigid body which is ot ivoted or fixedi some way is either a ure tra slatio or acombi atio of tra slatio a d rotatio . Themotio of a rigid body which is ivoted orfixed i some way is rotatio . The rotatio may be about a axis that is fixed (e.g. a ceili gfa ) or movi g (e.g. a oscillati g table fa ). Weshall, i the rese t cha ter, co sider rotatio almotio about a fixed axis o ly. 7.2CENTRE OF MASS We shall first see what the ce tre of mass of a system of articles is a d the discuss itssig ifica ce. For sim licity we shall start witha two article system. We shall take the li ejoi i g the two articles to be the x axis. Fig. 7.7 Let the dista ces of the two articles be x 1 a d x 2 res ectively from some origi O. Let m 1 a d m 2 be res ectively the masses of the two Fig. 7.6(a) Motio of a rigid body which is ure tra slatio . Fig. 7.6(b) Motio of a rigid body which is a combi atio of tra slatio a d rotatio .Fig 7.6 (a) a d 7.6 (b) illustrate differe t motio s of the same body. Note P is a arbitrary oi t of the body; O is the ce tre of mass of the body, which is defi ed i the ext sectio . Suffice to say here that the trajectories of O are the tra slatio al trajectories Tr 1 a d Tr 2 of the body. The ositio s O a d P at three differe t i sta ts of time are show by O 1 , O 2 ,a d O 3 , a d P 1 , P

  

                        

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

  

   

 

 

 

 

             

  

            

2 a d P 3 res ectively i Fig. 7.6 (a)a d (b) both. As see from Fig. 7.6(a), at a y i sta t the velocities of a y articles like O a d P of the body are the same i ure tra slatio . Notice, i this case the orie tatio of OP, i.e. the a gle OP makes with a fixed directio , say the horizo tal, remai s the same,i.e. 1 = 2 = 3 . Fig. 7.6 (b) illustr tes c se of combin tion of tr nsl tion nd rot tion. In this c se, t ny inst nts the velocities of O nd P differ. Also, 1 , 2 nd 3 m y ll be different.

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 145 p rticles. The centre of m ss of the system isth t point C which is dist nce X from O,where X is given by 1 1 2 21 2 m x m x X m m +=+ (7.1)In Eq. (7.1), X c n be reg rded s the m ss weighted me n of x 1 nd x 2 . If the two p rticlesh ve the s me m ss m 1 = m 2 = m , then 1 2 1 2 2 2 mx mx x x X m

 

 

 

+ += = Thus, for two p rticles of equ l m ss thecentre of m ss lies ex ctly midw y betweenthem.If we h ve n p rticles of m sses m 1 , m 2 ,... m n respectively, long str ight line t ken sthe x xis, then by definition the position of the centre of the m ss of the system of p rticlesis given by 1 1 2 21 2 ........ i i n n n i m x m x m x m x X m m m m + + += =+ + + (7.2)where x 1 , x 2 ,... x n re the dist nces of thep rticles from the origin; X is lso me suredfrom the s me origin. The symbol (the Greek letter sigm ) denotes summ tion, in this c seover n p rticles. The sum i m M = is the tot l m ss of the system.Suppose th t we h ve three p rticles, not lying in str ight line. We m y define x nd y xes in the pl ne in which the p rticles lie ndrepresent the positions of the three p rticles by coordin tes ( x 1 , y 1 ), ( x 2 , y

2 ) nd ( x 3 , y 3 ) respectively.Let the m sses of the three p rticles be m 1 , m 2 nd m 3 respectively. The centre of m ss C of the system of the three p rticles is defined ndloc ted by the coordin tes ( X, Y) given by 1 1 2 2 3 31 2 3 m x m x m x X m m m + +=+ + (7.3 ) 1 1 2 2 3 31 2 3 m y m y m y Y m m m + +=+ + (7.3b)For the p rticles of equ l m ss m = m 1 = m 2 = m 3 , 1 2 3 1 2 3 ( )3 3 m x x x x x x X m + + + += = 1 2 3 1 2 3 ( )3 3 m y y y y y y Y m + + + += = Thus, for three p rticles of equ l m ss, thecentre of m ss coincides with the centroid of the tri ngle formed by the p rticles.Results of Eqs. (7.3 ) nd (7.3b) regener lised e sily to system of n p rticles, not necess rily lying in pl ne, but distributed insp ce. The centre of m ss of such system is t ( X, Y, Z ), where i i m x X M = (7.4 )

i i m y Y M = (7.4b) nd i i m z Z M = (7.4c)Here M = i m is the tot l m ss of thesystem. The index i runs from 1 to n; m i is them ss of the i th p rticle nd the position of the i th p rticle is given by ( x i , y i , z i ).Eqs. (7.4 ), (7.4b) nd (7.4c) c n becombined into one equ tion using the not tionof position vectors. Let i r be the position vector of the i th p rticle nd R be the position vector of the centre of m ss: i i i i x y z = + + r i j k $ $ nd X Y Z = + + R i j k $ $ Then i i m M

= rR (7.4d)The sum on the right h nd side is vector sum.Note the economy of expressions we chieveby use of vectors. If the origin of the fr me of reference (the coordin te system) is chosen tobe the centre of m ss then 0 i i m = r for thegiven system of p rticles.A rigid body, such s metre stick or flywheel, is system of closely p cked p rticles;Eqs. (7.4 ), (7.4b), (7.4c) nd (7.4d) retherefore, pplic ble to rigid body. The number of p rticles ( toms or molecules) in such body is so l rge th t it is impossible to c rry out thesumm tions over individu l p rticles in theseequ tions. Since the sp cing of the p rticles is

m 2 ... m n ; the i th element m i is taken to be located about thepoint ( x i , y i , z i ). The coordinates of the centre of mass are then approximately given by ( ) ( ) ( ), , i i i i i i i i i m x m y m z X Y Z m m m = = =

146 PHYSICS sm ll, we c n tre t the body s subdivide the body into n sm ll elements of m ss; m 1 ,

continuousdistribution of m ss. We

As we make n bigger and bigger and each m i smaller and smaller, these expressionsbecome exact. In that case, we denote the sumsover i by integrals. Thus, d , i m m M = ( ) d , i i m x x m ( ) d , i i m y y m and ( ) d i i m z z m Here M is the total mass of the body. Thecoordinates of the centre of mass now are and 1 1 1d , d d X x m Y y m Z z m M M M = = = (7.5a)The vector expression equivalent to thesethree scalar expressions is1d m M = R r (7.5b)If we choose, the centre of mass as the originof our coordinate system,( , , ) x y z = R 0 i.e., d m = r 0 or d d d 0 x m y m z m

= = = (7.6)Often we have to calculate the centre of massof homogeneous bodies of regular shapes likerings, discs, spheres, rods etc. (By a homogeneous body we mean a body withuniformly distributed mass.) By using symmetry consideration, we can easily show that thecentres of mass of these bodies lie at their geometric centres.Let us consider a thin rod, whose width andbreath (in case the cross section of the rod isrectangular) or radius (in case the cross sectionof the rod is cylindrical) is much smaller thanits length. Taking the origin to be at thegeometric centre of the rod and x -axis to bealong the length of the rod, we can say that onaccount of reflection symmetry, for every element dm of the rod at x , there is an element of the same mass dm located at x (Fig. 7.8).The net contribution of every such pair tothe integral and hence the integral d x m itself is zero. From Eq. (7.6), the point for which theintegral itself is zero, is the centre of mass.Thus, the centre of mass of a homogenous thinrod coincides with its geometric centre. This canbe understood on the basis of reflection symmetry.The same symmetry argument will apply tohomogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or eventhick rods of circular or rectangular crosssection. For all such bodies you will realise that for every element dm at a point ( x,y,z ) one canalways take an element of the same mass at the point (x,-y,-z ). (In other words, the originis a point of reflection symmetry for thesebodies.) As a result, the integrals in Eq. (7.5 a)all are zero. This means that for all the abovebodies, their centre of mass coincides with their geometric centre. Example 7.1 Find the centre of mass of three particles at the vertices of anequilateral triangle. The masses of theparticles are 100g, 150g, and 200grespectively. Each side of the equilateraltriangle is 0.5m long. Answer Fig. 7.9 Fig. 7.8 Determining the CM of a thin rod. ! SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 147 !! With the X and Y axes chosen as shown in Fig.7.9, the coordinates of points O, A and B formingthe equilateral triangle are respectively (0,0),(0.5,0), (0.25,0.253). Let the masses 100 g,150g and 200g be located at O, A and

B berespectively. Then, 1 1 2 2 3 31 2 3 m x m x m x X m m m + +=+ + () 100 0 150(0.5) 200(0.25) gm(100 150 200) g + + =+ + 75 50 125 5m m m450 450 18 += = = 100(0) 150(0) 200(0.25 3) gm450 g Y + + = 50 3 3 1m m m450 93 3 = = = The centre of mass C is shown in the figure.Note that it is not the geometric centre of thetriangle OAB. Why? " Example 7.2 Find the centre of mass of a triangular lamina. Answer The lamina ( LMN ) may be subdividedinto narrow strips each parallel to the base (MN) as shown in Fig. 7.10 Fig. 7.10 By symmetry each strip has its centre of mass at its midpoint. If we join the midpoint of all the strips we get the median LP. The centreof mass of the triangle as a whole therefore,has to lie on the median LP. Similarly, we canargue that it lies on the median MQ and NR.This means the centre of mass lies on the point of concurrence of the medians, i.e. on thecentroid G of the triangle. " Example 7.3 Find the centre of mass of a uniform L-shaped lamina (a thin flat plate)with dimensions as shown. The mass of the lamina is 3 kg. Answer Choosing the X and Y axes as shownin Fig. 7.11 we have the coordinates of thevertices of the L-shaped lamina as given in thefigure. We can think of theL-shape to consist of 3 squares each of length1m. The mass of each square is 1kg, since thelamina is uniform. The centres of mass C 1 , C 2 and C 3 of the squares are, by symmetry, their geometric centres and have coordinates (1/2,1/2),(3/2,1/2), (1/2,3/2) respectively. We take themasses of the squares to be concentrated at these points. The centre of mass of the wholeL shape (

X , Y ) is the centre of mass of thesemass points. Fig. 7.11 Hence [ ] () 1(1/2) 1(3/2) 1(1/2) kgm1 1 1 kg X + +=+ + 5m6 = [ ] () 1(1/2) 1(1/2) 1(3/2) kgm5m1 1 1 kg 6 Y + + = =+ + The centre of mass of the L-shape lies onthe line OD. We could have guessed this without calculations. Can you tell why? Suppose, thethree squares that make up the L shaped lamina 148 PHYSICS of Fig. 7.11 had different masses. How will youthen determine the centre of mass of thelamina? " 7.3MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS Equipped with the definition of the centre of mass, we are now in a position to discuss itsphysical importance for a system of particles.We may rewrite Eq.(7.4d) as 1 1 2 2 ... i i n n M m m m m = = + + + R r r r r (7.7)Differentiating the two sides of the equationwith respect to time we get 1 21 2 dd dd...d d d n n M m m m t t t dt = + + + rr rR or 1 1 2 2 ... n n M m m m = + + + V v v v (7.8)where () 1 1 d /d t

= v r is the velocity of the first particle ( ) 2 2 d dt = v r is the velocity of thesecond particle etc. andd /d t = V R is thevelocity of the centre of mass. Note that weassumed the masses m 1 , m 2 , ... etc. do not change in time. We have therefore, treated themas constants in differentiating the equationswith respect to time.Differentiating Eq.(7.8) with respect to time,we obtain 1 21 2 dd dd...d d d d n n M m m m t t t t = + + + vv vV or 1 1 2 2 ... n n M m m m = + + + A a a a (7.9)where () 1 1 d /d t = a v is the acceleration of thefirst particle, () 2 2 d /d t = a v is the accelerationof the second particle etc. and ( ) d /d t = A V isthe acceleration of the centre of mass of thesystem of particles.Now, from Newtons second law, the forceacting on the first particle is given by 1 1 1 m = F a

.The force acting on the second particle is givenby 2 2 2 m = F a and so on. Eq. (7.9) may be writtenas 1 2 ... n M = + + + A F F F (7.10)Thus, the total mass of a system of particlestimes the acceleration of its centre of mass isthe vector sum of all the forces acting on thesystem of particles.Note when we talk of the force 1 F on the first particle, it is not a single force, but the vector sum of all the forces on the first particle; likewisefor the second particle etc. Among these forceson each particle there will be external forcesexerted by bodies outside the system and also internal forces exerted by the particles on oneanother. We know from Newtons third law that these internal forces occur in equal and oppositepairs and in the sum of forces of Eq. (7.10),their contribution is zero. Only the externalforces contribute to the equation. We can thenrewrite Eq. (7.10) as ext M = A F (7.11)where ext F represents the sum of all externalforces acting on the particles of the system.Eq. (7.11) states that the centre of massof a system of particles moves as if all themass of the system was concentrated at thecentre of mass and all the external forceswere applied at that point. Notice, to determine the motion of the centreof mass no knowledge of internal forces of thesystem of particles is required; for this purposewe need to know only the external forces.To obtain Eq. (7.11) we did not need tospecify the nature of the system of particles.The system may be a collection of particles inwhich there may be all kinds of internalmotions, or it may be a rigid body which haseither pure translational motion or a combination of translational and rotationalmotion. Whatever is the system and the motionof its individual particles, the centre of massmoves according to Eq. (7.11).Instead of treating extended bodies as singleparticles as we have done in earlier chapters,we can now treat them as systems of particles.We can obtain the translational component of their motion, i.e. the motion centre of mass of the system, by taking the mass of the wholesystem to be concentrated at the centre of massand all the external forces on the system to beacting at the centre of mass.This is the procedure that we followed earlier in analysing forces on bodies and solving SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 149 problems without explicitly outlining andjustifying the procedure. We

now realise that inearlier studies we assumed, without saying so,that rotational motion and/or internal motionof the particles were either absent or negligible.We no longer need to do this. We have not only found the justification of the procedure wefollowed earlier; but we also have found how todescribe and separate the translational motionof (1) a rigid body which may be rotating aswell, or (2) a system of particles with all kindsof internal motion. Fig. 7.12 The centre of mass of the fragments of the projectile continues along the same parabolic path which it would have followed if there were no explosion. Figure 7.12 is a good illustration of Eq.(7.11). A projectile, following the usual parabolictrajectory, explodes into fragments midway inair. The forces leading to the explosion areinternal forces. They contribute nothing to themotion of the centre of mass. The total externalforce, namely, the force of gravity acting on thebody, is the same before and after the explosion.The centre of mass under the influence of theexternal force continues, therefore, along thesame parabolic trajectory as it would havefollowed if there were no explosion. 7.4LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OFPARTICLES Let us recall that the linear momentum of a particle is defined as m = p v (7.12)Let us also recall that Newtons second law written in symbolic form for a single particle isdd t = pF (7.13)where F is the force on the particle. Let usconsider a system of n particles with masses m 1 , m 2 ,... m n respectively and velocities 1 2 , ,....... n v v v respectively. The particles may beinteracting and have external forces acting onthem. The linear momentum of the first particleis 1 1 m v , of the second particle is 2 2 m v and soon.For the system of n particles, the linear momentum of the system is defined to be thevector sum of all individual particles of thesystem,

1 2 ... n = + + + P p p p 1 1 2 2 ... n n m m m = + + + v v v( 7.14)Comparing this with Eq. (7.8) M = P V (7.15)Thus, the total momentum of a systemof particles is equal to the product of thetotal mass of the system and the velocity of its centre of mass . Differentiating Eq. (7.15)with respect to time,d dd d M M t t = = P VA (7.16)Comparing Eq.(7.16) and Eq. (7.11),dd ext t = PF (7.17)This is the statement of Newtons secondlaw extended to a system of particles. Suppose now, that the sum of externalforces acting on a system of particles is zero.Then from Eq.(7.17) or d0d t = PP = Constant (7.18a)Thus, when the total external force actingon a system of particles is zero, the total linear momentum of the system is constant. This isthe law of conservation of the total linear momentum of a system of particles. Because of Eq. (7.15), this also means that when thetotal external force on the system is zerothe velocity of the centre of mass remainsconstant. (We assume throughout thediscussion on systems of particles in thischapter that the total mass of the systemremains constant.)Note that on account of the internal forces,i.e. the forces exerted by the particles on oneanother, the individual particles may have 150 PHYSICS complicated trajectories. Yet, if the total externalforce acting on the system is zero, the centre of mass moves with a constant velocity, i.e., movesuniformly in a straight line like a free particle.The vector Eq. (7.18a) is equivalent to threescalar equations,P x = c 1 , P y =

c 2 and P z = c 3 (7.18 b)Here P x , P y and P z are the components of the total linear momentum vector P along the x, y and z axes respectively; c 1 , c 2 and c 3 areconstants. (a) (b) Fig. 7.13 (a) A heavy nucleus (Ra) splits into a lighter nucleus (Rn) and an alpha particle (He). The CM of the system is in uniform motion. (b) The same spliting of the heavy nucleus (Ra) with the centre of mass at rest.The two product particles fly back to back. As an example, let us consider theradioactive decay of a moving unstable particle,like the nucleus of radium. A radium nucleusdisintegrates into a nucleus of radon and analpha particle. The forces leading to the decay are internal to the system and the externalforces on the system are negligible. So the totallinear momentum of the system is the samebefore and after decay. The two particlesproduced in the decay, the radon nucleus andthe alpha particle, move in different directionsin such a way that their centre of mass movesalong the same path along which the originaldecaying radium nucleus was moving[Fig. 7.13(a)].If we observe the decay from the frame of reference in which the centre of mass is at rest,the motion of the particles involved in the decay looks particularly simple; the product particlesmove back to back with their centre of massremaining at rest as shown in Fig.7.13 (b).In many problems on the system of particles as in the above radioactive decay problem, it is convenient to work in the centreof mass frame rather than in the laboratory frame of reference.In astronomy, binary (double) stars is a common occurrence. If there are no externalforces, the centre of mass of a double star moves like a free particle, as shown in Fig.7.14(a). The trajectories of the two stars of equalmass are also shown in the figure; they look complicated. If we go to the centre of massframe, then we find that there the two starsare moving in a circle, about the centre of mass, which is at rest. Note that the positionof the stars have to be diametrically oppositeto each other [Fig. 7.14(b)]. Thus in our frameof reference, the trajectories of the stars are

a combination of (i) uniform motion in a straight line of the centre of mass and (ii) circular orbits of the stars about the centre of mass.As can be seen from the two examples, separating the motion of different parts of a system into motion of the centre of mass andmotion about the centre of mass is a very useful technique that helps in understandingthe motion of the system. 7.5VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS We are already familiar with vectors and their use in physics. In chapter 6 (Work, Energy,Power) we defined the scalar product of twovectors. An important physical quantity, work,is defined as a scalar product of two vector quantities, force and displacement. (a) (b) Fig. 7.14 (a) Trajectories of two stars, S 1 (dotted line) and S 2 (solid line) forming a binary system with their centre of mass C in uniform motion. (b) The same binary system, with the centre of mass C at rest. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 151 We shall now define another product of twovectors. This product is a vector. Two important quantities in the study of rotational motion,namely, moment of a force and angular momentum, are defined as vector products. Definition of Vector Product A vector product of two vectors a and b is a vector c such that (i) magnitude of c = c sin ab = here a and bare magnitudes of a and b and is theangle bet een the t o vectors.(ii) c is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b .(iii) if e take a right handed scre ith its headlying in the plane of a

 

and b and the scre perpendicular to this plane, and if e turnthe head in the direction from a to b , thenthe tip of the scre advances in the directionof c . This right handed scre rule isillustrated in Fig. 7.15a.Alternately, if one curls up the fingers of right hand around a line perpendicular to theplane of the vectors a and b and if the fingersare curled up in the direction from a to b , thenthe stretched thumb points in the direction of c , as sho n in Fig. 7.15b.(a) (b) Fig. 7.15 (a) Rule of the right handed scre for defining the direction of the vector product of t o vectors. (b) Rule of the right hand for defining the direction of the vector product. A simpler version of the right hand rule isthe follo ing : Open up your right hand palmand curl the fingers pointing from a to b . Your stretched thumb points in the direction of c .It should be remembered that there are t oangles bet een any t o vectors a and b . InFig. 7.15 (a) or (b) they correspond to (assho n) and (360 0 ). While applying either of the above rules, the rotation should be takenthrough the smaller angle (<180 0 ) bet een a and b . It is here.Because of the cross used to denote thevector product, it is also referred to as crossproduct. Note that scalar product of t o vectors iscommutative as said earlier, a .

b = b.a The vector product, ho ever, is not commutative, i.e. a b b a The magnitude of both a b and b a is thesame ( sin ab ); also, both of them areperpendicular to the plane of a and b . But therotation of the right-handed scre in case of a b is from a to b , hereas in case of b a it is from b to a . This means the t o vectors arein opposite directions. We have =

a b b a A other i teresti g ro erty of a vector roduct is its behaviour u der reflectio .U der reflectio (i.e. o taki g the mirror image) we have a d , x x y y z z .As a result all the com o e ts of a vector cha ge sig a d thus, a a b b .What ha e s to a b u der reflectio ? a b ( ) ( ) = a b a b Thus, a b does ot cha ge sig u der reflectio . Both scalar a d vector roducts aredistributive with res ect to vector additio .Thus, .( ) . . + = + a b c a b ac ( ) + = + a b c a b a c We may write c = a b i the com o e t form. For this we first eed to obtai someeleme tary

 

 

 

 

 

   

   

cross roducts:(i) a a = 0 ( 0 is a ull vector, i.e. a vector with zero mag itude)This follows si ce mag itude of a a is 2 si 0 0 a = . 152 PHYSICS ! From this follow the results , , = = = i i 0 j j 0 k k 0 (ii) = i j k Note that the mag itude of i j is si 90 0 or 1, si ce i a d j both have u it mag itude a d the a gle betwee them is 90 0 .Thus, i j is a u it vector. A u it vector er e dicular to the la e of i a d j

 

 

a drelated to them by the right ha d screw rule is k . He ce, the above result. You may verify similarly, a d = = j k i k i j From the rule for commutatio of the cross roduct, it follows: , , = = = j i k k j i i k j Note if , , i j k occur cyclically i the abovevector roduct relatio , the vector roduct is ositive. If , , i j k do ot occur i cyclic order,the vector roduct is egative.Now, ( ) ( ) x y z x y z a a a b b b = + + + + a b i j k i j k x y x z y x y z z x z y a b a b a b a b a b a b = + + k j k i j i ( ) ( ) ( ) y z z x z x x z x y y x a b a b a b a b a b a b = + + i j k We have used the eleme tary cross roductsi obtai i g the above relatio . The ex ressio for a b ca be ut i a determi a t formwhich is easy to remember.

 

 

x y z x y z a a a b b b = i j ka b Exam le 7.4 Fi d the scalar a d vector roducts of two vectors. a = (3 i 4 j + 5 k ) a d b = ( 2i+ j 3k) A swer (3 4 5 )( 2 3 )6 4 1525 = + + = = a b i j k i j k g g 3 4 5 7 52 1 3 = = i j ka b i j k Note 7 5 = + + b a i j k ##" 7.6ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITSRELATION WITH LINEAR VELOCITY I this sectio we shall study what is a gular velocity a d its role i rotatio al motio . Wehave see that every article of a rotati g body moves i a circle. The li ear velocity of the article is related to the a gular velocity. Therelatio betwee these two qua tities i volvesa vector roduct which we lear t about i thelast sectio .Let us go back to Fig. 7.4. As said above, i rotatio al motio of a rigid body about a fixedaxis, every article of the body moves i a circle, Fig. 7.16 Rotatio about a fixed axis. (A article ( P )of the rigid body rotati g about the fixed (z ) axis moves i a circle with ce tre (C)o the axis.) which lies i a la e er e dicular to the axisa d has its ce tre o the

 

 

 

  

  

axis. I Fig. 7.16 weredraw Fig. 7.4, showi g a ty ical article (at a oi t P) of the rigid body rotati g about a fixedaxis (take as the z axis). The article describes SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 153 a circle with a ce tre C o the axis. The radiusof the circle is r , the er e dicular dista ce of the oi t P from the axis. We also show theli ear velocity vector v of the article at P. It isalo g the ta ge t at P to the circle.Let P be the ositio of the article after a i terval of time t (Fig. 7.16). The angle PCP describes the angular displacement of theparticle in time t . The average angular velocity of the particle over the interval t is / t. As t tends to zero (i.e. takes smaller and smaller values), the ratio / t approaches a limit whichis the instantaneous angular velocity d /d t of the particle at the position P. We denote the instantaneous angular velocity by (theGreek letter omega). We kno from our study of circular motion that the magnitude of linear velocity v of a particle moving in a circle isrelated to the angular velocity of the particle by the simple relation r

 

 

 

 = , here r is theradi s of the circle.We observe that at any given instant therelation v r = applies to all particles of therigid body. Th s for a particle at a perpendic lar distance r i from the fixed axis, the linear velocity at a given instant v i is given by i i v r = (7.19)The index i r ns from 1 to n , here n is thetotal n mber of particles of the body.For particles on the axis, 0 = r , and hence v = r = 0. Th s, particles on the axis arestationary. This verifies that the axis is fixed .Note that e se the same ang lar velocity for all the particles. We therefore, refer to as the ang lar velocity of the hole body . We have characterised p re translation of a body by all parts of the body having the samevelocity at any instant of time. Similarly, emay characterise p re rotation by all parts of the body having the same ang lar velocity atany instant of time . Note that thischaracterisation of the rotation of a rigid body abo t a fixed axis is j st another ay of sayingas in Sec. 7.1 that each particle of the body movesin a circle, hich lies in a plane perpendic lar to the axis and has the centre on the axis.In o r disc ssion so far the ang lar velocity appears to be a scalar. In fact, it is a vector. Weshall not j stify this fact, b t e shall accept it. For rotation abo t a fixed axis, the ang lar velocity vector lies along the axis of rotation,and points o t in the direction in hich a right handed scre o ld advance, if the head of thescre is rotated ith the body. (See Fig. 7.17a).The magnit de of this vector is

 

  

 

 

 

 

d dt = referred as above. Fig. 7.17 (a) If the head of a right handed scre rotates ith the body, the scre advances in the direction of the ang lar velocity . If the sense (clock ise or anticlock ise) of rotation of the body changes, so does the direction of . Fig. 7.17 (b) The ang lar velocity vector is directed along the fixed axis as sho n.The linear velocity of the particle at P is v = r . It is perpendic lar to both and r and is directed along the tangent to the circle described by the particle. We shall no look at hat the vector prod ct

 

r corresponds to. Refer to Fig. 7.17(b) hichis a part of Fig. 7.16 reprod ced to sho thepath of the particle P. The fig re sho s thevector directed along the fixed ( z -) axis andalso the position vector r = OP of the particleat P of the rigid body ith respect to the originO. Note that the origin is chosen to be on theaxis of rotation. 154 PHYSICS No ( ) + r= OP= OC CP B t is along as = OC 0 OC Hence = r CP The vector CP is perpendic lar to , i.e.to CP , the z -axis and also to the radi s of thecircle described by the particle at P. It istherefore, along the tangent to the circle at P.Also, the magnit de of CP is (CP) since and CP are perpendic lar to each other. Weshall denote CP by

 

 

 r and not by r , as e didearlier.Th s, r is a vector of magnit de r and is along the tangent to the circle describedby the particle at P. The linear velocity vector v at P has the same magnit de and direction.Th s, = v r (7.20)In fact, the relation, E . (7.20), holds goodeven for rotation of a rigid body ith one point fixed, s ch as the rotation of the top [Fig. 7.6(a)].In this case r represents the position vector of the particle ith respect to the fixed point takenas the origin.We note that for rotation abo t a fixedaxis, the direction of the vector does notchange ith time. Its magnit de may,ho ever, change from instant to instant. Forthe more general rotation, both themagnit de and the direction of may changefrom instant to instant.7.6.1Ang lar acceleration Yo may have noticed that e are developingthe st dy of rotational motion along the linesof the st dy of translational motion ith hich e are already familiar. Analogo s to the kineticvariables of linear displacement and velocity ( v )in translational motion, e have ang lar displacement and ang lar velocity ( ) inrotational motion. It is then nat ral to definein rotational motion the concept of ang lar acceleration in analogy ith linear accelerationdefined as the time rate of change of velocity intranslational motion. We define ang lar acceleration s the time r te of ch nge of ngul r velocity; Thus,dd t =

 

 and hence, that of is fixed. In this c sethe vector equ tion reduces to sc l r equ tiondd t = (7.22) 7.7TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM In this section, we sh ll cqu int ourselves withtwo physic l qu ntities which re defined svector products of two vectors. These s we sh llsee, re especi lly import nt in the discussionof motion of systems of p rticles, p rticul rly rigid bodies. 7.7.1Moment of force (Torque) We h ve le rnt th t the motion of rigid body in gener l is combin tion of rot tion ndtr nsl tion. If the body is fixed t point or long line, it h s only rot tion l motion. Weknow th t force is needed to ch nge thetr nsl tion l st te of body, i.e. to produceline r cceler tion. We m y then sk, wh t isthe n logue of force in the c se of rot tion lmotion? To look into the question in concretesitu tion let us t ke the ex mple of opening or closing of door. A door is rigid body whichc n rot te bout fixed vertic l xis p ssingthrough the hinges. Wh t m kes the door rot te? It is cle r th t unless force is ppliedthe door does not rot te. But ny force doesnot do the job. A force pplied to the hinge linec nnot produce ny rot tion t ll, where s force of given m gnitude pplied t right nglesto the door t its outer edge is most effective inproducing rot tion. It is not the force lone, but how nd where the force is pplied is import nt in rot tion l motion.The rot tion l n logue of force is momentof force . It is lso referred to s torque . (Wesh ll use the words moment of force nd torqueinterch nge bly.) We sh ll first define themoment of force for the speci l c se of singlep rticle. L ter on we sh ll extend the concept to systems of p rticles including rigid bodies.We sh ll lso rel te it to ch nge in the st teof rot tion l motion, i.e. is ngul r cceler tionof rigid body. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 155 Fig. 7.18 = r F ,

(7.21)If the

xis of rot tion is fixed, the directionof

 is perpendicular o he plane con aining r and F , and i s direc ion is given by he righ handed screw rule. If a force ac s on a single par icle a a poin P whose posi ion wi h respec o he origin O isgiven by he posi ion vec or r (Fig. 7.18), hemomen of he force ac ing on he par icle wi hrespec o he origin O is defined as he vec or produc = r

of force (or orque) is a vec or quan i y. The symbol

s ands for he Greek le er au . The magni ude of is = rF sin (7.24a) here r is the magnit de of the position vector r , i.e. the length OP, F

 



F (7.23)The momen

 

 

 

  

     

   

is the magnit de of force F and is the angle bet een r and F assho n.Moment of force has dimensions M L 2 T -2 .Its dimensions are the same as those of ork or energy. It is, ho ever, a very different physical antity than ork. Moment of a force is a vector, hile ork is a scalar. The SI nit of moment of force is Ne ton-metre (Nm). Themagnit de of the moment of force may be ritten( sin ) r F r F = = (7.24b)or sin rF rF = = (7.24c) here r = r sin is the perpendic lar distanceof the line of action of F form the origin and( sin ) F F = is the component of F in thedirection perpendic lar to r . Note that = 0 if r = 0, F = 0 or = 0 0 or 180 0 . Th s, the moment of a force vanishes if either the magnit de of the force is zero, or if the line of action of theforce passes thro gh the origin.One may note that since r

 F is a vector prod ct, properties of a vector prod ct of t ovectors apply to it. If the direction of F isreversed, the direction of the moment of forceis reversed. If directions of both r and F arereversed, the direction of the moment of forceremains the same. 7.7.2Ang lar moment m of a particle J st as the moment of a force is the rotationalanalog e of force, the antity ang lar moment m is the rotational analog e of linear moment m. We shall first define ang lar moment m for the special case of a singleparticle and look at its sef lness in the context of single particle motion. We shall then extendthe definition of ang lar moment m to systemsof particles incl ding rigid bodies.Like moment of a force, ang lar moment mis also a vector prod ct. It co ld also be referredto as moment of (linear) moment m. From thisterm one co ld g ess ho ang lar moment mis defined.Consider a particle of mass m and linear moment m p at a position r relative to the originO. The ang lar moment m l of the particle ithrespect to the origin O is defined to be l = r p (7.25a)The magnit de of the ang lar moment mvector is sin p r l = (7.26a) here p is the magnit de of p and is the anglebet een r and p . We may rite l r p = or r p

 

 

 

(7.26b) here r (= r sin ) is the perpendic lar distanceof the directional line of p from the origin and( sin ) p p = is the component of p in a directionperpendic lar to r . We expect the ang lar moment m to be zero ( l = 0), if the linear moment m vanishes ( p = 0), if the particle is at the origin ( r = 0), or if the directional line of p passes thro gh the origin = 0 0 or 180 0 . 156 PHYSICS The physical antities, moment of a forceand ang lar moment m, have an important relation bet een them. It is the rotationalanalog e of the relation bet een force and linear moment m. For deriving the relation in thecontext of a single particle, e differentiate l = r p ith respect to time,d d( )d d t t = lr p Applying the prod ct r le for differentiationto the right hand side,d d d( )d d d t t t = + r pr p p r

 

No , the velocity of the particle is v = d r / dt and p = m v Beca se of this d0,d m t = = rp v v as the vector prod ct of t o parallel vectorsvanishes. F rther, since d p / d t = F ,dd t = = pr r F Henced( )d = r p or dd

= l (7.27)Thus, he ime ra e of change of he angular momen um of a par icle is equal o he orqueac ing on i . This is he ro a ional analogue of he equa ion F = d p /d

, which expressesNew ons second law for he ransla ional mo ionof a single par icle. Torque and angular momen um for a sys emof par icles To ge he o al angular momen um of a sys emof par icles abou a given poin we need o addvec orially he angular momen a of

 

  

  

  

  

individualpar icles. Thus, for a sys em of n par icles, 1 21 ... n n i i = = + + + = L l l l l The angular momen um of he i h par icleis given by l i = r i

p i where r i is he posi ion vec or of he i h par iclewi h respec o a given origin and p = ( m i v i ) is he linear momen um of he par icle. (Thepar icle has mass m i and veloci y v i ) We may wri e he o al angular momen um of a sys emof par icles as i i i i = = L l r p (7.25b)This is a generalisa ion of he defini ion of angular momen um (Eq. 7.25a) for a singlepar icle o a sys em of par icles.Using Eqs. (7.23) and (7.25b), we ge ( ) dd dd d d i i i i i = = = lL l

 

 

 

 

  

   

 

(7.28a) An experimen wi h he bicycle rim Take a bicycle rimand ex endi s axle onbo h sides.Tie wos r i n g sa bo h endsA and B,as shownin headjoiningfigure. Holdbo h hes r i n g s oge her inone hand such ha he rim is ver ical. If youleave one s ring, he rim will il . Now keeping he rim in ver ical posi ion wi h bo h he s ringsin one hand, pu he wheel in fas ro a ionaround he axle wi h he o her hand. Then leaveone s ring, say B, from your hand, and observewha happens.The rim keeps ro a ing in a ver ical planeand he plane of ro a ion urns around hes ring A which you are holding. We say ha heaxis of ro a ion of he rim or equivalen ly i s angular momen um precesses abou hes ring A.The ro a ing rim gives rise o an angular momen um. De ermine he direc ion of hisangular momen um. When you are holding hero a ing rim wi h s ring A, a orque is genera ed.(We leave i o you o find ou how he orque isgenera ed and wha i s direc ion is.) The effec of he orque on he angular momen um is omake i precess around an axis perpendicular o bo h he angular momen um and he orque.Verify all hese s a emen s. Ini ially Af er 158 PHYSICS Answer Le he par icle wi h veloci y v be a poin P a some ins an . We wan o calcula e he angular momen um of he par icle abou arbi rary poin O. Fig 7.19 The angular momen um is l = r m v . I smagni ude is mvr sin , here is the anglebet een r and v as sho n in Fig. 7.19. Altho ghthe particle changes position ith time, the lineof direction of v remains the same and henceOM = r sin . is a constant.F rther, the direction of l is perpendic lar to the plane of r and

an

  

  

     

 

  

 

   

             

 

     

 

    

 

 

       

 

 

                         

 

  

v . It is into the page of thefig re.This direction does not change ith time.Th s, l remains the same in magnit de anddirection and is therefore conserved. Is thereany external tor e on the particle? " 7.8EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY We are no going to concentrate on the motionof rigid bodies rather than on the motion of general systems of particles.We shall recapit late hat effect theexternal forces have on a rigid body. (Henceforth e shall omit the adjective external beca se nless stated other ise, e shall deal ith only external forces and tor es.) The forces changethe translational state of the motion of the rigidbody, i.e. they change its total linear moment min accordance ith E . (7.17). B t this is not the only effect the forces have. The total tor eon the body may not vanish. S ch a tor echanges the rotational state of motion of therigid body, i.e. it changes the total ang lar moment m of the body in accordance ith E .(7.28 b).A rigid body is said to be in mechanicale ilibri m, if both its linear moment m andang lar moment m are not changing ith time,or e ivalently, the body has neither linear acceleration nor ang lar acceleration. Thismeans(1) the total force, i.e. the vector s m of theforces, on the rigid body is zero; 1 21 ... n n i i = + + + = = F F F F 0 (7.30a)If the total force on the body is zero, thenthe total linear moment m of the body doesnot change ith time. E . (7.30a) gives thecondition for the translational e ilibri mof the body.(2) The total tor e, i.e. the vector s m of thetor es on the rigid body is zero, 1 21 ... n n i i = + + + = = 0 (7.30b)If he o al orque on he rigid body is zero, he o al angular momen um of he body doesno change wi h ime. Eq. (7.30 b) gives hecondi ion for he ro a ional equilibrium of hebody.One may raise a ques ion, whe her hero a ional equilibrium condi ion [Eq. 7.30(b)]remains valid, if he origin wi h respec o which he orques are aken is shif ed. One can show ha if he ransla ional equilibrium condi ion[Eq. 7.30(a)] holds for a rigid body, hen such a shif of origin does no ma er, i.e. he ro a ionalequilibrium condi ion is independen of heloca ion of he origin abou which he orquesare aken. Example 7.7 gives a proof of hisresul in a special case of a couple, i.e. wo forcesac ing on a rigid body in ransla ionalequilibrium. The generalisa ion of his resul o n forces is lef as an exercise.Eq. (7.30a) and Eq. (7.30b), bo h, are vec or equa ions. They are equivalen o hree scalar equa ions each. Eq. (7.30a) corresponds o

 

 

    

 

 

  

  

 

 

 

  

   

   



 

  

 

 

 

 

   

o hree scalar equa ions

  

1 0 n ix i F = = , 1 0 n iy i F = = and 1 0 n iz i F = = (7.31a)where F ix , F iy and F iz are respec ively he x, y and z componen s of he forces F i . Similarly,Eq. (7.30b) is equivalen 1 0 n ix i = = , 1 0 n iy i = = and 1 0 n iz i

= = (7.31b)where ix , iy and iz are respec ively he x, y and z componen s of he orque i . SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 159 Eq. (7.31a) and (7.31b) give six independen condi ions o be sa isfied for mechanicalequilibrium of a rigid body. In a number of problems all he forces ac ing on he body arecoplanar. Then we need only hree condi ions o be sa isfied for mechanical equilibrium. Twoof hese condi ions correspond o ransla ionalequilibrium; he sum of he componen s of heforces along any wo perpendicular axes in heplane mus be zero. The hird condi ioncorresponds o ro a ional equilibrium. The sumof he componen s of he orques along any axisperpendicular o he plane of he forces mus be zero.The condi ions of equilibrium of a rigid body may be compared wi h hose for a par icle,which we considered in earlier chap ers. Sinceconsidera ion of ro a ional mo ion does no apply o a par icle, only he condi ions for ransla ional equilibrium (Eq. 7.30 a) apply oa par icle. Thus, for equilibrium of a par icle he vec or sum of all he forces on i mus bezero. Since all hese forces ac on he singlepar icle, hey mus be concurren . Equilibriumunder concurren forces was discussed in heearlier chap ers.A body may be in par ial equilibrium, i.e., i may be in ransla ional equilibrium and no inro a ional equilibrium, or i may be in ro a ionalequilibrium and no in ransla ionalequilibrium.Consider a ligh (i.e. of negligible mass) rod(AB), a he wo ends (A and B) of which woparallel forces bo h equal in magni ude areapplied perpendicular o he rod as shown inFig. 7.20(a). Fig. 7.20 (a) Le C be he midpoin of AB, CA = CB = a . he momen of he forces a A and B will bo hbe equal in magni ude ( aF ), bu opposi e insense as shown. The ne momen on he rodwill be zero. The sys em will be in ro a ionalequilibrium, bu i will no be in ransla ionalequilibrium; F 0 Fig. 7.20 (b) The force a B in Fig. 7.20(a) is reversed inFig. 7.20(b). Thus, we have he same rod wi h wo equal and opposi e forces appliedperpendicular o he rod, one a end A and heo her a end B. Here he momen s of bo h heforces are equal, bu hey are no opposi e; hey ac in he same

 

 

 

 

  

   

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

  

     

 

  

       

sense and cause an iclockwisero a ion of he rod. The o al force on he body is zero; so he body is in ransla ionalequilibrium; bu i is no in ro a ionalequilibrium. Al hough he rod is no fixed inany way, i undergoes pure ro a ion (i.e. ro a ionwi hou ransla ion).A pair of equal and opposi e forces wi hdifferen lines of ac ion is known as a couple . A couple produces ro a ion wi hou ransla ion.When we open he lid of a bo le by urningi , our fingers are applying a couple o he lid[Fig. 7.21(a)]. Ano her known example is a compass needle in he ear hs magne ic field asshown in he Fig. 7.21(b). The ear hs magne icfield exer s equal forces on he nor h and sou hpoles. The force on he Nor h Pole is owards he nor h, and he force on he Sou h Pole is oward he sou h. Excep when he needle poin sin he nor h-sou h direc ion; he wo forces dono have he same line of ac ion. Thus here isa couple ac ing on he needle due o he ear hsmagne ic field. Fig. 7.21(a) Our fingers apply a couple o urn he lid.

160 PHYSICS ! Fig. 7.21(b) The Ear hs magne ic field exer s equal and opposi e forces on he poles of a compass needle. These wo forces form a couple. Example 7.7 Show ha momen of a couple does no depend on he poin abou which you ake he momen s. Answer Fig. 7.22 Consider a couple as shown in Fig. 7.22ac ing on a rigid body. The forces F and F ac respec ively a poin s B and A. These poin s haveposi ion vec ors r 1 and r 2 wi h respec o originO. Le us ake he momen s of he forces abou he origin.The momen of he couple = sum of hemomen s of he wo forces making he couple= r 1 ( F) + r 2 F = r 2

  

 

 

 

  

   

  

   

 

 

     

   

 

 

        

   

 

 

 

 

 

        

 

   

   

 

    

F r 1 F = ( r 2 r 1 ) F Bu r 1 + AB = r 2 , and hence AB = r 2 r 1 .The momen of he couple, AB F. Clearly his is independen of he origin, hepoin abou which we ook he momen s of heforces. " 7.8.1Principle of momen s An ideal lever is essen ially a ligh (i.e. of negligible mass) rod pivo ed a a poin along i sleng h. This poin is called he fulcrum. A see-saw on he childrens playground is a ypicalexample of a lever. Two forces F 1 and F 2 , parallel o each o her and usually perpendicular o helever, as shown here, ac on he lever a dis ances d 1 and d 2

 

 

 

herefore, is

respec ively from hefulcrum as shown in Fig. 7.23. Fig. 7.23 The lever is a sys em in mechanicalequilibrium. Le R be he reac ion of he suppor a he fulcrum; R is direc ed opposi e o heforces F 1 and F 2 . For ransla ional equilibrium, R F 1 F 2 = 0 (i)For considering ro a ional equilibrium we ake he momen s abou he fulcrum; he sumof momen s mus be zero, d 1 F 1 d 2 F 2 = 0 (ii)Normally he an iclockwise (clockwise)momen s are aken o be posi ive (nega ive). No e R ac s a he fulcrum i self and has zero momen abou he fulcrum.In he case of he lever force F 1 is usually some weigh o be lif ed. I is called he load and i s dis ance from he fulcrum d 1 is called he load arm . Force F 2 is he effor applied o lif he load; dis ance d 2 of he effor from hefulcrum is he effor arm. Eq. (ii) can be wri en as d 1 F 1

 

 

  

  

  

 

 



 

 

  

 

  

= d 2 F 2 (7.32a)or load arm load = effor arm effor The above equa ion expresses he principleof momen s for a lever. Inciden ally he ra io F 1 / F 2 is called he Mechanical Advan age (M.A.);M.A. = 1 22 1 F d F d = (7.32b)If he effor arm d 2 is larger han he loadarm, he mechanical advan age is grea er hanone. Mechanical advan age grea er han onemeans ha a small effor can be used o lif a large load. There are several examples of a lever around you besides he see-saw. The beam of a balance is a lever. Try o find more such SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 161 examples and iden ify he fulcrum, he effor and effor arm, and he load and he load armof he lever in each case.You may easily show ha he principle of momen holds even when he parallel forces F 1 and F 2 are no perpendicular, bu ac a someangle, o he lever. 7.8.2Cen re of gravi y Many of you may have he experience of balancing your no ebook on he ip of a finger.Figure 7.24 illus ra es a similar experimen ha you can easily perform. Take an irregular-shaped cardboard and a narrow ipped objec like a pencil. You can loca e by rial and error a poin G on he cardboard where i can bebalanced on he ip of he pencil. (The cardboardremains horizon al in his posi ion.) This poin of balance is he cen re of gravi y (CG) of hecardboard. The ip of he pencil provides a ver ically upward force due o which hecardboard is in mechanical equilibrium. Asshown in he Fig. 7.24, he reac ion of he ip isequal and opposi e o M g , he o al weigh of (i.e., he force of gravi y on) he cardboard andhence he cardboard is in ransla ionalequilibrium. I is also in ro a ional equilibrium;if i were no so, due o he unbalanced orquei would il and fall. There are orques on hecard board due o he forces of gravi y like m 1

  

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

g , m 2 g . e c, ac ing on he individual par icles ha make up he cardboard. Fig. 7.24 Balancing a cardboard on he ip of a pencil. The poin of suppor , G , is he cen re of gravi y. The CG of he cardboard is so loca ed ha he o al orque on i due o he forces m 1 g , m 2 g . e c. is zero.If r i is he posi ion vec or of he i h par icleof an ex ended body wi h respec o i s CG, hen he orque abou he CG, due o he force of gravi y on he par icle is i = r i m i g . The o algravi a ional orque abou he CG is zero, i.e. g i i i m = = = r g 0 (7.33)We may herefore, define he CG of a body as ha poin where he o al gravi a ional orqueon he body is zero.We no ice ha in Eq. (7.33), g is he samefor all par icles, and hence i comes ou of hesumma ion. This gives, since g is nonzero, i i m r = 0

     

 

 

    

  

 

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

. Remember ha he posi ion vec ors( r i ) are aken wi h respec o he CG. Now, inaccordance wi h he reasoning given below Eq. (7.4a) in Sec. 7.2, if he sum is zero, heorigin mus be he cen re of mass of he body.Thus, he cen re of gravi y of he body coincideswi h he cen re of mass. We no e ha his is rue because he body being small, g does no Fig. 7.25 De ermining he cen re of gravi y of a body of irregular shape. The cen re of gravi y G lies on he ver ical AA 1 hrough he poin of suspension of he body A.

162 PHYSICS !! vary from one poin of he body o he o her. If he body is so ex ended ha g varies from par o par of he body, hen he cen re of gravi y and cen re of mass will no coincide. Basically, he wo are differen concep s. The cen re of mass has no hing o do wi h gravi y. I dependsonly on he dis ribu ion of mass of he body.In Sec. 7.2 we found ou he posi ion of hecen re of mass of several regular, homogeneousobjec s. Obviously he me hod used here givesus also he cen re of gravi y of hese bodies, if hey are small enough.Figure 7.25 illus ra es ano her way of de ermining he CG of an regular shaped body like a cardboard. If you suspend he body fromsome poin like A, he ver ical line hrough A passes hrough he CG. We mark he ver icalAA 1 . We hen suspend he body hrough o her poin s like B and C. The in ersec ion of hever icals gives he CG. Explain why he me hodworks. Since he body is small enough, heme hod allows us o de ermine also i s cen reof mass. Example 7.8 A me al bar 70 cm longand 4.00 kg in mass suppor ed on woknife-edges placed 10 cm from each end.A 6.00 kg weigh is suspended a 30 cmfrom one end. Find he reac ions a heknife-edges. (Assume he bar o be of uniform cross sec ion and homogeneous.) Answer Fig. 7.26 Figure 7.26 shows he rod AB, he posi ionsof he knife edges K 1 and K 2 , he cen re of gravi y of he rod a G and he suspended weigh a P.No e he weigh of he rod W ac s a i scen re of gravi y G. The rod is uniform in crosssec ion and homogeneous; hence G is a hecen re of he rod; AB = 70 cm. AG = 35 cm, AP= 30 cm, PG = 5 cm, AK 1 = BK 2 = 10 cm and K 1 G= K 2 G = 25 cm. Also, W

 

 

          

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

            

  

 

 

              

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

   

W 1 W = 0 (i)No e W 1 and W ac ver ically down and R 1 and R 2 ac ver ically up.For considering of he forces. A convenien poin momen s of R 2 and W 1 are an iclockwise (+ve), whereas 1 is clockwise (-ve).For ro a ional R 1 (K 1 G) + W 1 (PG) + R 2 (K 2 G) = 0 (ii)I is given ha W = 4.00 g N and W 1 = 6.00 g N, where

ro a ional equilibrium, we ake momen s o ake momen s abou is G. The

hemomen

of R

equilibrium,

  

= weigh of he rod =4.00 kg and W 1 = suspended weigh = 6.00 kg; R 1 and R 2 are he normal reac ions of hesuppor a ransla ional equilibrium of he rod, R 1 +R 2

    

 

 

   

he knife edges.For

 

g = accelera ion due o gravi y. We ake g = 9.8 m/s 2 .Wi h numerical values inser ed, from (i) R 1 + R 2 4.00 g 6.00 g = 0or R 1 + R 2 = 10.00 g N (iii)= 98.00 NFrom (ii) 0.25 R 1 + 0.05 W 1 + 0.25 R 2 = 0or R 2 R 1 = 1.2 g N = 11.76 N (iv)From (iii) and (iv), R 1 = 54.88 N, R 2 = 43.12 NThus he reac ions of he suppor are abou 55 N a K 1 and 43 N a K 2 . ##" Example 7.9 A 3m long ladder weighing20 kg leans on a fric ionless wall. I s fee res on he floor 1 m from he wall as shownin Fig.7.27. Find he reac ion forces of hewall and he floor. Answer Fig. 7.27 The ladder AB is 3 m long, i s foo A is a dis ance AC = 1 m from he wall. From

 

 

 

 

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 163 Py hagoras heorem, BC =2 2m. The forceson he ladder are i s weigh W ac ing a i s cen reof gravi y D, reac ion forces F 1 and F 2 of he walland he floor respec ively. Force F 1 isperpendicular o he wall, since he wall isfric ionless. Force F 2 is resolved in o wocomponen s, he normal reac ion N and heforce of fric ion F. No e ha F preven s he ladder from sliding away from he wall and is hereforedirec ed oward he wall.For ransla ional equilibrium, aking heforces in he ver ical direc ion, N W = 0 (i)Taking he forces in he horizon al direc ion, F F 1 = 0 (ii)For ro a ional equilibrium, aking hemomen s of he forces abou A, 1 2 2 F (1/2) W = 0 (iii)Now W = 20 g = 20 9.8 N = 196.0 NFrom (i) N = 196.0From (iii) 1 4 2 196.0/4 2 34.6N F W = = = From (ii) 1 34.6N F F = = 2 22 199.0 F F N = + = NThe force F

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

2 makes a a gle with thehorizont l, 1 t n 4 2 , t n (4 2) 80 N F = = = o #" 7.9MOMENT OF INERTIA We h ve lre dy mentioned th t we redeveloping the study of rot tion l motionp r llel to the study of tr nsl tion l motion withwhich we re f mili r. We h ve yet to nswer one m jor question in this connection. Wh t isthe n logue of m ss in rot tion l motion? We sh ll ttempt to nswer this question in thepresent section. To keep the discussion simple,we sh ll consider rot tion bout fixed xisonly. Let us try to get n expression for the kinetic energy of rot ting body . We know th t for body rot ting bout fixed xis, e chp rticle of the body moves in circle with line r velocity given by Eq. (7.19). (Refer to Fig. 7.16).For p rticle t dist nce from the xis, theline r velocity is i i r = . The kinetic energy of motion of this particle is 2 2 2 1 12 2 i i i i i k m m r = = here m i is the mass of the particle. The totalkinetic energy K of the body is then given by the s m of the kinetic energies of individ alparticles, 2 21 1 1( )2 n n i i i i i K k m r = = = = Here n is the n mber of particles in the body.Note

   

is the same for all particles. Hence, taking o t of the s m, 2 21 1( )2 n i i i K m r = = We define a ne parameter characterisingthe rigid body, called the moment of inertia I ,given by 21 n i i i I m r = = (7.34)With this definition, 2 12 K I = (7.35)Note that the parameter I is independent of the magnit de of the ang lar velocity. It is a characteristic of the rigid body and the axisabo t hich it rotates.Compare E . (7.35) for the kinetic energy of a rotating body ith the expression for thekinetic energy of a body in linear (translational)motion, 2 12 K m = Here m is the mass of the body and v is itsvelocity. We have already noted the analogy bet een ang lar velocity (in respect of rotationalmotion abo t a fixed axis) and linear velocity v (inrespect of linear motion). It is then evident that the parameter, moment of inertia I , is the desiredrotational analog e of mass. In rotation (abo t a fixed axis), the moment of inertia plays a similar role as mass does in linear motion.We no apply the definition E . (7.34), tocalc late the moment of inertia in t o simplecases.(a) Consider a thin ring of radi s R and mass M , rotating in its o n plane aro nd its

 

 

164 PHYSICS centre ith ang lar velocity . Each masselement of the ring is at a distance R fromthe axis, and moves ith a speed R . Thekinetic energy is therefore, 2 2 2 1 12 2 K M MR = = Comparing ith E . (7.35) e get I = MR 2 for the ring. Fig. 7.28 A light rod of length l ith a pair of masses rotating abo t an axis thro gh the centre of mass of the system and perpendic lar to the rod. The total mass of the system is M. (b) Next, take a rigid massless rod of length l ith a pair of small masses, rotating abo t an axis thro gh the centre of massperpendic lar to the rod (Fig. 7.28). Eachmass M /2 is at a distance l /2 from the axis.The moment of inertia of the masses istherefore given by ( M /2) ( l /2) 2 + ( M /2)( l /2) 2 Th s, for the pair of masses, rotating abo t the axis thro gh the centre of massperpendic lar to the rod I = Ml 2 / 4Table 7.1 gives the moment of inertia of vario sfamiliar reg lar shaped solids abo t specificaxes.As the mass of a body resists a change inits state of linear motion, it is a meas re of itsinertia in linear motion. Similarly, as themoment of inertia abo t a given axis of rotationresists a change in its rotational motion, it canbe regarded as a meas re of rotational inertia of the body; it is a meas re of the ay in hichdifferent parts of the body are distrib ted at different distances from the axis. Unlike themass of a body, the moment of inertia is not a fixed antity b t depends on the orientationand position of the axis of rotation ith respect to the body as a hole. As a meas re of the ay in hich the mass of a rotating rigid body isdistrib ted ith respect to the axis of rotation, e can define a ne parameter, the radi s of gyration

 

 

 

 

. It is related to the moment of inertia and the total mass of the body.Notice from the Table 7.1 that in all cases, e can rite I = Mk 2 , here k has the dimensionof length. For a rod, abo t the perpendic lar axis at its midpoint, i.e. 2 2 12, k L = 2 12 k L = . Similarly, k = R /2 for the circ lar disc abo t its diameter. The length k is a geometric property of the body and axis of rotation. It is called the radi s of gyration . Theradi s of gyration of a body abo t an axis may be defined as the distance from the axis of a mass point hose mass is e al to the massof the hole body and hose moment of inertia is e al to the moment of inertia of the body abo t the axis.Th s, the moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on the mass of the body, its shape andsize; distrib tion of mass abo t the axis of rotation, and the position and orientation of theaxis of rotation.From the definition, E . (7.34), e can infer that the dimensions of moments of inertia eML 2 and its SI nits are kg m 2 .The property of this extremely important antity I as a meas re of rotational inertia of the body has been p t to a great practical se.The machines, s ch as steam engine and thea tomobile engine, etc., that prod ce rotationalmotion have a disc ith a large moment of inertia, called a fly heel . Beca se of its largemoment of inertia, the fly heel resists thes dden increase or decrease of the speed of thevehicle. It allo s a grad al change in the speedand prevents jerky motions, thereby ens ringa smooth ride for the passengers on the vehicle. 7.10THEOREMS OF PERPENDICULAR ANDPARALLEL AXES These are t o sef l theorems relating tomoment of inertia. We shall first disc ss thetheorem of perpendic lar axes and its simpleyet instr ctive application in orking o t themoments of inertia of some reg lar-shapedbodies. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 165 Table 7.1Moments of Inertia of some reg lar shaped bodies abo t specific axes Z Body Axis Fig re I

  

 

 

  

(1) Thin circ lar Perpendic lar to M R 2 ring, radi s R plane, at centre(2) Thin circ lar Diameter M R 2 /2 ring, radi s R (3) Thin rod, Perpendic lar to M L 2 /12 length L rod, at mid point (4) Circ lar disc, Perpendic lar to M R 2 /2 radi s R disc at centre(5) Circ lar disc, Diameter M R 2 /4 radi s R (6) Hollo cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R 2 radi s R (7) Solid cylinder, Axis of cylinder M R 2 /2 radi s R (8) Solid sphere, Diameter 2 M R 2 /5 radi s R Theorem of perpendic lar axes This theorem is applicable to bodies hich areplanar. In practice this means the theoremapplies to flat bodies hose thickness is very small compared to their other dimensions (e.g.length, breadth or radi s). Fig. 7.29 ill stratesthe theorem. It states that the moment of inertia of a planar body (lamina) abo t an axisperpendic lar to its plane is e al to the s mof its moments of inertia abo t t operpendic lar axes conc rrent ithperpendic lar axis and lying in the plane of the body. 166 PHYSICS ! Fig. 7.29 Theorem of perpendic lar axes applicable to a planar body; x and y

 

 

 

    

axes are t o perpendic lar axes in the plane and the z-axis is perpendic lar to the plane. The fig re sho s a planar body. An axisperpendic lar to the body thro gh a point O istaken as the z -axis. T o m t ally perpendic lar axes lying in the plane of the body andconc rrent ith z -axis, i.e. passing thro gh O,are taken as the x and y -axes. The theoremstates that z x y I I I = + (7.36)Let s look at the sef lness of the theoremthro gh an example. Example 7.10 What is the moment of inertia of a disc abo t one of its diameters? Fig. 7.30 M.I. of a disc abo t a diameter, given its M.I. abo t the perpendic lar axis thro gh its centre. Ans er We ass me the moment of inertia of the disc abo t an axis perpendic lar to it andthro gh its centre to be kno n; it is MR 2 /2, here M is the mass of the disc and R is itsradi s (Table 7.1)The disc can be considered to be a planar body. Hence the theorem of perpendic lar axesis applicable to it. As sho n in Fig. 7.30, etake three conc rrent axes thro gh the centreof the disc, O as the x,y,z axes; x and y -axes liein the plane of the disc and z is perpendic lar to it. By the theorem of perpendic lar axes, z x y I I I = + No , x and y axes are along t o diametersof the disc, and by symmetry the moment of inertia of the disc is the same abo t any diameter. Hence I x = I y and I z

  

  

 

 

 

= 2 I x B t I z = MR 2 /2So finally, I x = I z /2 = MR 2 /4Th s the moment of inertia of a disc abo t any of its diameter is MR 2 /4 . ##" Find similarly the moment of inertia of a ring abo t any of its diameter. Will the theorembe applicable to a solid cylinder? Fig.7.31 The theorem of parallel axes The z and z axes are t o parallel axes separated by a distance a; O is the centre of mass of the body, OO = a. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 167 !! 7.10.1Theorem of parallel axes This theorem is applicable to a body of any shape. It allo s to find the moment of inertia of a body abo t any axis, given the moment of inertia of the body abo t a parallel axis thro ghthe centre of mass of the body. We shall only state this theorem and not give its proof. Weshall, ho ever, apply it to a fe simple sit ations hich ill be eno gh to convince s abo t the sef lness of the theorem. The theorem may be stated as follo s: The moment of inertia of a body abo t anyaxis is e al to the s m of the moment of inertia of the body abo t a parallel axis passingthro gh its centre of mass and the prod ct of its mass and the s are of the distancebet een the t o parallel axes. As sho n inthe Fig. 7.31, z and z are t o parallel axesseparated by a distance a . The z -axis passesthro gh the centre of mass O of the rigid body.Then according to the theorem of parallel axes I z

 

 

 

 = I z + Ma 2 (7.37) here I z and I z are the moments of inertia of thebody abo z and z axes respectively, M is thetotal mass of the body and a is the perpendic lar distance bet een the Example 7.11 What is the moment of inertia of a rod of M, length l abo t an axis perpendic lar to it thro gh Ans er For the rod of mass M and length l , I = Ml 2 /12. Using the parallel axes theorem, I = I + Ma 2 ith a = l/2 e get, 22 2 12 2 3 l l Ml I M M

t o parallel axes. mass

oneend?

t the

 

 

 = + = We can check this independently since I ishalf the moment of inertia of a rod of mass 2 M and length 2 l abo t its midpoint, 2 2 4 12 .12 2 3 l Ml I M = = " Example 7.12 What is the moment of inertia of a ring abo t a tangent to thecircle of the ring? Ans er The tangent to the ring in the plane of the ringis parallel to one of the diameters of the ring.The distance bet een these t o parallel axes is R , the radi s of the ring. Using the parallel axestheorem, Fig. 7.32 22 2 2tangent 32 2 dia MR I I MR MR MR = + = + = . #" 7.11KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTIONABOUT A FIXED AXIS We have already indicated the analogy bet eenrotational motion and translational motion. For example, the ang lar velocity plays the samerole in rotation as the linear velocity v intranslation. We ish to take this analogy f rther. In doing so e shall restrict thedisc ssion only to rotation abo t fixed axis. Thiscase of motion involves only one degree of freedom, i.e., needs only one independent variable to describe the motion. This intranslation corresponds to linear motion. Thissection is limited only to kinematics. We shallt rn to dynamics in later sections.We recall that for specifying the ang lar displacement of the rotating body e take any particle like P (Fig.7.33) of the body. Its ang lar displacement in the plane it moves is theang lar displacement of the hole body; ismeas red from a fixed direction in the plane of motion of P, hich e take to be the x - axis,chosen parallel to the x -axis. Note, as sho n,the axis of rotation is the z axis and the planeof the motion of the particle is the

 

x y plane.Fig. 7.33 also sho s 0 , the ang lar displacement at t = 0.We also recall that the ang lar velocity isthe time rate of change of ang lar displacement, = d /d t . Note since the axis of rotation is 168 PHYSICS !! fixed, there is no need to treat ang lar velocity as a vector. F rther, the ang lar acceleration, = d /d t .The kinematical antities in rotationalmotion, ang lar displacement ( ), ang lar velocity ( ) and ang lar acceleration ( )respectively correspond to kinem tic qu ntitiesin line r motion, displ cement ( x ), velocity ( v ) nd cceler tion ( ). We know the kinem tic lequ tions of line r motion with uniform (i.e.const nt) cceler tion: v = v 0 + t ( ) 20 0 12 x x t t = + + (b) 2 20 2 ax = + (c) here

 

 

x 0 = initial displacement and v 0 = initialvelocity. The ord initial refers to val es of the antities at t = 0The corresponding kinematic e ations for rotational motion ith niform ang lar acceleration are: 0 = + t (7.38) 20 0 12 t t = + + (7.39) nd 2 20 0 2 ( ) = + (7.40) here 0 = initial ang lar displacement of therotating body, and 0 = initial ang lar velocity of the body. Fig.7.33 Specifying the ang lar position of a rigid body. Example 7.13 Obtain E . (7.38) from first principles. Ans er The ang lar acceleration is niform,hencedd constant t = = (i)Integr ting this equ tion, d t c = +

( s is const nt) t c = + At t = 0 , = 0 (given)From (i) e get at t = 0,

 = c = 0 Th s, = t + 0 as re ired.With the definition of = d /d t e may integrate E . (7.38) to get E . (7.39). Thisderivation and the derivation of E . (7.40) isleft as an exercise. Example 7.14 The ang lar speed of a motor heel is increased from 1200 rpmto 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. (i) What is itsang lar acceleration, ass ming theacceleration to be niform? (ii) Ho many revol tions does the engine make d ringthis time? Ans er (i) We shall se = 0 + t 0 = initial ang lar speed in rad/s= 2 a gular s eed i rev/s= 2 a gular s eed i rev/mi 60 s/mi =2 1200rad/s60 = 40 rad/sSimilarly = final ang lar speed in rad/s=2 3120rad/s60 = 2

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 169 The a gular acceleratio of the e gi e =4 rad/s 2 (ii) The a gular dis laceme t i time t isgive by 20 12 t t = + 2 1(40 16 4 16 )2 = + rad (640 512 ) = + rad= 1152 radNumber of revolutio s =11525762 = ###" 7.12DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTIONABOUT A FIXED AXIS Table 7.2 lists qua tities associated with li ear motio a d their a alogues i rotatio al motio .We have already com ared ki ematics of thetwo motio s. Also, we k ow that i rotatio almotio mome t of i ertia a d torque lay thesame role as mass a d force res ectively i li ear motio . Give this we should be able toguess what the other a alogues i dicated i thetable are. For exam le, we k ow that i li ear motio , work do e is give by F dx , i rotatio almotio about a fixed axis it should be

           

 

 

52 rad/s= 104 rad/s A gular acceleratio 0 t = = 4 rad/s 2

 

   

d ,since e already kno the correspondence d d x and F . I is, however, necessary ha hese correspondences are es ablished onsound dynamical considera ions. This is wha we now urn o.Before we begin, we no e a simplifica ion ha arises in he case of ro a ional mo ionabou a fixed axis . Since he axis is fixed, only hose componen s of orques, which are along he direc ion of he fixed axis need o beconsidered in our discussion. Only hesecomponen s can cause he body o ro a e abou he axis. A componen of he orqueperpendicular o he axis of ro a ion will end o urn he axis from i s posi ion. We specifically assume ha here will arise necessary forces of cons rain o cancel he effec of heperpendicular componen s of he (ex ernal) orques, so ha he fixed posi ion of he axiswill be main ained. The perpendicular componen s of he orques, herefore need no be aken in o accoun . This means ha for our calcula ion of orques on a rigid body:(1) We need o consider only hose forces ha lie in planes perpendicular o he axis.Forces which are parallel o he axis willgive orques perpendicular o he axis andneed no be aken in o accoun .(2) We need o consider only hose componen sof he posi ion vec ors which areperpendicular o he axis. Componen s of posi ion vec ors along he axis will resul in orques perpendicular o he axis and needno be aken in o accoun . Work done by a orque Fig. 7.34 Work done by a force F 1

ac ing on a par icle of a body ro a ing abou a fixed axis; he par icle describes a circular pa h wi h cen re C on he axis; arc P 1 P 1 ( d s 1 ) gives he displacemen of he par icle. Figure 7.34 shows a cross-sec ion of a rigidbody ro a ing abou a fixed axis, which is akenas he z -axis (perpendicular o he plane of hepage; see Fig. 7.33). As said above we need oconsider only hose forces which lie in planesperpendicular o he axis. Le F 1 be one such ypical force ac ing as shown on a par icle of he body a

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

              

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

   

plane (coinciden wi h he plane of he page). The par icle a P 1 describes a circular pa h of radius r 1 wi h cen reC on he axis; CP 1 = r 1 . In ime t , the point moves to the positionP 1 . The displacement of the particle d s 1 ,therefore, has magnitude d s 1 = r 1 d anddirection tangential at P 1 to the circ lar pathas sho n. Here d is the ang lar displacement of the particle, d = 1 1 PCP .The ork done by the force on the particle isd W 1 = F 1 . d s 1 = F 1

 

poin P 1 wi h i s line of ac ion in a plane perpendicular o conveniencewe call his o be he x y

 

 

he axis. For

d s 1 cos 1 = F 1 ( r 1 d )sin 1 where 1 is the angle between F 1 and the tangent 170 PHYSICS at P 1, and 1 is the ngle between F 1 nd ther dius vector OP 1 ; 1 + 1 = 90 .The torque due to F 1 bout the origin is OP 1 F 1 . Now OP 1 =

OC + OP 1 . [Refer toFig. 7.17(b).] Since OC is long the xis, thetorque resulting from it is excluded from our consider tion. The effective torque due to F 1 is 1 = CP F 1 ; i is direc ed along 1 = r 1 F 1 sin

he axis of ro a ionand has a magni ude

, Therefore,d W 1 = 1 d If there are more than one forces acting onthe body, the ork done by all of them can beadded to give the total ork done on the body.Denoting the magnit des of the tor es d e tothe different forces as 1 , 2 , e c, 1 2 d ( ...)d W = + + Remember, the forces giving rise to thetor es act on different particles, b t theang lar displacement d is the same for allparticles. Since all the tor es considered areparallel to the fixed axis, the magnit de

 

of he o al orque is jus orques, i.e., = 1 +

he algebraic sum of hemagni udes of he

2 + .....We, herefore, have d d W = (7.41)This expression gives the ork done by thetotal (external) tor e which ac s on he body ro a ing abou a fixed axis. I s similari y wi h he corresponding expressiond W= F d s for linear ( ransla ional) mo ion is obvious.Dividing bo h sides of Eq. (7.41) by d

givesd dd d W P = = = or P = (7.42)This is the instantaneo s po er. Comparethis expression for po er in the case of rotational motion abo t a fixed axis ith theexpression for po er in the case of linear motion, P = Fv In a perfectly rigid body there is no internalmotion. The ork done by external tor es istherefore, not dissipated and goes on to increasethe kinetic energy of the body. The rate at hich ork is done on the body is given by E . (7.42).This is to be e ated to the rate at hich kineticenergy increases. The rate of increase of kineticenergy is 2 d (2 ) dd 2 2 d I I t t = We ass me that the moment of inertia doesnot change ith time. This means that the massof the body does not change, the body remainsrigid and also the axis does not change itsposition ith respect to the body.Since d /d , t = e get 2 dd 2

 

   

       

 

  

I I t = Equ ting r tes of work done nd of incre sein kinetic energy, I = T ble 7.2 Comp rison of Tr nsl tion l nd Rot tion l Motion Line r Motion Rot tion l Motion bout Fixed Axis 1 Displ cement x Angul r displ cement 2 Velocity v = d x /d t Ang lar velocity = d /d t 3 Acceleration a = d v /d t Ang lar acceleration = d / d t 4 Mass M Moment of inertia I 5 Force F = Ma Tor e = I 6 Work dW = F d

s Work W = d 7 Kinetic energy K = Mv 2 /2 Kinetic energy K = I 2 /28 Po er P = F v Po er P = 9 Linear moment m p = Mv Ang lar moment m L = I SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 171 ! I = (7.43)Eq. (7.43) is simil r to Newtons second l w for line r motion expressed symbolic lly s F = m Just s force produces cceler tion, torqueproduces ngul r cceler tion in body. The ngul r cceler tion is directly proportion l tothe pplied torque nd is inversely proportion lto the moment of inerti of the body. Eq.(7.43)c n be c lled Newtons second l w for rot tion bout fixed xis. Ex mple 7.15 A cord of negligible m ssis wound round the rim of fly wheel of m ss 20 kg nd r dius 20 cm. A ste dy pull of 25 N is pplied on the cord s shownin Fig. 7.35. The flywheel is mounted on horizont l xle with frictionless be rings.( ) Compute the ngul r cceler tion of the wheel.(b) Find the work done by the pull, when2m of the cord is unwound.(c) Find lso the kinetic energy of thewheel t this point. Assume th t thewheel st rts from rest.(d) Comp re nswers to p rts (b)

nd (c). Answer Fig. 7.35 ( ) We use I = he orque = F R = 25 0.20 Nm (as R = 0.20m)= 5.0 Nm I = M. I. of flywheel abou i s axis 2 2 MR = = 2 20.0 (0.2)2 = 0.4 kg m 2 = ngul r cceler tion= 5.0 N m/0.4 kg m 2 = 12.35 s 2 (b) Work done by the pull unwinding 2m of thecord= 25 N 2m = 50 J(c) Let be the final ang lar velocity. Thekinetic energy gained = 2 12 I ,since the heel starts from rest. No , 2 20 0 2 , 0 = + = The ang lar displacement = length of n o nd string / radi s of heel= 2m/0.2 m = 10 rad 2 2 2 12.5 10.0 250(rad/s) = = J 1. . gained 0.4 250 502 K E

 

  

= = (d) The ans ers are the same, i.e. the kineticenergy gained by the heel = ork doneby the force. There is no loss of energy d eto friction. ##" 7.13ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN CASE OFROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS We have st died in section 7.7, the ang lar moment m of a system of particles. We already kno from there that the time rate of totalang lar moment m of a system of particlesabo t a point is e al to the total external tor eon the system taken abo t the same point.When the total external tor e is zero, the totalang lar moment m of the system is conserved.We no ish to st dy the ang lar moment m in the special case of rotation abo t a fixed axis. The general expression for the totalang lar moment m of the system is 1 N i i i = = L r p (7.25b)We first consider the ang lar moment m of a typical particle of the rotating rigid body. Wethen s m p the contrib tions of individ alparticles to get L of the hole body.For a typical particle l = r p . As seen inthe last section r = OP = OC + CP [Fig. 7.17(b)]. 172 PHYSICS With p = m v , ()() m m = + l OC v CP v The magnit de of the linear velocity v of theparticle at P is given by

 

  

  

  

 

 

v = r here r is thelength of CP or the perpendic lar distance of Pfrom the axis of rotation. F rther, v is tangentialat P to the circle hich the particle describes.Using the right-hand r le one can check that CP

v isperpendic lar to the fixed axis. Let s denotethe part of l along the fixed axis (i.e. the z -axis)by l z , then z m = l CP v =

v is parallel to the fixed axis. The (chosen as the z -axis)is k . Hence () m r mv = CP v k = 2 mr k (since v r = )Similarly, e can check that OC

nit vector along the fixed axis

2 mr k and z m = + l l OC v We note that l z is parallel to the fixed axis,b t l is not. In general, for a particle, the ang lar moment m l is not along the axis of rotation,i.e. for a particle, l and are not necessarily parallel. Compare this ith the correspondingfact in translation. For a particle, p and v areal ays parallel to each other.For comp ting the total ang lar moment mof the hole rigid body, e add p thecontrib tion of each particle of the body.Th s i iz i i i l m = = + L l OC v We denote by L and z L the componentsof L respectively perpendic lar to the z -axisand along the z -axis; i i i m = L OC v (7.44a) here m i

 

 

 

and v i are respectively the mass andthe velocity of the i th particle and C i is the centreof the circle described by the particle;and 2 z iz i i i m r = = L l k or z I = L k (7.44b)The last step follo s since the perpendic lar distance of the i th particle from the axis is r i ;and by definition the moment of inertia of thebody abo t the axis of rotation is 2 i i I m r = .Note z = + L L L (7.44c)The rigid bodies hich e have mainly considered in this chapter are symmetric abo t the axis of rotation, i.e. the axis of rotation isone of their symmetry axes. For s ch bodies,for a given OC i , for every particle hich has a velocity v i , there is another particle of velocity v i located diametrically opposite on the circle ith centre C i described by the particle. Together s ch pairs ill contrib te zero to L and as a res lt for symmetric bodies

hich are not symmetric abo t the axis of rotation,

= L k No , E . (7.28b) statesdd t = L As we have seen in he las sec ion, only hose componen s of he ex ernal orques whichare along he axis of ro a ion, need o be akenin o accoun , when we discuss ro a ion abou a fixed axis. This means we can ake = k .Since z = + L L L and he direc ion of L z (vec or k ) is fixed, i follows ha for ro a ion abou a fixed axis,

andhence L does not lie along the axis of rotation.Referring to table 7.1, can yo tell in hichcases L = L z ill not apply?Let s differentiate E . (7.44b). Since k is a fixed (constant) vector, e get ()() d dd d z I t t

  

 

 

 

 

  

L is zero, andhence z I = = L L k (7.44d)For bodies, L is not e al to L z

  

 

dd z

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 173 If he momen of iner ia I does no change wi h ime, () d dd d I I I = = nd we get from Eq. (7.45c), I = (7.43)We h ve lre dy derived this equ tion usingthe work kinetic energy route. 7.13.1Conserv tion of ngul r momentum We re now in position to revisit the principleof conserv tion of ngul r momentum in thecontext of rot tion bout fixed xis. From Eq.(7.45c), if the extern l torque is zero, L z = I = constant (7.46)For symmetric bodies, from E . (7.44d), L z may be replaced by L . ( L and L z

 

   

 

 

 

= L k (7.45a)andd0d

= L (7.45b)Thus, for ro a ion abou a fixed axis, hecomponen of angular momen umperpendicular o he fixed axis is cons an . As z I = L k , e get from E . (7.45a), () dd I t = (7.45c)

are respectively the magnit des of L and L z .)This then is the re ired form, for fixed axisrotation, of E . (7.29a), hich expresses thegeneral la of conservation of ang lar moment m of a system of particles. E . (7.46)applies to many sit ations that e come acrossin daily life. Yo may do this experiment ithyo r friend. Sit on a s ivel chair ith yo r arms folded and feet not resting on, i.e., a ay from, the gro nd. Ask yo r friend to rotate thechair rapidly. While the chair is rotating ithconsiderable ang lar speed stretch yo r armshorizontally. What happens? Yo r ang lar speed is red ced. If yo bring back yo r armscloser to yo r body, the ang lar speed increasesagain. This is a sit ation here the principleof conservation of ang lar moment m isapplicable. If friction in the rotationalmechanism is neglected, there is no externaltor e abo t the axis of rotation of the chair and hence I is constant. Stretching the armsincreases I abo t the axis of rotation, res ltingin decreasing the ang lar speed . Bringingthe arms closer to the body has the oppositeeffect.A circ s acrobat and a diver take advantageof this principle. Also, skaters and classical,Indian or estern, dancers performing a piro ette on the toes of one foot display masteryover this principle. Can yo explain? 7.14ROLLING MOTION One of the most common motions observed indaily life is the rolling motion. All heels sedin transportation have rolling motion. For specificness e shall begin ith the case of a disc, b t the res lt ill apply to any rolling body rolling on a level s rface. We shall ass me that the disc rolls itho t slipping. This means that at any instant of time the bottom of the disc hich is in contact ith the s rface is at rest on the s rface. Fig 7.36 (a) A demonstration of conservation of ang lar moment m. A girl sits on a s ivel chair and stretches her arms/brings her arms closer to the body. Fig 7.36 (b) An acrobat employing the principle of conservation of ang lar moment m in her performance. 174 PHYSICS We have remarked earlier that rolling motionis a combination of rotation and translation.We kno that the translational motion of a system of particles is the motion of its centre of mass. Fig. 7.37 The rolling motion ( itho t slipping) of a disc on a level s rface. Note at any instant,the point of contact P 0 of the disc ith the s rface is at rest; the centre of mass of the disc moves ith velocity, v cm . The disc rotates ith ang lar velocity abo t its axis hich passes thro gh C; v cm =R , here R is the radi s of the disc.

 

    

  

 

 

 

     

 

Let v cm be the velocity of the centre of massand therefore the translational velocity of thedisc. Since the centre of mass of the rolling discis at its geometric centre C (Fig. 7. 37), v cm isthe velocity of C. It is parallel to the levels rface. The rotational motion of the disc isabo t its symmetry axis, hich passes thro ghC. Th s, the velocity of any point of the disc,like P 0 , P 1 or P 2 , consists of t o parts, one is thetranslational velocity v cm and the other is thelinear velocity v r on acco nt of rotation. Themagnit de of v r is v r = r , here is the ang lar velocity of the rotation of the disc abo t the axisand r is the distance of the point from the axis(i.e. from C). The velocity v r is directedperpendic lar to the radi s vector of the givenpoint ith respect to C. In Fig. 7.37, the velocity of the point P 2 ( v 2 ) and its components v r and v cm are sho n; v r here is perpendic lar to CP 2 .It is easy to sho that v z is perpendic lar to theline P O

 

P 2 . Therefore the line passing thro gh P O and parallel to is called the instantaneo saxis of rotation.At P o , the linear velocity, v r , d e to rotationis directed exactly opposite to the translationalvelocity v cm . F rther the magnit de of v r here is R , here R is the radi s of the disc. Thecondition that P o is instantaneo sly at rest re ires v cm = R . Th s for the disc the conditionfor rolling itho t slipping is(7.47)Incidentally, this means that the velocity of point P 1 at the top of the disc ( v 1 ) has a magnit de v cm + R or 2 v cm and is directedparallel to the level s rface. The condition (7.47)applies to all rolling bodies. 7.14.1Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion O r next task ill be to obtain an expressionfor the kinetic energy of a rolling body. Thekinetic energy of a rolling body can be separatedinto kinetic energy of translation and kineticenergy of rotation. This is a special case of a general res lt for a system of particles,according to hich the kinetic energy of a system of particles ( K ) can be separated intothe kinetic energy of motion of the centre of mass (translation) ( MV

 

2 /2) and kinetic energy of rotational motion abo t the centre of massof the system of particles ( K ). Th s, 2 /2 K K MV = + (7.48)We ass me this general res lt (see Exercise7.31), and apply it to the case of rolling motion.In o r notation, the kinetic energy of the centreof mass, i.e., the kinetic energy of translation,of the rolling body is mv 2 cm /2, here m is themass of the body and v cm is the centre of themass velocity. Since the motion of the rollingbody abo t the centre of mass is rotation, K represents the kinetic energy of rotation of thebody; 2 2 K I = , here I is the moment of inertia abo t the appropriate axis, hich is thesymmetry axis of the rolling body. The kineticenergy of a rolling body, therefore, is given by 2 2 1 12 2 cm K I m = + (7.49a)S bstit ting I = mk 2 here k = thecorresponding radi s of gyration of the body and v cm = R ,

 

= + , here v is thefinal velocity of (the centre of mass of) the body.E ating K and mgh , Fig.7.38 222 112 k mgh m R = + or 22 2 21

e get 2 222 1 12 2 cm cm mk K m R = + or 222 112 cm k K m R = +

(7.49b) SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 175 ! E ation (7.49b) applies to any rolling body:a disc, a cylinder, a ring or a sphere. Example 7.16 Three bodies, a ring, a solidcylinder and a solid sphere roll do n thesame inclined plane itho t slipping. They start from rest. The radii of the bodies areidentical. Which of the bodies reaches thegro nd ith maxim m velocity? Ans er We ass me conservation of energy of the rolling body, i.e. there is no loss of energy d e to friction etc. The potential energy lost by the body in rolling do n the inclined plane(= mgh ) m st, therefore, be e al to kineticenergy gained. (See Fig.7.38) Since the bodiesstart from rest the kinetic energy gained is e alto the final kinetic energy of the bodies. FromE . (7.49b), 222 112 k K m R

gh k R = + Note is independent of the mass of therolling body;For a ring, k 2 = R 2 21 1 ring gh =+ ,= gh For a solid cylinder k 2 = R 2 /221 1 2 disc gh =+ =43 gh For a solid sphere k 2 = 2 R 2 /521 2 5 sphere gh =+ =107 gh From the res lts obtained it is clear that amongthe three bodies the sphere has the greatest andthe ring has the least velocity of the centre of massat the bottom of the inclined plane.S ppose the bodies have the same mass. Whichbody has the greatest rotational kinetic energy hilereaching the bottom of the inclined plane? " SUMMARY 1. Ideally, a rigid body is one for hich the distances bet een different particles of thebody do not change, even tho gh there are forces on them.2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have only rotational motion. A rigidbody not fixed in some ay can have either p re translation or a combination of translation and rotation.3. In rotation abo t a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid body moves in a circle hichlies in a plane perpendic lar to the axis and has its

 

centre on the axis. Every Point inthe rotating rigid body has the same ang lar velocity at any instant of time.4. In p re translation, every particle of the body moves ith the same velocity at any instant of time.5. Ang lar velocity is a vector. Its magnit de is = d /dt and it is directed along the axisof rotation. For rotation abo t a fixed axis, this vector has a fixed direction. SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 177 15. Rotation abo t a fixed axis is directly analogo s to linear motion in respect of kinematicsand dynamics.16. The ang lar acceleration of a rigid body rotating abo t a fixed axis is given by I = . If he ex ernal orque is zero, he componen of angular momen um abou he fixed axis I of s ch a rotating body is constant.17. For rolling motion itho t slipping v cm = R , here v cm is the velocity of translation (i.e.of the centre of mass), R is the radi s and m is the mass of the body. The kinetic energy of s ch a rolling body is the s m of kinetic energies of translation and rotation: 2 2 1 12 2 cm K mv I = + . POINTS TO PONDER 1. To determine the motion of the centre of mass of a system no kno ledge of internalforces of the system is re ired. For this p rpose e need to kno only the externalforces on the body.2. Separating the motion of a system of particles as, i.e. the motion of the centre of masstransnational motion of the system and motion abo t (i.e. relative to) the centre of mass of the system is a sef l techni e in dynamics of a system of particles. Oneexample of this techni e is separating the kinetic energy of a system of particles K asthe kinetic energy of the system abo t its centre of mass K and the kinetic energy of the centre of mass

 

  

  

 

MV 2 /2, K = K + MV 2 /23. Ne tons Second La for finite sized bodies (or systems of particles) is based in Ne tonsSecond La and also Ne tons Third La for particles.4. To establish that the time rate of change of the total ang lar moment m of a system of particles is the total external tor e in the system, e need not only Ne tons secondla for particles, b t also Ne tons third la ith the provision that the forces bet eenany t o particle act along the line joining the particles.5. The vanishing of the total external force and the vanishing of the total external tor eare independent conditions. We can have one itho t the other. In a co ple, totalexternal force is zero b t total tor e is non-zero.6. The total tor e on a system is independent of the origin if the total external force iszero.7. The centre of gravity of a body coincides ith its centre of mass only if the gravitationalfield does not vary from one part of the body to the other.8. The ang lar moment m L and the ang lar velocity are not necessarily parallel vectors.Ho ever, for the simpler sit ations disc ssed in this chapter hen rotation is abo t a fixed axis hich is an axis of symmetry of the rigid body, the relation L = I holds good, here I is the moment of the inertia of the body abo t the rotation axis. 178 PHYSICS EXERCISES7.1 Give the location of the centre of mass of a (i) sphere, (ii) cylinder, (iii) ring, and (iv)c be, each of niform mass density. Does the centre of mass of a body necessarily lie inside the body ? 7.2 In the HC1 molec le, the separation bet een the n clei of the t o atoms is abo t 1.27 (1 = 10-10m). Find the approximate location of the CM of the molec le,given that a chlorine atom is abo t 35.5 times as massive as a hydrogen atom andnearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its n cle s. 7.3 A child sits stationary at one end of a long trolley moving niformly ith a speed V on a smooth horizontal floor. If the child gets p and r ns abo t on the trolley in any manner, hat is the speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system ? 7.4 Sho that the area of the triangle contained bet een the vectors a and b is one half of the magnit de of

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

a b . 7.5 Sho that a. ( b c ) is e al in magnit de to the vol me of the parallelepiped formedon the three vectors , a , b and c . 7.6 Find the components along the x, y, z axes of the ang lar moment m l of a particle, hose position vector is r ith components x , y , z and moment m is p ithcomponents p x , p y and p z . Sho that if the particle moves only in the x y plane theang lar moment m has only a z -component. 7.7 T o particles, each of mass m and speed v , travel in opposite directions along parallellines separated by a distance

 

d . Sho that the vector ang lar moment m of the t oparticle system is the same hatever be the point abo t hich the ang lar moment mis taken. 7.8 A non- niform bar of eight W is s spended at rest by t o strings of negligible eight as sho n in Fig.7.39. The angles made by the strings ith the vertical are36.9 and 53.1 respectively. The bar is 2 m long. Calc late the distance d of thecentre of gravity of the bar from its left end. Fig. 7.39 7.9 A car eighs 1800 kg. The distance bet een its front and back axles is 1.8 m. Itscentre of gravity is 1.05 m behind the front axle. Determine the force exerted by thelevel gro nd on each front heel and each back heel. 7.10 (a) Find the moment of inertia of a sphere abo t a tangent to the sphere, given themoment of inertia of the sphere abo t any of its diameters to be 2 MR 2 /5, here M is the mass of the sphere and R is the radi s of the sphere.(b) Given the moment of inertia of a disc of mass M and radi s R abo t any of itsdiameters to be MR 2 /4, find its moment of inertia abo t an axis normal to thedisc and passing thro gh a point on its edge.

SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 179 7.11 Tor es of e al magnit de are applied to a hollo cylinder and a solid sphere, bothhaving the same mass and radi s. The cylinder is free to rotate abo t its standardaxis of symmetry, and the sphere is free to rotate abo t an axis passing thro gh itscentre. Which of the t o ill ac ire a greater ang lar speed after a given time. 7.12 A solid cylinder of mass 20 kg rotates abo t its axis ith ang lar speed 100 rad s-1.The radi s of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic energy associated ith therotation of the cylinder? What is the magnit de of ang lar moment m of the cylinder abo t its axis? 7.13 (a) A child stands at the centre of a t rntable ith his t o arms o tstretched. Thet rntable is set rotating ith an ang lar speed of 40 rev/min. Ho m ch is theang lar speed of the child if he folds his hands back and thereby red ces hismoment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial val e ? Ass me that the t rntablerotates itho t friction.(b) Sho that the childs ne kinetic energy of rotation is more than the

 

 

  

   

 

 

 

  

 

 

initialkinetic energy of rotation. Ho do yo acco nt for this increase in kinetic energy? 7.14 A rope of negligible mass is o nd ro nd a hollo cylinder of mass 3 kg and radi s40 cm. What is the ang lar acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is p lled ith a force of 30 N ? What is the linear acceleration of the rope ? Ass me that there is noslipping. 7.15 To maintain a rotor at a niform ang lar speed or 200 rad s-1, an engine needs totransmit a tor e of 180 N m. What is the po er re ired by the engine ?(Note: niform ang lar velocity in the absence of friction implies zero tor e. Inpractice, applied tor e is needed to co nter frictional tor e). Ass me that theengine is 100% efficient. 7.16 From a niform disk of radi s R , a circ lar hole of radi s R /2 is c t o t. The centreof the hole is at R /2 from the centre of the original disc. Locate the centre of gravity of the res lting flat body. 7.17 A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When t o coins, each of mass5 g are p t one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is fo nd to bebalanced at 45.0 cm. What is the mass of the metre stick? 7.18 A solid sphere rolls do n t o different inclined planes of the same heights b t different angles of inclination. (a) Will it reach the bottom ith the same speed ineach case? (b) Will it take longer to roll do n one plane than the other? (c) If so, hich one and hy? 7.19 A hoop of radi s 2 m eighs 100 kg. It rolls along a horizontal floor so that its centreof mass has a speed of 20 cm/s. Ho m ch ork has to be done to stop it? 7.20 The oxygen molec le has a mass of 5.30 10 -26 kg and a moment of inertia of 1.94 10 -46 kg m 2 abo t an axis thro gh its centre perpendic lar to the lines joiningthe t o atoms. S ppose the mean speed of s ch a molec le in a gas is 500 m/s andthat its kinetic energy of rotation is t o thirds of its kinetic energy of translation.Find the average ang lar velocity of the molec le. 7.21 A solid cylinder rolls p an inclined plane of angle of inclination 30 . At the bottomof the inclined plane the centre of mass of the cylinder has a speed of 5 m/s.(a) Ho far ill the cylinder go p the plane?(b) Ho long ill it take to ret rn to the bottom? Additional Exercises7.22

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

   

  

As sho n in Fig.7.40, the t o sides of a step ladder BA and CA are 1.6 m long andhinged at A. A rope DE, 0.5 m is tied half ay p. A eight 40 kg is s spended froma point F, 1.2 m from B along the ladder BA. Ass ming the floor to be frictionlessand neglecting the eight of the ladder, find the tension in the rope and forcesexerted by the floor on the ladder. (Take g = 9.8 m/s 2 )(Hint: Consider the e ilibri m of each side of the ladder separately.) 180 PHYSICS Fig.7.40 7.23 A man stands on a rotating platform, ith his arms stretched horizontally holding a 5 kg eight in each hand. The ang lar speed of the platform is 30 revol tions per min te. The man then brings his arms close to his body ith the distance of each eight from the axis changing from 90cm to 20cm. The moment of inertia of theman together ith the platform may be taken to be constant and e al to 7.6 kg m 2 .(a) What is his ne ang lar speed? (Neglect friction.)(b) Is kinetic energy conserved in the process? If not, from here does the changecome abo t? 7.24 A b llet of mass 10 g and speed 500 m/s is fired into a door and gets embeddedexactly at the centre of the door. The door is 1.0 m ide and eighs 12 kg. It ishinged at one end and rotates abo t a vertical axis practically itho t friction. Findthe ang lar speed of the door j st after the b llet embeds into it.(Hint: The moment of inertia of the door abo t the vertical axis at one end is ML 2 /3.) 7.25 T o discs of moments of inertia I 1and I 2abo t their respective axes (normal to thedisc and passing thro gh the centre), and rotating ith ang lar speeds 1and 2are bro ght into contact face to face ith their axes of rotation coincident. (a) What is the ang lar speed of the t o-disc system? (b) Sho that the kinetic energy of thecombined system is less than the s m of the initial kinetic energies of the t o discs.Ho do yo acco nt for this loss in energy? Take 1 2. 7.26 (a) Prove the theorem of perpendic lar axes.(Hint : S are of the distance of a point ( x, y ) in the

 

 

 

    

xy plane from an axis thro ghthe origin perpendic lar to the plane is x 2 +y 2 ).(b) Prove the theorem of parallel axes.(Hint : If the centre of mass is chosen to be the origin 0 i i m = r ). 7.27 Prove the res lt that the velocity v of translation of a rolling body (like a ring, disc,cylinder or sphere) at the bottom of an inclined plane of a height h is given by ( ) 22 2 21 / gh v k R =+ sing dynamical consideration (i.e. by consideration of forces and tor es). Note k isthe radi s of gyration of the body abo t its symmetry axis, and R is the radi s of thebody. The body starts from rest at the top of the plane. 7.28 A disc rotating abo t its axis ith ang lar speed o is placed lightly ( itho t any translational p sh) on a perfectly frictionless table. The radi s of the disc is R . What are the linear velocities of the points A, B and C on the disc sho n inFig. 7.41? Will the disc roll in the direction indicated ? SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 181 Fig. 7.41 7.29 Explain hy friction is necessary to make the disc in Fig. 7.41 roll in the direction indicated.(a) Give the direction of frictional force at B, and the sense of frictional tor e, before perfect rollingbegins.(b) What is the force of friction after perfect rolling begins ? 7.30 A solid disc and a ring, both of radi s 10 cm are placed on a horizontal tablesim ltaneo sly, ith initial ang lar speed e al to 10 rad s 1. Which of the two will start to rollearlier ? The co efficie t of ki etic frictio is k = 0.2. 7.31 A cylinder of mass 10 kg and radi s 15 cm is rolling perfectly on a

 

 

 

plane of inclination 30o. The co-efficient of static friction s= 0.25.(a) Ho m ch is the force of friction acting on the cylinder ?(b) What is the ork done against friction d ring rolling ?(c) If the inclination of the plane is increased, at hat val e of does the cylinder begin to skid,and not roll perfectly ? 7.32 Read each statement belo caref lly, and state, ith reasons, if it is tr e or false;(a) D ring rolling, the force of friction acts in the same direction as the direction of motion of the CMof the body.(b) The instantaneo s speed of the point of contact d ring rolling is zero.(c) The instantaneo s acceleration of the point of contact d ring rolling is zero.(d) For perfect rolling motion, ork done against friction is zero.(e) A heel moving do n a perfectly frictionless inclined plane ill ndergo slipping (not rolling)motion. 7.33 Separation of Motion of a system of particles into motion of the centre of mass and motion abo t thecentre of mass :(a) Sho i i m = + p p V here p i is the moment m of the i th particle (of mass m i ) and p i = m i v i . Note v i is the velocity of the i th particle relative to the centre of mass.Also, prove sing the definition of the centre of mass 0 i = p

 

    

 

(b) Sho 2 K K MV = + here K is the total kinetic energy of the system of particles, K is the total kinetic energy of thesystem hen the particle velocities are taken ith respect to the centre of mass and MV 2 /2 is thekinetic energy of the translation of the system as a hole (i.e. of the centre of mass motion of thesystem). The res lt has been sed in Sec. 7.14.(c) Sho M = + L L R V here L = i i r p is the ang lar moment m of the system abo t the centre of mass ithvelocities taken relative to the centre of mass. Remember i i = r r R ; rest of the notation is the

182 PHYSICS standard notation sed in the chapter. Note L and M R V can be said to beang lar momenta, respectively, abo t and of the centre of mass of the system of particles.(d) Sho i d d dt dt = L pr F rther, sho that ext d dt

   

= L where ex is he sum of all ex ernal orques ac ing on he sys em abou hecen re of mass.(Hin : Use he defini ion of cen re of mass and New ons Third Law. Assume hein ernal forces be ween any wo par icles ac along he line joining he par icles.) C HAPTER E IGHT G RAVITATION 8.1INTRODUCTION Early in our lives, we become aware of he endency of allma erial objec s o be a rac ed owards he ear h. Any hing hrown up falls down owards he ear h, going uphill is lo more iring han going downhill, raindrops from he cloudsabove fall owards he ear h and here are many o her suchphenomena. His orically i was he I alian Physicis Galileo(1564-1642) who recognised he fac ha all bodies,irrespec ive of heir masses, are accelera ed owards he ear hwi h a cons an accelera ion. I is said ha he made a publicdemons ra ion of his fac . To find he ru h, he cer ainly didexperimen s wi h bodies rolling down inclined planes andarrived a a value of he accelera ion due o gravi y which isclose o he more accura e value ob ained la er.A seemingly unrela ed phenomenon, observa ion of s ars,plane s and heir mo ion has been he subjec of a en ion inmany coun ries since he earlies of imes. Observa ions sinceearly imes recognised s ars which appeared in he sky wi hposi ions unchanged year af er year. The more in eres ingobjec s are he plane s which seem o have regular mo ionsagains he background of s ars. The earlies recorded modelfor plane ary mo ions proposed by P olemy abou 2000 yearsago was a geocen ric model in which all celes ial objec s,s ars, he sun and he plane s, all revolved around he ear h.The only mo ion ha was hough o be possible for celes ialobjec s was mo ion in a circle. Complica ed schemes of mo ionwere pu forward by P olemy in order o describe he observedmo ion of he plane s. The plane s were described as movingin circles wi h he cen er of he circles hemselves moving inlarger circles. Similar heories were also advanced by Indianas ronomers some 400 years la er. However a more elegan model in which he Sun was he cen er around which heplane s revolved he heliocen ric model was already men ioned by Aryabha a (5 h cen ury A.D.) in his rea ise. A housand years la er, a Polish monk named Nicolas 8.1 In roduc ion8.2 Keplers laws8.3 Universal law of gravi a ion8.4 The gravi a ionalcons an 8.5 Accelera ion due ogravi y of he ear h8.6 Accelera ion due ogravi y below and above he surface of ear h8.7 Gravi a ional po en ialenergy 8.8 Escape speed8.9 Ear h sa elli es8.10 Energy of an orbi ingsa elli e8.11 Geos a ionary and polar sa elli es8.12 Weigh lessnessSummary Poin s o ponder ExercisesAddi ional exercises 184 PHYSICS BACPSS

 

 

 

  

          

 

  

 

   

  

  

 

      

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

     

     

  

 

  

  

  

 

  

     

    

   

  

2 b 2 a Copernicus (1473-1543) proposed a defini ivemodel in which he plane s moved in circlesaround a fixed cen ral sun. His heory wasdiscredi ed by he church, bu no able amongs i s suppor ers was Galileo who had o faceprosecu ion from he s a e for his beliefs.I was around he same ime as Galileo, a nobleman called Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)hailing from Denmark, spen his en ire life imerecording observa ions of he plane s wi h henaked eye. His compiled da a were analysedla er by his assis an Johannes Kepler (1571-1640). He could ex rac from he da a hreeelegan laws ha now go by he name of Keplerslaws. These laws were known o New on andenabled him o make a grea scien ific leap inproposing his universal law of gravi a ion. 8.2KEPLERS LAWS The hree laws of Kepler can be s a ed as follows: 1. Law of orbi s : All plane s move in ellip icalorbi s wi h he Sun si ua ed a one of he foci Fig. 8.1(a) An ellipse raced ou by a plane around he sun. The closes poin is P and he far hes poin is A, P is called he perihelion and A he aphelion. The semimajor axis is half he dis ance AP. Fig. 8.1(b) Drawing an ellipse. A s ring has i s ends fixed a F 1 and F 2 . The ip of a pencil holds he s ring au and is moved around. of he ellipse (Fig. 8.1a). This law was a devia ionfrom he Copernican model which allowed only circular orbi s. The ellipse, of which he circle isa special case, is a closed curve which can bedrawn very simply as follows.Selec wo poin s F 1 and F 2 . Take a leng hof a s ring and fix i s ends a F 1 and F 2 by pins.Wi h he ip of a pencil s re ch he s ring au and hen draw a curve by moving he pencilkeeping he s ring au hroughou .(Fig. 8.1(b))The closed curve you ge is called an ellipse.Clearly for any poin T on he ellipse, he sum of he dis ances from F 1 and F 2 is a cons an . F 1 ,F 2 are called he focii. Join he poin s F 1 and F 2 and ex end he line o in ersec

he ellipse a poin s P and A as shown

 

 

 

  

   

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

in Fig. 8.1(b). Themidpoin of he line PA is he cen re of he ellipseO and he leng h PO = AO is called he semi-major axis of he ellipse. For a circle, he wofocii merge in o one and he semi-major axisbecomes he radius of he circle. 2. Law of areas : The line ha joins any plane o he sun sweeps equal areas in equal in ervalsof ime (Fig. 8.2). This law comes from heobserva ions ha plane s appear o move slower when hey are far her from he sun han when hey are nearer. Fig. 8.2 The plane P moves around he sun in an ellip ical orbi . The shaded area is he area A swept out in a small interval of time t. 3. Law of periods : The square of the time periodof revolution of a planet is proportional to thecube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse tracedout by the planet.The table below gives the approximate timeperiods of revolution of nine planets around thesun along with values of their semi-major axes. GRAVITATION 185 ! Table 1Data from measurement of planetarymotions given below confirm KeplersLaw of Periods a Semi-major axis in units of 10 10 m.T Time period of revolution of the planetin years(y).Q The quotient ( T 2 /a 3 ) in units of 10 -34 y 2 m -3 .Planet a T Q Mercury 5.79 0.24 2.95Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00Earth 15.0 1 2.96Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01Saturn 143 29.5 2.98Uranus 287 84 2.98Neptune 450 165 2.99Pluto 590 248 2.99 The law of areas can be understood as a consequence of conservation of angular momentum whch is valid for any central force .A central force is such that the force on theplanet is along the vector joining the sun andthe planet. Let the sun be at the origin and let the position and momentum of the planet bedenoted by r and p

  

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

respectively. Then the area swept out by the planet of mass m in timeinterval t is (Fig. 8.2) A given by A = ( r v t ) (8.1)Hence A / t = ( r p )/m, (since v = p /m)= L / (2 m) (8.2)where v is the velocity, L is the angular momentum equal to ( r p ). For a centralforce, which is directed along r , L is a constant as the planet goes around. Hence, A / t is a constant according to the last equation. This isthe law of areas. Gravitation is a central forceand hence the law of areas follows. Example 8.1

Let the speed of the planet at the perihelion P in Fig. 8.1(a) be v P andthe Sun-planet distance SP be r P . Relate{ r P , v P } to the corresponding quantities at the aphelion { r A, v A }. Will the planet takeequal times to traverse BAC and CPB ? Answer The magnitude of the angular momentum at P is L p = m p r p v p , since inspectiontells us that r p and v p are mutually perpendicular. Similarly, L A = m p r A v A . Fromangular momentum conservation m p r p v p

= m p r A v A or v v p A = r r A p ! Since r A > r p , v p > v A .The area SBAC bounded by the ellipse andthe radius vectors SB and SC is larger than SBPCin Fig. 8.1. From Keplers second law, equal areasare swept in equal times. Hence the planet willtake a longer time to traverse BAC than CPB . 8.3UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION Legend has it that observing an apple fallingfrom a tree, Newton was inspired to arrive at anuniversal law of gravitation that led to anexplanation of terrestrial gravitation as well asof Keplers laws. Newtons reasoning was that the moon revolving in an orbit of radius R m wassubject to a centripetal acceleration due toearths gravity of magnitude 222 4 m m m R V a R T = = (8.3)where V is the s eed of the moo related to thetime eriod T by the relatio 2 / m V R T =

. Thetime eriod T is about 27.3 days a d R m wasalready k ow the to be about 3.84 10 8 m. If we substitute these umbers i equatio (8.3),we get a value of a m much smaller tha the valueof acceleratio due to gravity g o the surface of the earth, arisi g also due to earths gravitatio alattractio . Joha es Ke ler(15711630) was a scie tist of Germa origi . He formulatedthe three laws of la etary motio basedo the ai staki gobservatio s of TychoBrahe a d coworkers. Ke ler himself was a assista t to Brahe a d it took him sixtee lo gyears to arrive at the three la etary laws. Heis also k ow as the fou der of geometricalo tics, bei g the first to describe what ha e sto light after it e ters a telesco e. 186 PHYSICS Ce tral Forces We k ow the time rate of cha ge of the a gular mome tum of a si gle article about the origi is dd t = lr F The a gular mome tum of the article is co served, if the torque = r F due o heforce F on i vanishes. This happens ei her when F is zero or when F is along r . We arein eres ed in forces which sa isfy he la er condi ion. Cen ral forces sa isfy his condi ion.A cen ral force is always direc ed owards or away from a fixed poin , i.e., along he posi ionvec or of he poin of applica ion of he force wi h respec o he fixed poin . (See Figure below.)Fur her, he magni ude of a cen ral force F depends on r , he dis ance of he poin of applica ionof he force from he fixed poin ; F = F ( r ).In he mo ion under a cen ral force he angular momen um is always

 

    



   

 

 

 

 

  

 

      



  

 

conserved. Two impor an resul s follow from his:(1) The mo ion of a par icle under he cen ral force is always confined o a plane.(2) The posi ion vec or of he par icle wi h respec o he cen re of he force (i.e. he fixed poin )has a cons an areal veloci y. In o her words he posi ion vec or sweeps ou equal areas inequal imes as he par icle moves under he influence of he cen ral force.Try o prove bo h hese resul s. You may need o know ha he areal veloci y is given by :d A/ d = r v sin

.An immedi te pplic tion of the bove discussion c n be m de to the motion of pl net under the gr vit tion l force of the sun. For convenience the sun m y be t ken to be so he vy th t it is t rest. The gr vit tion l force of the sun on the pl net is directed tow rds the sun.This force lso s tisfies the requirement F = F(r) , since F = G m 1 m 2 /r 2 where m 1 nd m 2 rerespectively the m sses of the pl net nd the sun nd G is the univers l const nt of gr vit tion.The two results (1) nd (2) described bove, therefore, pply to the motion of the pl net. In f ct,the result (2) is the well known second l w of Kepler. Tr is the trejectory of the p rticle under the centr l force. At position P, the force is directed long OP , O is the centre of the force t ken s the origin. In time t, the particle moves from P to P ,arc PP = s = v t. The tangent PQ at P to the trajectory gives the direction of the velocity at P. The area swept in t is the area of sector POP

 

 

 

    

    

  

   

 

 

 

GRAVITATION 187 ! This clearly shows that the force due toearths gravity decreases with distance. If oneassumes that the gravitational force due to theearth decreases in proportion to the inversesquare of the distance from the center of theearth, we will have 2 m m a R ; 2 E g R nd we get 22 m m E R g R = ; 3600 (8.4)in greement with v lue of g ; 9.8 m s 2 ndthe v lue of m from Eq. (8.3). Theseobserv tions led Newton to propose the followingUnivers l L w of Gr vit tion :Every body in the universe ttr cts every other body with force which is directly proportion lto the product of their m sses nd inversely proportion l to the squ re of the dist ncebetween them.The quot tion is essenti lly from Newtonsf mous tre tise c lled M them tic l Principlesof N tur l Philosophy (Principi for short).St ted M them tic lly, Newtons gr vit tionl w re ds : The force F on point m ss m 2 dueto nother point m ss m 1 h s the m gnitude

( ) sin r PP / 2 = (r v sin t/2.)

1 22 m m G r = F (8.5)Equation (8.5) can be expressed in vector form as $ () 1 2 1 22 2 m m m m G G r r = = F r r $ 1 23 m m G = rr where G is the universal gravitational constant, $ r is the unit vector from m 1 to m 2 and r = r 2 r 1 as shown in Fig. 8.3.The gravitational force is attractive, i.e., theforce F is along r . The force on point mass m 1 due to m 2 is of course F by Newtons third law.Thus, the gravitational force F 12 on the body 1due to 2 and F 21 on the body 2 due to 1 arerelated as F 12 = F

21 .Before we can apply Eq. (8.5) to objects under consideration, we have to be careful since thelaw refers to point masses whereas we deal withextended objects which have finite size. . If wehave a collection of point masses,the force onany one of them is the vector sum of thegravitational forces exerted by the other point masses as shown in Fig 8.4. Fig. 8.4 Gravitational force on point mass m 1 is the vector sum of the gravitational forces exerted by m 2 , m 3 and m 4 .The total force on m 1 is 2 11221 Gm m r = F $ 3 121231 Gm m r + r $ $ 4 131 41241 Gm m r + r r Example 8.2 Three equal masses of m kgeach are fixed at the vertices of anequilateral triangle ABC.(a) What is the force acting on a mass 2 m placed at the centroid G of the triangle?(b) What is the force if the mass at thevertex A is doubled ?Take AG = BG = CG = 1m (see Fig. 8.5) Fig. 8.3 Gravitational force on m 1 due to m 2 is along r where the vector r is ( r 2

 r 1 ). O 188 PHYSICS Answer (a) The angle between GC and thepositive x -axis is 30 and so is the angle betweenGB and the negative x -axis. The individual forcesin vector notation are ( ) GA 21 Gm m = F j () ( ) GB 2 cos 30 sin 301 Gm m = F i j () ( ) GC 2 c s 30 sin 301 Gm m = + F i j Fr m the principle f superp siti n and the law f vect r additi n, the resultant gravitati nalf rce F R n (2 m ) is F R = F GA + F GB + F GC ( )

 

 += 30 sin30 c s2 2 22R j ij F Gm Gm ( ) 030 sin 30 c s2 2 = + j i Gm Alternatively, ne expects n the basis f symmetry that the resultant f rce ught t bezer .(b) By symmetry the x c mp nent f thef rce cancels ut. The y c mp nent survives. jjjF 2 2 4 222 Gm Gm Gm R = = ! F r the gravitati nal f rce between anextended bject (like the earth) and a p int mass,Eq. (8.5) is n t directly applicable. Each p int massin the extended bject will exert a f rce n thegiven p int mass and these f rce will n t all be inthe same directi n. We have t add up these f rcesvect rially f r all the p int masses in the extended bject t get the t tal f rce. This is easily d neusing calculus. F r tw special cases, a simplelaw results when y u d that :(1) The f rce f attracti n between a h ll wspherical shell f unif rm density and ap int mass situated utside is just as if the entire mass f the shell isc ncentrated at the centre f the shell. Qualitatively this can be underst d asf ll ws: Gravitati nal f rces caused by thevari us regi ns f the shell havec mp nents al ng the line j ining the p int mass t the centre as well as al ng a directi n prependicular t this line. Thec mp nents prependicular t this linecancel ut when summing ver all regi ns f the shell leaving nly a resultant f rceal ng the line j ining the p int t the centre.The magnitude f this f rce w rks ut t be as stated ab ve. Newt ns Principia Kepler had f rmulated his third law by 1619. The ann uncement f the underlying universal law f gravitati n came ab ut seventy years later with the publicati n in 1687 f Newt ns masterpiece Phil s phiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica , ften simply called the Principia .Ar und 1685, Edmund Halley (after wh m the fam us Halleys c met is named), came t visit Newt n at Cambridge and asked him ab ut the nature f the traject ry f a b dy m ving under theinfluence f an inverse square law. With ut hesitati n Newt n replied that it had t be an ellipse,and further that he had w rked it ut l ng ag ar und 1665 when

 

  

  

  

 

     

 



 

 

 

 

  

 

              

he was f rced t retire t his farmh use fr m Cambridge n acc unt f a plague utbreak. Unf rtunately, Newt n had l st his papers.Halley prevailed up n Newt n t pr duce his w rk in b k f rm and agreed t bear the c st f publicati n. Newt n acc mplished this feat in eighteen m nths f superhuman eff rt. The Principia is a singular scientific masterpiece and in the w rds f Lagrange it is the greatest pr ducti n f thehuman mind. The Indian b rn astr physicist and N bel laureate S. Chandrasekhar spent tenyears writing a treatise n the Principia . His b k, Newt ns Principia f r the C mm n Reader brings int sharp f cus the beauty, clarity and breath taking ec n my f Newt ns meth ds. Fig. 8.5 Three equal masses are placed at the three vertices f the ABC. A mass 2m is placed at the centroid G . GRAVITATION 189 (2) The force of attraction due to a hollowspherical shell of uniform density, on apoint mass situated inside it is zero. Qualitatively, we can again understand thisresult. Various regions of the spherical shellattract the point mass inside it in variousdirections. These forces cancel each other completely. 8.4THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT The value of the gravitational constant Gentering the Universal law of gravitation can bedetermined experimentally and this was first done by English scientist Henry Cavendish in1798. The apparatus used by him isschematically shown in figure.8.6 Fig. 8.6 Schematic drawing of Cavendishs experiment. S 1 and S 2 are large spheres which are kept on either side (shown shades) of the masses at A and B. When the big spheres are taken to the other side of the masses (shown by dotted circles), the bar AB rotates a little since the torque reverses direction. The angle of rotation can be measured experimentally. The bar AB has two small lead spheresattached at its ends. The bar is suspended froma rigid support by a fine wire. Two large leadspheres are brought close to the small ones but on opposite sides as shown. The big spheresattract the nearby small ones by equal andopposite force as shown. There is no net forceon the bar but only a torque which is clearly equal to F times the length of the bar,where F isthe force of attraction between a big sphere andits neighbouring small sphere. Due to thistorque, the suspended wire gets twisted till suchtime as the restoring torque of the wire equalsthe gravitational torque . If is the angle of t ist of the s spended ire, the restoring tor eis proportional to , e al to . Where

 

 

 



 

 

   

 

  

   

 

   

 is heres oring couple per uni angle of wis . can bemeasured independen ly e.g. by applying a known orque and measuring he angle of wis .The gravi a ional force be ween he sphericalballs is he same as if heir masses areconcen ra ed a heir cen ers. Thus if d is hesepara ion be ween he cen ers of he big andi s neighbouring small ball, M and m heir masses, he gravi a ional force be ween he bigsphere and i s neighouring small ball is. 2 Mm F G d = (8.6)If L is he leng h of he bar AB , hen he orque arising ou of F is F mul iplied by L. A equilibrium, his is equal o he res oring orqueand hence 2 Mm G L d = (8.7)Observation of th s enables one tocalc late G from this e ation.Since Cavendishs experiment, themeas rement of G has been refined and thec rrently accepted val e is G = 6.67 10 -11 N m 2 /kg 2 (8.8) 8.5ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OFTHE EARTH The earth can be imagined to be a sphere madeof a large n mber of concentric spherical shells ith the smallest one at the centre and thelargest one at its s rface. A point o tside theearth is obvio sly o tside all the shells. Th s,all the shells exert a gravitational force at thepoint o tside j st as if their masses areconcentrated at their common centre accordingto the res lt stated in the last section. The totalmass of all the shells combined is j st the massof the earth. Hence, at a point o tside the earth,the gravitational force is j st as if its entire massof the earth is concentrated at its center.For a point inside the earth, the sit ationis different. This is ill strated in Fig. 8.7. 190 PHYSICS Fig. 8.7 The mass m is in a mine located at a depth d belo the s rface of the Earth of mass M E and radi s R E . We treat the Earth to be spherically symmetric. Again consider the earth to be made p of concentric shells as before and a point mass msit ated at a distance r from the centre. Thepoint P

 

 

        

 

 

 

 

     

  

 

  

  

lies o tside the sphere of radi s r. For the shells of radi s greater than r, the point Plies inside. Hence according to res lt stated inthe last section, they exert no gravitational forceon mass m kept at P. The shells ith radi s r make p a sphere of radi s r for hich the point P lies on the s rface. This smaller spheretherefore exerts a force on a mass m at P as if its mass m r is concentrated at the center. Th sthe force on the mass m at P has a magnit de r 2 (m )r Gm F = (8.9)We ass me that the entire earth is of niformdensity and hence its mass is 3E 43 E M R = whe e M E is the mass of the ea th R E is its adiusand is the density. On the othe M of adius is 3 43 andhence 332 3 2 43 E E M F Gm Gm = = E3 E Gm M R = (8.10)If the mass m is situated on the su face of ea th, then E and the g avitational fo ceon it is, f om Eq. (8.10)

hand themass of the sphe e

 

 

= R

2 E E M m F G R = (8.11)The accele ation expe ienced by the massm, which is usually denoted by the symbol g is elated to F by Newtons 2 nd law by elationF = m g . Thus 2 E E GM F g m R = = (8.12)Accele ation g is eadily measu able. R E is a known quantity. The measu ement of G by Cavendishs expe iment (o othe wise), combinedwith knowledge of g and R E enables one toestimate M E f om Eq. (8.12). This is the easonwhy the e is a popula statement ega dingCavendish : Cavendish weighed the ea th. 8.6ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITYBELOW AND ABOVE THE SURFACE OFEARTH Conside a point mass m at a height h above thesu face of the ea th as shown in Fig. 8.8(a). The adius of the ea th is denoted by R E . Since thispoint is outside the ea th, Fig. 8.8 (a) g at a height h above the su face of the ea th. its distance f om the cent e of the ea th is ( R E +h ). If F ( h ) denoted the magnitude of the fo ceon the point mass m , we get f om Eq. (8.5) : 2 ( )( ) E E GM m F h R h =+ (8.13)The accele ation expe ienced by the point mass is( )/ ( )

F h m g h and e get GRAVITATION 191 2 ( )( ) .( ) E E GM F h g h m R h = =+ (8.14)This is clearly less than the val e of g on thes rface of earth : 2 . E E GM g R = For , E h R << e canexpand the RHS of E . (8.14) : ( ) 22 2 ( ) 1 /(1 / ) E E E GM g h g h R R h R = = ++ F r 1 E h R << , using bin mial expressi n, () 21 E h g h g R . (8.15)Equati n (8.15) thus tells us that f r smallheights h ab ve the value f g decreases by a fact r (1 2 / ). E h R N w, c nsider a p int mass m at a depth d bel w the surface f the earth (Fig. 8.8(b)), s that its distance fr m the center f the earth is( ) E R d as sh wn in the figure. The earth canbe th ught f as being c mp sed f a smaller sphere f radius ( R E d ) and a spherical shell f thickness d

 

. The f rce n m due t the uter shell f thickness d is zer because the result qu ted in the previ us secti n. As far as thesmaller sphere f radius ( R E d ) is c ncerned,the p int mass is utside it and hence acc rdingt the result qu ted earlier, the f rce due t thissmaller sphere is just as if the entire mass f the smaller sphere is c ncentrated at the centre.If M s is the mass f the smaller sphere, then, M s / M E = ( R E d ) 3 / R E 3 ( 8.16)Since mass f a sphere is pr p rti nal t becube f its radius. Fig. 8.8 (b) g at a depth d. In this case nly the smaller sphere f radius (R E d)c ntributes t g. Thus the f rce n the p int mass is F ( d ) = G M s m / ( R E d ) 2 (8.17)Substituting f r M s fr m ab ve , we get F ( d ) = G

 

 

 

 

 

M E m ( R E d ) / R E 3 (8.18)and hence the accelerati n due t gravity at a depth d , g ( d ) =( ) F d m is 3 ( )( ) ( ) E E E GM F d g d R d m R = = (1 / ) E E E R d g g d R R = = (8.19)Thus, as we g d wn bel w earths surface,the accelerati n due gravity decreases by a fact r (1 / ). E d R The remarkable thing ab ut accelerati n due t earths gravity is that it ismaximum n its surface decreasing whether y ug up r d wn. 8.7GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY We had discussed earlier the n ti n f p tentialenergy as being the energy st red in the b dy at its given p siti n. If the p siti n f the particlechanges n acc unt f f rces acting n it, thenthe change in its p tential energy is just theam unt f w rk d ne n the b dy by the f rce.As we had discussed earlier, f rces f r whichthe w rk d ne is independent f the path arethe c nservative f rces.The f rce f gravity is a c nservative f rceand we can calculate the p tential energy f a b dy arising ut f this f rce, called thegravitati nal p tential energy. C nsider p intscl se t the surface f earth, at distances fr mthe surface much smaller than the radius f theearth. In such cases, the f rce f gravity ispractically a c nstant equal t mg, directedt wards the center f the earth. If we c nsider a p int at a height h 1 fr m the surface f theearth and an ther p int vertically ab ve it at a height h 2

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

  

 

  

  

   

   

  

 

fr m the surface, the w rk d ne inlifting the particle f mass m fr m the first t the sec nd p siti n is den ted by W 12 W 12 = F rce displacement = mg ( h 2 h 1 ) (8.20) 192 PHYSICS ! If we ass ciate a p tential energy W ( h ) at a p int at a height h ab ve the surface such that W ( h ) = mgh + W (8.21)(where W = c nstant) ;then it is clear that W 12 = W ( h 2 ) W ( h 1 ) (8.22)The w rk d ne in m ving the particle is just the difference f p tential energy between itsfinal and initial p siti ns.Observe that thec nstant W cancels ut in Eq. (8.22). Setting h = 0 in the last equati n, we get W

 

 

 

  

( h = 0 ) = W . . h = 0 means p ints n the surface f theearth. Thus, W is the p tential energy n thesurface f the earth.If we c nsider p ints at arbitrary distancefr m the surface f the earth, the result just derived is n t valid since the assumpti n that the gravitati nal f rce mg is a c nstant is n l nger valid. H wever, fr m ur discussi n wekn w that a p int utside the earth, the f rce f gravitati n n a particle directed t wards thecenter f the earth is 2 E GM m F r = (8.23)where M E = mass f earth, m = mass f theparticle and r its distance fr m the center f theearth. If we n w calculate the w rk d ne inlifting a particle fr m r = r 1 t r = r 2 ( r 2 > r 1 ) al nga vertical path, we get instead f Eq. (8.20) 21 122 d r r G Mm W r r = E2 1 1 1 G M m r r = (8.24)In place W

f Eq. (8.21), we can thus ass ciatea p tential energy

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

( r ) at a distance r , such that E1 ( ) , GM m W r W r = + (8.25)valid f r r > R ,s that nce again W 12 = W ( r 2 ) W ( r 1 ).Setting r = infinity in the last equati n, we get W ( r = infinity ) = W 1 . Thus, W 1 is thep tential energy at infinity. One sh uld n te that nly the difference f p tential energy betweentw p ints has a definite meaning fr m Eqs.(8.22) and (8.24). One c nventi nally sets W 1 equal t zer , s that the p tential energy at a p int is just the am unt f w rk d ne indisplacing the particle fr m infinity t that p int.We have calculated the p tential energy at a p int f a particle due t gravitati nal f rces n it due t the earth and it is pr p rti nal t the mass f the particle. The gravitati nalp tential due t the gravitati nal f rce f theearth is defined as the p tential energy f a particle f unit mass at that p int. Fr m theearlier discussi n, we learn that the gravitati nalp tential energy ass ciated with tw particles f masses m 1 and m 2 separated by distance by a distance r is given by

 

 

   

 

 

  

 

  

 

1 2 Gm m V r = (if we ch se V = 0 as r )It sh uld be n ted that an is lated system f particles will have the t tal p tential energy that equals the sum f energies (given by theab ve equati n) f r all p ssible pairs f itsc nstituent particles. This is an example f theapplicati n f the superp siti n principle. Example 8.3 Find the p tential energy f a system f f ur particles placed at thevertices f a square f side l . Als btainthe p tential at the centre f the square. Answer C nsider f ur masses each f mass mat the c rners f a square f side l ; See Fig. 8.9.We have f ur mass pairs at distance l and tw diag nal pairs at distance 2 l Hence, 2 2 G( ) 4 22 m G m W r l l = Fig. 8.9 GRAVITATION 193 ! l m G l m G 22 5.41 21 2 2 = + = The gravitati nal p tential at the centre f the square ( ) r 2 l /2 = is l m G 2 r U 4 )( = . ! 8.8ESCAPE SPEED If a st ne is thr wn by hand, we see it falls back t the earth. Of

  

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

c urse using machines we cansh t an bject with much greater speeds andwith greater and greater initial speed, the bject scales higher and higher heights. A naturalquery that arises in ur mind is the f ll wing:can we thr w an bject with such high initialspeeds that it d es n t fall back t the earth?The principle f c nservati n f energy helpsus t answer this questi n. Supp se the bject did reach infinity and that its speed there wasV f . The energy f an bject is the sum f p tentialand kinetic energy. As bef re W 1 den tes that gravitati nal p tential energy f the bject at infinity. The t tal energy f the pr jectile at infinity then is 21 ( )2 f mV E W = + (8.26)If the bject was thr wn initially with a speed V i fr m a p int at a distance ( h + R E ) fr m thecenter f the earth ( R E = radius f the earth), itsenergy initially was 21 1( ) 2 ( ) E E i E GmM E h R mV W h R + = ++ (8.27)By the principle f energy c nservati nEqs. (8.26) and (8.27) must be equal. Hence 22 2 ( ) 2 f i E E mV mV GmM h R =+ (8.28)The R.H.S. is a p sitive quantity with a minimum value zer hence s must be the L.H.S.Thus, an bject can reach infinity as l ng as V i is such that 2 02 ( ) i E E mV GmM h R + (8.29)The minimum value f V i c rresp nds t thecase when the L.H.S. f Eq. (8.29) equals zer .Thus, the minimum speed required f r an bject t reach infinity (i.e. escape fr m the earth)c rresp nds t ( ) 2min

 

  

 

 

 

        

12 E i E GmM m V h R =+ (8.30)If the bject is thr wn fr m the surface f the earth, h=0, and we get ( ) min 2 E i E GM V R = (8.31)Using the relati n 2 / E E g GM R = , we get ( ) min 2 i E V gR = (8.32)Using the value f g and R E , numerically (V i ) min 11.2 km/s. This is called the escapespeed, s metimes l sely called the escapevel city.Equati n (8.32) applies equally well t an bject thr wn fr m the surface f the m n withg replaced by the accelerati n due t M nsgravity n its surface and r E replaced by theradius f the m n. B th are smaller than their values n earth and the escape speed f r them n turns ut t be 2.3 km/s, ab ut five timessmaller. This is the reas n that m n has n atm sphere. Gas m lecules if f rmed n thesurface f the m n having vel cities larger thanthis will escape the gravitati nal pull f them n. Example 8.4 Tw unif rm s lid spheres f equal radii R , but mass M and 4 M havea center t centre separati n 6 R , as sh wnin Fig. 8.10. The tw spheres are held fixed.A pr jectile f mass m is pr jected fr mthe surface f the sphere f mass M directly t wards the centre f the sec nd sphere.Obtain an expressi n f r the minimumspeed v f the pr jectile s that it reachesthe surface f the sec nd sphere. Fig. 8.10 Answer

  

 



   

      

 



 

   

 

194 PHYSICS spheres. The neutral p int N (see Fig. 8.10) isdefined as the p siti n where the tw f rcescancel each ther exactly. If ON = r , we have ( ) 2 2 r R 6 m M G r m M G = 4 (6 R r ) 2 = 4 r 2 6 R r = 2 r r = 2 R r 6 R. The neutral p int r = 6 R d es n t c ncernus in this example. Thus ON = r = 2 R . It issufficient t pr ject the particle with a speedwhich w uld enable it t reach N. Thereafter,the greater gravitati nal pull f 4 M w uldsuffice. The mechanical energy at the surface f M is R m M G R m M G v m E 2 i 5 4 21 = .At the neutral p int N, the speed appr acheszer . The mechanical energy at N is purely p tential. R m M G R m M G E N

 

The pr jectile is acted up n by tw mutually f rces f the tw

pp sing gravitati nal

 

 

 

  

= R M G v ! A p int t n te is that the speed f the pr jectileis zer at N, but is n nzer when it strikes theheavier sphere 4 M . The calculati n f this speedis left as an exercise t the students. 8.9EARTH SATELLITES Earth satellites are bjects which rev lve ar undthe earth. Their m ti n is very similar t them ti n f planets ar und the Sun and henceKeplers laws f planetary m ti n are equally applicable t them. In particular, their rbitsar und the earth are circular r elliptic. M nis the nly natural satellite f the earth with a near circular rbit with a time peri d f appr ximately 27.3 days which is als r ughly equal t the r tati nal peri d f the m n ab ut its wn axis. Since, 1957, advances intechn l gy have enabled many c untriesincluding India t launch artificial earthsatellites f r practical use in fields liketelec mmunicati n, ge physics andmete r l gy.We will c nsider a satellite in a circular rbit f a distance ( R E + h ) fr m the centre f the earth,where R E = radius f the earth. If m is the mass f the satellite and V its speed, the centripetalf rce required f r this rbit isF(centripetal) = 2 ( ) E mV R h + (8.33)directed t wards the center. This centripetal f rceis pr vided by the gravitati nal f rce, which isF(gravitati n) = 2 ( ) E E Gm M R h

 



 

  

  

4 4 2 = .Fr m the principle f c nservati n v GM R GM R GM R GM R 2 = 5 r = 21 54 2 2 R M G v 2/1 5 3

f mechanical energy 1242

 

  



 

 

 

 

 

    

 

 

  

+ (8.34)Where M E is the mass f the earth.Equating R.H.S f Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34) andcancelling ut m, we get 2 ( ) E E G M V R h =+ (8.35)Thus V decreases as h increases. Fr mequati n (8.35),the speed V f r h = 0 is 2 ( 0) / E E V h GM R gR = = = (8.36)where we have used the relati ng = 2 / E GM R . In every rbit, the satellitetraverses a distance 2 ( R E + h ) with s eed V . Itstime eriod T therefore is 3/2 2 ( ) 2 ( ) E E E R h R h T V G M + += = (8.37)o substitutio of value of V from Eq. (8.35).Squari g both sides of Eq. (8.37), we get T 2 = k ( R E + h) 3 (where k = 4

2 / GM E ) (8.38)which is Ke lers law of eriods, as a lied tomotio of satellites arou d the earth. For a satellite very close to the surface of earth h ca be eglected i com ariso to R E i Eq. (8.38).He ce, for such satellites, T is T o , where 0 2 / E T R g = (8.39)If we substitute the umerical valuesg ; 9.8 m s 2 a d R E = 6400 km., we get 60 6.4 1029.8 T = sWhich is a roximately 85 mi utes. GRAVITATION 195 !!! Exam le 8.5 The la et Mars has twomoo s, hobos a d delmos. (i) hobos hasa eriod 7 hours, 39 mi utes a d a orbitalradius of 9.4 10 3 km. Calculate the massof mars. (ii) Assume that earth a d marsmove i circular orbits arou d the su ,with the martia orbit bei g 1.52 timesthe orbital radius of the earth. What isthe le gth of the martia year i days ? A swer (i) We em loy Eq. (8.38) with the su smass re laced by the martia mass M m T GM R 2 m = 4 23

 

 

 M m G R T = 4 2 32 ( ) ( )( ) = 4 3.146.67 10 459 60 1122 318 94 10. ( ) ( )( ) M4 3.146.67 4.59 6 10 2 5 m = 2 318 94 10. = 6.48 10 23 kg.(ii) O ce agai Ke lers third law comes to our aid, T T R R M 2 E 2 MS 3ES 3 = where R MS is the mars su dista ce a d R ES isthe earth su dista ce. T M = (1.52) 3/2 365 = 684 daysWe ote that the orbits of all la ets exce t Mercury, Mars a d Pluto are very close to bei gcircular. For exam le, the ratio of the semi mi or to semi major axis for our Earth is, b/a = 0.99986. ! Exam le 8.6 Weighi g the Earth : Youare give the followi g data:

g = 9.81 ms 2 , R E = 6.37 10 6 m, the dista ce to the moo R = 3.84 10 8 m a d the time eriod of themoo s revolutio is 27.3 days. Obtai themass of the Earth M E i two differe t ways. A swer From Eq. (8.12) we have G R g M 2 E E = ( ) = 9.81 6.37 106.67 10 62 11 = 5.97 10 24 kg.The moo is a satellite of the Earth. Fromthe derivatio third law [see Eq.(8.38)] E M G R T 322 4 = 232 4 T G R M E = ( )( ) = 4 3.14 3.14 3.84 106.67 10 27.3 24 60 60 324 112

of Ke lers

 

= 6.02 10 24 kg Both methods yield almost the same a swer,the differe ce betwee them bei g less tha 1%. ! Exam le 8.7 Ex ress the co sta t k of Eq. (8.38) i days a d kilometres. Give k = 10 13 s 2 m 3 . The moo is at a dista ceof 3.84 10 5 km from the earth. Obtai itstime eriod of revolutio i days. A swer Give k = 10 13 s 2 m 3 = ( ) ( ) 101d1km 132233 24 60 60 1 1000 / = 1.33 10 14 d 2 km 3 Usi g Eq. (8.38) a d the give value of k,the time eriod of the moo T 2 = (1.33 10 14 )(3.84 10 5

 

 

 

 

is

) 3 T = 27.3 d ! Note that Eq. (8.38) also holds for elli ticalorbits if we re lace ( R E + h ) by the semi major axis of the elli se. The earth will the be at o eof the foci of this elli se. 8.10ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE Usi g Eq. (8.35), the ki etic e ergy of thesatellite i a circular orbit with s eed v is 2 12 K E mv = g 2( ) E E Gm M R h =+ , (8.40) 196 PHYSICS ! Co sideri g gravitatio al ote tial e ergy at i fi ity to be zero, the ote tial e ergy at dista ce (R e +h) from the ce ter of the earth is .( ) E E Gm M P E R h = + (8.41)The K.E is ositive whereas the P.E is egative. However, i mag itude the K.E. is half the P.E, so that the total E is . .2( ) E E Gm M E K E P E R h = + = + (8.42)The total e ergy of a circularly orbiti gsatellite is thus egative, with the ote tiale ergy bei g egative but twice is mag itude of the ositive ki etic e ergy.Whe the orbit of a satellite becomeselli tic, both the K.E. a d P.E. vary from oi t to oi t. The total e ergy which remai sco sta t is egative as i the circular orbit case.This is what we ex ect, si ce as we havediscussed before if the total e ergy is ositive or zero, the object esca es to i fi ity. Satellitesare always at fi ite dista ce from the earth a dhe ce their e ergies ca ot be ositive or zero.

 

 



 

 

 

 

Exam le 8.8 A 400 kg satellite is i a circular orbit of radius 2 R E about theEarth. How much e ergy is required totra sfer it to a circular orbit of radius 4 R E ?What are the cha ges i the ki etic a d ote tial e ergies ? A swer I itially, E E i R m M G E 4 = I dias Lea i to S ace I dia e tered the s ace age with the lau chi g of the low orbit satellite Aryabhatta i 1975. I the first few years of its rogramme the lau ch vehicles were rovided by the erstwhile Soviet U io . I dige ouslau ch vehicles were em loyed i the early 1980s to se d the Rohi i series of satellites i to s ace.The rogramme to se d olar satellites i to s ace bega i late 1980s. A series of satellites labelledIRS (I dia Remote Se si g Satellites) have bee lau ched a d this rogramme is ex ected to co ti uei future. The satellites have bee em loyed for surveyi g, weather redictio a d for carryi g out ex erime ts i s ace. The INSAT (I dia Natio al Satellite) series of satellites were desig ed a dmade o eratio al for commu icatio s a d weather redictio ur oses begi i g i 1982. Euro ea lau ch vehicles have bee em loyed i the INSAT series. I dia tested its geostatio ary lau ch ca ability i 2001 whe it se t a ex erime tal commu icatio s satellite (GSAT 1) i to s ace. I 1984 RakeshSharma became the first I dia astro aut. The I dia S ace Research Orga isatio (ISRO) is theumbrella orga isatio that ru s a umber of ce tre. Its mai lauch ce tre at Sriharikota (SHAR) is100 km orth of Che ai. The Natio al Remote Se si g Age cy (NRSA) is ear Hyderabad. Its atio alce tre for research i s ace a d allied scie ces is the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) at Ahmedabad. While fi ally E E f R m M G E 8 = The cha ge i the total e ergy is E = E f E i 8 8 2 E E E E E R m R M G R m M G == J10 13.3 810 37.6 400 81.9 8 96 =

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

      

 

 

          

 

 

  

     

 == E R m g E The kinetic energy is reduced and it mimics E , namely, K = K f K i = 3.13 10 9 J.The change in potential energy is twice thechange in the total energy, namely V = V f V i = 6.25 10 9 J ! 8.11GEOSTATIONARY AND POLARSATELLITES An interesting phenomenon arises if in wearrange the value of ( R E + h ) such that T inEq. (8.37) becomes equal to 24 hours. If thecircular orbit is in the equatorial plane of theearth, such a satellite, having the same periodas the period of rotation of the earth about itsown axis would appear stationery viewed froma point on earth. The ( R E + h ) for this purposeworks out to be large as compared to R E : 1/322 4 E E T G M R h

+ = (8.43)a d for T = 24 hours, h works out to be 35800 km.which is much larger tha R E . Satellites i a circular orbits arou d the earth i the GRAVITATION 197 equatorial la e with T = 24 hours are calledGeostatio ery Satellites. Clearly, si ce the earthrotates with the same eriod, the satellite woulda ear fixed from a y oi t o earth. It takesvery owerful rockets to throw u a satellite tosuch large heights above the earth but this hasbee do e i view of the several be efits of ma y ractical a licatio s.It is k ow that electromag etic waves abovea certai freque cy are ot reflected fromio os here. Radio waves used for radiobroadcast which are i the freque cy ra ge 2MHz to 10 MHz, are below the critical freque cy.They are therefore reflected by the io os here.Thus radio waves broadcast from a a te a ca be received at oi ts far away where thedirect wave fail to reach o accou t of thecurvature of the earth. Waves used i televisio broadcast or other forms of commu icatio havemuch higher freque cies a d thus ca ot bereceived beyo d the li e of sight. A Geostatio ery satellite, a eari g fixed above thebroadcasti g statio ca however receive thesesig als a d broadcast them back to a wide area o earth. The INSAT grou of satellites se t u by I dia are o e such grou of Geostatio ary satellites widely used for telecommu icatio s i I dia.A other class of satellites are called the Polar satellites (Fig. 8.11). These are low altitude ( h

! 500 to 800 km) satellites, but they go arou dthe oles of the earth i a orth south directio whereas the earth rotates arou d its axis i a east west directio . Si ce its time eriod isarou d 100 mi utes it crosses a y altitude ma y times a day. However, si ce its height h abovethe earth is about 500 800 km, a camera fixedo it ca view o ly small stri s of the earth i o e orbit. Adjace t stri s are viewed i the ext orbit, so that i effect the whole earth ca beviewed stri by stri duri g the e tire day. Thesesatellites ca view olar a d equatorial regio sat close dista ces with good resolutio .I formatio gathered from such satellitesis extremely useful for remote se si g,meterology as well as for e viro me tal studiesof the earth. 8.12WEIGHTLESSNESS Weight of a object is the force with which theearth attracts it. We are co scious of our ow weight whe we sta d o a surface, si ce thesurface exerts a force o osite to our weight tokee us at rest. The same ri ci le holds goodwhe we measure the weight of a object by a s ri g bala ce hu g from a fixed oi t e.g. theceili g. The object would fall dow u less it issubject to a force o osite to gravity. This isexactly what the s ri g exerts o the object. Thisis because the s ri g is ulled dow a little by the gravitatio al ull of the object a d i tur the s ri g exerts a force o the object vertically u wards.Now, imagi e that the to e d of the bala ceis o lo ger held fixed to the to ceili g of theroom. Both e ds of the s ri g as well as theobject

   

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

  

  

 

 

   

 

   

  

198 PHYSICS SUMMARY 1. Newto s law of u iversal gravitatio states that the gravitatio al force of attractio betwee a y two articles of masses m 1 a d m 2 se arated by a dista ce r has themag itude F G m m r 2 = 1 2 where G is the u iversal gravitatio al co sta t, which has the value 6.672 10 11 Nm 2 kg 2 .2. If we have to fi d the resulta t gravitatio al force acti g o the article m due to a umber of masses M 1 , M 2 , . M etc. we use the ri ci le of su er ositio . Let F 1 , F

  

move with ide tical acceleratio g . Thes ri g is ot stretched a d does ot exert a y u ward force o the object which is movi g dow with acceleratio g due to gravity. The readi grecorded i the s ri g bala ce is zero si ce thes ri g is ot stretched at all. If the object werea huma bei g, he or she will ot feel his weight si ce there is o u ward force o him. Thus,whe a object is i free fall, it is weightlessa d this he ome o is usually called the he ome o of weightless ess.I a satellite arou d the earth, every art a d arcel of the satellite has a acceleratio towards the ce ter of the earth which is exactly Fig. 8.11 A Polar satellite. A stri o earths surface (show shaded) is visible from the satellite duri g o e cycle. For the ext revolutio of the satellite, the earth has rotated a little o its axis so that a adjace t stri becomes visible.

   

 

 

  

 

   

 

 

 

   

2 , . F be the i dividual forces due to M 1 , M 2 , . M , each

give by the law of gravitatio . Fromthe ri ci le of su er ositio each force acts i de e de tly a d u i flue ced by theother bodies. The resulta t force F R is the fou d by vector additio F R = F 1 + F 2 + + F

= F i i = 1 where the symbol stands for summation.3. Keplers laws of planetary motion state that (a) All planets move in elliptical orbits with the un at one of the focal points(b) The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equaltime intervals. This follows from the fact that the force of gravitation on the planet iscentral and hence angular momentum is conserved.(c) The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet The period T and radius R of the circular orbit of a planet about the un are relatedby 322 4 R M G T s =

  

  

  

where M s is the mass of the Su . Most la ets have early circular orbits about theSu . For elli tical orbits, the above equatio is valid if R is re laced by the semi major axis, a .4. The acceleratio due to gravity.(a) at a height h above the Earths surface ( ) 2 ( ) E E G M g h R h =+ 2 21 E E E G M h R R for h << R E ()() 2 2( ) 0 1 where 0 E E E G M h g h g g R R = = the value of earths acceleratio due to gravity at that ositio . Thus i the satellite everythi gi side it is i a state of free fall. This is just asif we were falli g towards the earth from a height.Thus, i a ma ed satellite, eo le i sideex erie ce o gravity. Gravity for us defi es thevertical directio a d thus for them there are ohorizo tal or vertical directio s, all directio s arethe same. Pictures of astro auts floati g i a satellite reflect show this fact. GRAVITATION 199 (b) at de th d below the Earths surface is ( ) ( ) 2 1 0 1 E E E E G M d d g d g R R R = = 5. The gravitatio al force is a co servative force, a d therefore a

 

  

 

 

 



ote tial e ergy fu ctio ca be defi ed. The gravitatio al ote tial e ergy associated with two articles se aratedby a dista ce r is give by r m m G V 21 = where V is take to be zero at r . The total ote tial e ergy for a system of articlesis the sum of e ergies for all airs of articles, with each air re rese ted by a term of the form give by above equatio . This rescri tio follows from the ri ci le of su er ositio .6. If a isolated system co sists of a article of mass m movi g with a s eed v i thevici ity of a massive body of mass M , the total mecha ical e ergy of the article is give by r m M G v m E 21 2 = That is, the total mecha ical e ergy is the sum of the ki etic a d ote tial e ergies.The total e ergy is a co sta t of motio .7. If m moves i a circular orbit of radius a about M , where M >> m , the

total e ergy of thesystem is a m M G E 2 = with the choice of the arbitrary co sta t i the ote tial e ergy give i the oi t 5.,above. The total e ergy is egative for a y bou d system, that is, o e i which the orbit is closed, such as a elli tical orbit. The ki etic a d ote tial e ergies are a m M G K 2 = a m M G V

  

 

 

     

  

   

 

 = 8. The esca e s eed from the surface of the Earth is E E e R M G v 2 = = 2 E gR a d has a value of 11.2 km s 1 .9. If a article is outside a u iform s herical shell or solid s here with a s herically symmetric i ter al mass distributio , the s here attracts the article as though themass of the s here or shell were co ce trated at the ce tre of the s here.10.If a article is i side a u iform s herical shell, the gravitatio al force o the article iszero. If a article is i side a homoge eous solid s here, the force o the article actstoward the ce tre of the s here. This force is exerted by the s herical mass i terior tothe article.11.A geostatio ary (geosy chro ous commu icatio ) satellite moves i a circular orbit i the equatorial la e at a a roximate dista ce of 4.22 10 4 km from the Earths ce tre.

200 PHYSICS POINTS TO PONDER 1. I co sideri g motio of a object u der the gravitatio al i flue ce of a other object the followi g qua tities are co served:(a) A gular mome tum(b) Total mecha ical e ergy Li ear mome tum is ot co served2. A gular mome tum co servatio leads to Ke lers seco d law. However, it is ot s ecialto the i verse square law of gravitatio . It holds for a y ce tral force.3. I Ke lers third law (see Eq. (8.1) a d T 2 = K S R 3 . The co sta t K S is the same for all la ets i circular orbits. This a lies to satellites orbiti g the Earth [(Eq. (8.38)].4. A astro aut ex erie ces weightless ess i a s ace satellite. This is ot because thegravitatio al force is small at that locatio i s ace. It is because both the astro aut a d the satellite are i free fall towards the Earth.5. The gravitatio al ote tial e ergy associated with two articles se arated by a dista ce r is give by V Gm m r = +

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

1 2 co sta t The co sta t ca be give a y value. The sim lest choice is to take it to be zero. Withthis choice V Gm m r = 1 2 This choice im lies that V 0 as r . Choosi g locatio of zero of the gravitatio ale ergy is the same as choosi g the arbitrary co sta t i the ote tial e ergy. Note that the gravitatio al force is ot altered by the choice of this co sta t.6. The total mecha ical e ergy of a object is the sum of its ki etic e ergy (which is always ositive) a d the ote tial e ergy. Relative to i fi ity (i.e. if we resume that the ote tiale ergy of the object at i fi ity is zero), the gravitatio al ote tial e ergy of a object is egative. The total e ergy of a satellite is egative.7. The commo ly e cou tered ex ressio m g h for the ote tial e ergy is actually a a roximatio to the differe ce i the gravitatio al ote tial e ergy discussed i the oi t 6, above.8. Although the gravitatio al force betwee two articles is ce tral, the force betwee twofi ite rigid bodies is ot ecessarily alo g the li e joi i g their ce tre of mass. For a s herically symmetric body however the force o a article exter al to the body is as if the mass is co ce trated at the ce tre a d this force is therefore ce tral.9. The gravitatio al force o a article i side a s herical shell is zero. However, (u like a metallic shell which shields electrical forces) the shell does ot shield other bodies outsideit from exerti g gravitatio al forces o a article i side. Gravitatio al shieldi g is ot ossible . GRAVITATION 201 EXERCISES8.1 A swer the followi g :(a) You ca shield a charge from electrical forces by utti g it i side a hollow co ductor.Ca you shield a body from the gravitatio al i flue ce of earby matter by utti git i side a hollow s here or by some other mea s ?(b) A astro aut i side a small s ace shi orbiti g arou d the earth ca ot detect gravity. If the s ace statio orbiti g arou d the earth has a large size, ca he ho eto detect gravity ?(c) If you com are the gravitatio al force o the earth due to the su to that dueto the moo , you would fi d that the Su s ull is greater tha the moo s ull.(you ca check this yourself usi g the data available i the succeedi g exercises).However, the tidal effect of the moo s ull is greater tha the tidal effect of su .Why ? 8.2 Choose the correct alter ative :(a) Acceleratio due to gravity i creases/decreases with i creasi g altitude.(b) Acceleratio due to gravity i creases/decreases with i creasi g de th (assumethe earth to be a s here of u iform de sity).(c) Acceleratio due to gravity is

     

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 



 

 

 

           

 

 

  

    

 

 

 

     

 

 

  

i de e de t of mass of the earth/mass of the body.(d) The formula G Mm (1/ r 2 1/ r 1 ) is more/less accurate tha the formula mg ( r 2 r 1 ) for the differe ce of ote tial e ergy betwee two oi ts r 2 a d r 1 dista ceaway from the ce tre of the earth. 8.3 Su ose there existed a la et that we t arou d the su twice as fast as the earth.What would be its orbital size as com ared to that of the earth ? 8.4 Io, o e of the satellites of Ju iter, has a orbital eriod of 1.769 days a d the radiusof the orbit is 4.22 10 8 m. Show that the mass of Ju iter is about o e thousa dththat of the su . 8.5 Let us assume that our galaxy co sists of 2.5 10 11 stars each of o e solar mass. How lo g will a star at a dista ce of 50,000 ly from the galactic ce tre take to com lete o erevolutio ? Take the diameter of the Milky Way to be 10 5 ly. 8.6 Choose the correct alter ative:(a) If the zero of ote tial e ergy is at i fi ity, the total e ergy of a orbiti g satelliteis egative of its ki etic/ ote tial e ergy.(b) The e ergy required to lau ch a orbiti g satellite out of earths gravitatio ali flue ce is more/less tha the e ergy required to roject a statio ary object at the same height (as the satellite) out of earths i flue ce. 8.7 Does the esca e s eed of a body from the earth de e d o (a) the mass of the body, (b)the locatio from where it is rojected, (c) the directio of rojectio , (d) the height of the locatio from where the body is lau ched? 8.8 A comet orbits the su i a highly elli tical orbit. Does the comet have a co sta t (a)li ear s eed, (b) a gular s eed, (c) a gular mome tum, (d)

 

    

 

             

ki etic e ergy, (e) ote tiale ergy, (f) total e ergy throughout its orbit? Neglect a y mass loss of the comet whe it comes very close to the Su . 8.9 Which of the followi g sym toms is likely to afflict a astro aut i s ace (a) swolle feet, (b) swolle face, (c) headache, (d) orie tatio al roblem.I the followi g two exercises, choose the correct a swer from amo g the give o es: 8.10 The gravitatio al i te sity at the ce tre of a hemis herical shell of u iform massde sity has the directio i dicated by the arrow (see Fig 8.12) (i) a, (ii) b, (iii)c, (iv) 0. Fig. 8.12

202 PHYSICS 8.11 For the above roblem, the directio of the gravitatio al i te sity at a arbitrary oi t P is i dicated by the arrow (i) d, (ii) e, (iii) f, (iv) g. 8.12 A rocket is fired from the earth towards the su . At what dista ce from the earthsce tre is the gravitatio al force o the rocket zero ? Mass of the su = 2 10 30 kg,mass of the earth = 6 10 24 kg. Neglect the effect of other la ets etc. (orbital radius= 1.5 10 11 m). 8.13 How will you weigh the su , that is estimate its mass? The mea orbital radius of the earth arou d the su is 1.5 10 8 km. 8.14 A satur year is 29.5 times the earth year. How far is the satur from the su if theearth is 1.50 10 8 km away from the su ? 8.15 A body weighs 63 N o the surface of the earth. What is the gravitatio al force o it due to the earth at a height equal to half the radius of the earth ? 8.16 Assumi g the earth to be a s here of u iform mass de sity, how much would a body weigh half way dow to the ce tre of the earth if it weighed 250 N o the surface ? 8.17 A rocket is fired vertically with a s eed of 5 km s 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

from the earths surface. How far from the earth does the rocket go before retur i g to the earth ? Mass of the earth= 6.0 10 24 kg; mea radius of the earth = 6.4 10 6 m; G = 6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2 . 8.18 The esca e s eed of a rojectile o the earths surface is 11.2 km s 1 . A body is rojected out with thrice this s eed. What is the s eed of the body far away from theearth? Ig ore the rese ce of the su a d other la ets. 8.19 A satellite orbits the earth at a height of 400 km above the surface. How muche ergy must be ex e ded to rocket the satellite out of the earths gravitatio ali flue ce? Mass of the satellite = 200 kg; mass of the earth = 6.0 10 24 kg; radius of the earth = 6.4 10 6 m; G = 6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2 . 8.20 Two stars each of o e solar mass (= 2 10 30 kg) are a roachi g each other for a heado collisio . Whe they are a dista ce 10 9 km, their s eeds are egligible. What isthe s eed with which they

 

  

 

collide ? The radius of each star is 10 4 km. Assume thestars to remai u distorted u til they collide. (Use the k ow value of G ). 8.21 Two heavy s heres each of mass 100 kg a d radius 0.10 m are laced 1.0 m a art o a horizo tal table. What is the gravitatio al force a d ote tial at the mid oi t of the li e joi i g the ce tres of the s heres ? Is a object laced at that oi t i equilibrium? If so, is the equilibrium stable or u stable ? Additio al Exercises8.22 As you have lear t i the text, a geostatio ary satellite orbits the earth at a height of early 36,000 km from the surface of the earth. What is the ote tial due to earthsgravity at the site of this satellite ? (Take the ote tial e ergy at i fi ity to be zero).Mass of the earth = 6.0 10 24 kg, radius = 6400 km. 8.23 A star 2.5 times the mass of the su a d colla sed to a size of 12 km rotates with a s eed of 1.2 rev. er seco d. (Extremely com act stars of this ki d are k ow as eutro stars. Certai stellar objects called ulsars belo g to this category). Will a object laced o its equator remai stuck to its surface due to gravity ? (mass of thesu = 2 10 30 kg). 8.24 A s aceshi is statio ed o Mars. How much e ergy must be ex e ded o thes aceshi to lau ch it out of the solar system ? Mass of the s ace shi = 1000 kg;mass of the su = 2 10 30 kg; mass of mars = 6.4 10 23 kg; radius of mars = 3395 km;radius of the orbit of mars = 2.28 10 8 km; G = 6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2 . 8.25 A rocket is fired vertically from the surface of mars with a s eed of

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

  

2 km s 1 . If 20%of its i itial e ergy is lost due to martia atmos heric resista ce, how far will therocket go from the surface of mars before retur i g to it ? Mass of mars = 6.4 10 23 kg; radius of mars = 3395 km; G = 6.67 10 11 N m 2 kg 2 . ANSWERS 219 Cha ter 22.1 (a) 10 6 ; (b) 1.5 10 4 ; (c) 5 ; (d) 11.3, 1.13 10 4 . 2.2 (a) 10 7 ; (b) 10 16 ; (c) 3.9 10 4 ; (d) 6.67 10 8 . 2.5 500 2.6 (c) 2.7 0.035 mm 2.9 94.1 2.10 (a) 1 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 4 ; (e) 4 ; (f) 4. 2.11 8.72 m 2

  

; 0.0855 m 3 2.12 (a) 2.3 kg ; (b) 0.02 g 2.13 13%; 3.8 2.14 (b) a d (c) are wro g o dime sio al grou ds. Hi t: The argume t of a trigo ometricfu ctio must always be dime sio less. 2.15 The correct formula is m = m 0 (1 v 2 / c 2 ) 2.16 3 10 7 m 3 2.17 10 4 ; i termolecular se aratio i a gas is much larger tha the size of a molecule. 2.18 Near objects make greater a gle tha dista t (far off) objects at the eye of the observer.Whe you are movi g, the a gular cha ge is less for dista t objects tha earer objects.So, these dista t objects seem to move alo g with you, but the earer objects i o ositedirectio . 2.19 3 10 16 m; as a u it of le gth 1 arsec is defi ed to be equal to 3.084 10 16 m. 2.20 1.32 arsec; 2.64

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

ANSWERS 220 2.25 Hi t: ta m st be dimensionless. The correct form la is tan = v / v here v is thespeed of rainfall. 2.26 Acc racy of 1 part in 10 11 to 10 12 2.27 0.7 10 3 kg m 3 . In the solid phase atoms are tightly packed, so the atomic massdensity is close to the mass density of the solid. 2.28 0.3

 

(seco d of arc) 2.23 1.4 10 3 kg m 3 ; the mass de sity of the Su is i the ra ge of de sities of liquids /solids a d ot gases. This high de sity arises due to i ward gravitatio al attractio o outer layers due to i er layers of the Su . 2.24 1.429 10 5 km A NSWERS



 

 10 18 m 3 N clear density is typically 10 15 times atomic density of matter. 2.29 3.84 10 8 m 2.30 55.8 km 2.31 2.8 10 22 km 2.32 3,581 km 2.33 Hint: the antity e 4 / (16 2 2 0 m

m e2 c 3 G ) has the dime sio of time. Cha ter 33.1 (a), (b) 3.2 (a) A .... B, (b) A .... B, (c) B .... A, (d) Same, (e) B .... A .... o ce .3.4 37 s 3.5 1000 km/h

3.6 3.06 m s 2 ; 11.4 s 3.7 1250 m (Hi t: view the motio of B relative to A) 3.8 1 m s 2 (Hi t: view the motio of B a d C relative to A) 3.9 T = 9 mi , s eed = 40 km/h. Hi t: v T / ( v 20 ) =18; v T / ( v + 20 ) = 6 3.10 (a) Vertically dow wards; (b) zero velocity, acceleratio of 9.8 m s 2 dow wards;(c) x > 0 (u ward a d dow ward motio ); v < 0 (u ward), v > 0 (dow ward), a > 0throughout; (d) 44.1 m, 6 s. 3.11 (a) True;, (b) False; (c) True (if the article rebou ds i sta tly with the same s eed, it im lies i fi ite acceleratio which is u hysical); (d) False (true o ly whe the chose ositive directio is alo g the directio of motio ) 3.14 (a) 5 km h 1 , 5 km h 1 ; (b) 0, 6 km h 1 ; (c) 158 km h 1 , 458 km h 1 3.15 Because, for a arbitrarily small i terval of time, the mag itude of dis laceme t is equalto the le gth of the ath. 3.16 All the four gra hs are im ossible. (a) a article ca ot have two differe t ositio s at the same time; (b) a article ca ot have velocity i o osite directio s at the sametime; (c) s eed is always

 





  

 

 

 

o egative; (d) total ath le gth of a article ca ever decrease with time. (Note, the arrows o the gra hs are mea i gless). 3.17 No, wro g. x

t lot does ot show the trajectory of a article. Co text: A body is dro edfrom a tower ( x = 0) at t = 0. 3.18 105 m s 1

ANSWERS 221 3.19 (a) A ball at rest o a smooth floor is kicked, it rebou ds from a wall with reduced s eeda d moves to the o osite wall which sto s it; (b) A ball throw u with some i itialvelocity rebou di g from the floor with reduced s eed after each hit; (c) A u iformly movi g cricket ball tur ed back by hitti g it with a bat for a very short time i terval. 3.20 x < 0, v < 0, a > 0; x > 0, v > 0, a < 0; x < 0, v > 0, a > 0. 3.21 Greatest i 3, least i 2; v > 0 i 1 a d 2, v < 0 i 3. 3.22 Acceleratio mag itude greatest i 2; s eed greatest i 3; v > 0 i 1, 2 a d 3; a > 0 i 1a d 3, a < 0 i 2; a = 0 at A, B, C, D. 3.23

       

 

  

A straight li e i cli ed with the time axis for u iformly accelerated motio ; arallel tothe time axis for u iform motio . 3.24 10 s, 10 s 3.25 (a) 13 km h 1 ; (b) 5 km h 1 ; (c) 20 s i either directio , viewed by a y o e of the are ts,the s eed of the child is 9 km h 1 i either directio ; a swer to (c) is u altered. 3.26 x 2 x 1 = 15 t (li ear art); x 2 x 1 = 200 + 30 t 5 t 2 (curved art). 3.27 (a) 60 m, 6 m s 1 ; (b) 36 m, 9 m s 1 3.28 (c), (d), (f) Cha ter 44.1 Volume, mass, s eed, de sity, umber of moles, a gular freque cy are scalars; the rest are vectors. 4.2 Work, curre t 4.3 Im ulse 4.4 O ly (c) a d (d) are ermissible 4.5 (a) T, (b) F, (c) F, (d) T, (e) T 4.6 Hi t: The sum (differe ce) of a y two sides of a tria gle is ever less (greater) tha thethird side. Equality holds for colli ear vectors. 4.7 All stateme ts exce t (a) are correct 4.8 400 m for each; B 4.9 (a) O; (b) O; (c) 21.4 km h

 

 

 

 

1 4.10 Dis laceme t of mag itude 1 km a d directio 60 o with the i itial directio ; total athle gth = 1.5 km (third tur ); ull dis laceme t vector; ath le gth = 3 km (sixth tur );866 m, 30 o , 4 km (eighth tur ) 4.11 (a) 49.3 km h 1 ; (b) 21.4 km h 1 . No, the average s eed equals average velocity mag itudeo ly for a straight ath. 4.12 About 18 o with the vertical, towards the south. 4.13 15 mi , 750 m 4.14 East (a roximately) 4.15 150.5 m 4.16 50 m ANSWERS 222 4.17 9.9 m s 2 , alo g the radius at every oi t towards the ce tre. 4.18 6.4 g 4.19 (a) False (true o ly for u iform circular motio )(b) True, (c) True. 4.20 (a) v i j ( ) ( . ! ! ) t t ! " 30 4.0 ! ( ) ! a j t ! " 4.0 (b) 8.54 m s 1 , 70 with x axis. 4.21

  

(a) 2 s, 24 m, 21.26 m s 1 4.22 2 , 45 o with the x axis; 2 , 45 o with the x axis, # $ 5 2 1 2/ , / " . 4.23 (b) a d (e) 4.24 O ly (e) is true 4.25 182 m s 1 4.27 No. Rotatio s i ge eral ca ot be associated with vectors 4.28 A vector ca be associated with a la e area 4.29 No 4.30 At a a gle of si 1 (1/3) = 19.5 with the vertical; 16 km. 4.31 0.86 m s 2 , 54.5 with the directio of velocity Cha ter 55.1 (a) to (d) No et force accordi g to the First Law (e) No force, si ce it is far away from all material age cies roduci g electromag etica d gravitatio al forces. 5.2 The o ly force i each case is the force of gravity, ( eglecti g effects of air) equal to0.5 N vertically dow ward. The a swers do ot cha ge, eve if the motio of the ebbleis ot alo g the vertical. The ebble is ot at rest at the highest oi t. It has a co sta t horizo tal com o e t of velocity throughout its motio . 5.3 (a) 1 N vertically dow wards (b) same as i (a)(c) same as i (a); force at a i sta t de e ds o the situatio at that i sta t, ot o history.(d) 0.1 N i the directio of motio of the trai . 5.4 (i) T 5.5 a

 

 

 

 

 

= 2.5 m s 2 . Usi g v = u + at , 0 = 15 2.5 t i.e., t = 6.0 s 5.6 a = 1.5/25 = 0.06 m s 2 F = 3 0.06 = 0.18 N i the directio of motio . 5.7 Resulta t force = 10 N at a a gle of ta 1 (3/4) = 37 with the directio of 8 N force.Acceleratio = 2 m s 2 i the directio of the resulta t force. 5.8 a = 2.5 m s 2 , Retardi g force = 465 2.5 = 1.2 10 3 N 5.9 F 20,000 10 = 20000 5.0, i.e., F = 3.0 10 5 N 5.10 a = 20 m s 2 0 t

 

 30 s ANSWERS 223 t = 5 s : x = u t = 10 5 = 50 m t = 25 s : x = u t + ( ) a t 2 = (10 25 10 625)m = 6 km t = 100 s :First co sider motio u to 30 s x 1 = 10 30 10 900 = 8700 mAt t = 30 s, v = 10 20 30 = 590 m s 1 For motio from 30 s to 100 s : x 2 = 590 70 = 41300 m x = x 1 +

x 2 = 50 km 5.11 (a) Velocity of car ( at t = 10 s ) = 0 + 2 10 = 20 m s 1 By the First Law, the horizo tal com o e t of velocity is 20 m s 1 throughout.Vertical com o e t of velocity (at t = 11s) = 0 + 10 1 = 10 m s 1 Velocity of sto e (at t = 11s) = 20 10 500 224 2 2 % ! ! . 1 m s at a a gle of ta 1 ( ) withthe horizo tal.(b)10 m s 2 vertically dow wards. 5.12 (a) At the extreme ositio , the s eed of the bob is zero. If the stri g is cut, it will fallvertically dow wards.(b) At the mea ositio , the bob has a horizo tal velocity. If the stri g is cut, it will fallalo g a arabolic ath. 5.13 The readi g o the scale is a measure of the force o the floor by the ma . By the ThirdLaw, this is equal a d o osite to the ormal force N o the ma by the floor.(a) N = 70 10 = 700 N ; Readi g is 70 kg(b) 70 10 N = 70 5 ; Readi g is 35 kg(c) N 70 10 = 70

  

  

 

5 ; Readi g is 105 kg(d) 70 10 N = 70 10; Readi g would be zero; the scale would read zero. 5.14 (a) I all the three i tervals, acceleratio a d, therefore, force are zero.(b) 3 kg m s 1 at t = 0 ; (c) 3 kg m s 1 at t = 4 s. 5.15 If the 20 kg mass is ulled,600 T = 20 a , T = 10 a a = 20 m s 2 , T = 200 NIf the 10 kg mass is ulled, a = 20 m s 2 , T = 400 N 5.16 T 8 10 = 8 a ,12 10 T = 12 a i.e. a = 2 m s 2 , T = 96 N 5.17 By mome tum co servatio ri ci le, total fi al mome tum is zero. Two mome tumvectors ca ot sum to a ull mome tum u less they are equal a d o osite. 5.18

 

 



 

Im ulse o each ball = 0.05 12 = 0.6 kg m s 1 i mag itude. The two im ulses areo osite i directio . 5.19 Use mome tum co servatio : 100 v = 0.02 80 v = 0.016 m s 1 = 1.6 cm s 1 5.20 Im ulse is directed alo g the bisector of the i itial a d fi al directio s. Its mag itude is0.15 2 15 cos 22.5 = 4.2 kg m s 1 5.21 1 402 1.5 2 ms60 v 2 2 0.25 46.6N1.5 mv T R ANSWERS 224 21 200 ,whichgives 35ms max max mv v R 5.22 Alter ative (b) is correct, accordi g to the First Law 5.23 (a) The horse cart system has o exter al force i em ty s ace. The mutual forcesbetwee the horse a d the cart ca cel (Third Law). O the grou d, the co tact forcebetwee the system a d the grou d (frictio ) causes their motio from rest.(b) Due to i ertia of the body ot directly i co tact with the seat.(c) A law mower is ulled or ushed by a lyi g force at a a gle. Whe you ush, the ormal force ( N ) must be more tha its weight, for equilibrium i the vertical directio .This results i greater frictio f ( f

 

 

 

 

 

N ) a d, therefore, a greater a lied force to move.Just the o osite ha e s while ulli g.(d) To reduce the rate of cha ge of mome tum a d he ce to reduce the force ecessary to sto the ball. 5.24 A body with a co sta t s eed of 1 cm s 1 receives im ulse of mag itude0.04 kg 0.02 m s 1 = 8 10 4 kg m s 1 after every 2 s from the walls at x = 0 a d x = 2 cm. 5.25 Net force = 65 kg 1 m s 2 = 65 N a max = s g = 2 m s 2 5.26 Alternative (a) is correct. Note mg + T 2 = m v 22 /R ; T 1 mg = m v 12 /R The moral is : do not confuse the actual material forces on a body (tension, gravitationalforce, etc) with the effects they produce : centripetal acceleration v 22

   

/R or v 12 /R in thisexample. 5.27 (a) Free body : crew and passengersForce on the system by the floor = F upwards; weight of system = mg downwards; F mg = ma F 300 10 = 300 15 F = 7.5 10 3 N upwardBy the Third Law, force on the floor by the crew and passengers = 7.5 10 3 N downwards.(b) Free body : helicopter plus the crew and passengersForce by air on the system = R upwards; weight of system = mg downwards R mg = ma R 1300 10 = 1300 15 R = 3.25 10 4 N upwardsBy the Third Law, force (action) on the air by the helicopter = 3.25 10 4 N downwards.(c) 3.25 10 4 N upwards 5.28 Mass of water hitting the wall per second= 10 3 kg m 3 10 2 m

2 15 m s 1 = 150 kg s 1 Force by the wall = momentum loss of water per second = 150 kg s 1 15 m s -1 = 2.25 10 3 N 5.29 (a) 3 m g (down) (b) 3 m g (down) (c) 4 m g (up) 5.30 If N is the normal force on the wings, AN WER 225 2 2 cos , sin200 200which give 15kmtan 10 tan15 mv N mg N R v R g & & & ! ! ! ! ! ( 5.31 The centripetal force is provided by the lateral thrust by the rail on the flanges of thewheels. By the Third Law, the train exerts an equal and opposite thrust on the railcausing its wear and tear.Angle of banking = 21 1 15 15tan tan 3730 10 v R g ) * ) *! (+ ,+ , - .- . 5.32 Consider the forces on the man in equilibrium : his weight, force due to the rope andnormal force due to the floor.(a) 750 N (b) 250 N; mode (b) should be adopted. 5.33 (a) T 400 = 240, T = 640 N(b) 400 T = 160, T

= 240 N(c) T = 400 N( d ) T = 0The rope will break in case (a). 5.34 We assume perfect contact between bodies A and B and the rigid partition. In that case, the self-adjusting normal force on B by the partition (reaction) equals 200 N.There is no impending motion and no friction. The action-reaction forces between A and B are also 200 N. When the partition is removed, kinetic friction comes into play.Acceleration of A + B = [ 200 ( 150 0.15 ) ] / 15 =11.8 m s 2 Friction on A = 0.15 50 = 7.5 N200 7.5 F AB = 5 11.8 F AB = 1.3 10 2 N; opposite to motion . F BA = 1.3 10 2 N; in the direction of motion. 5.35 (a) Maximum frictional force possible for opposing impending relative motion betweenthe block and the trolley = 150 0.18 = 27 N, which is more than the frictional force of 15 0.5 = 7.5 N needed to accelerate the box with the trolley. When the trolley moveswith uniform velocity, there is no force of friction acting on the block.(b) For the accelerated (non-inertial) observer, frictional force is opposed by the pseudo-force of the same magnitude, keeping the box at rest relative to the observer. When thetrolley moves with uniform velocity there is no pseudo-force for the moving (inertial)observer and no friction. 5.36 Acceleration of the box due to friction = g = 0.15 10 = 1.5 m s 2 . But the accelerationof the truck is greater. The acceleration of the

box relative to the truck is 0.5 m s -2 towards the rear end. The time taken for the box to fall off the truck =2 520 s0.5 .During this time, the truck covers a distance = 2 20 = 20 m. AN WER 226 5.37 For the coin to revolve with the disc, the force of friction should be enough to provide thenecessary centripetal force, i.e g m ! r m / 2 v . Now v = r , here T ! 2 " ! is the ang lar fre ency of the disc. For a given and , the condition is r g / 2 . The condition issatisfied by the nearer coin ( 4 cm from the centre). 5.38 At the ppermost point, , 2 Rmmg N v !% here N is the normal force (do n ards) on themotorcyclist by the ceiling of the chamber. The minim m possible speed at the ppermost point corresponds to N

 

= 0. 1min i.e. 25 10 16ms v R g 5.39 The horizontal force N by the all on the man provides the needed centripetal force : N = m R 2 . The frictional force f (vertically p ards) opposes the eight mg . The manremains st ck to the all after the floor is removed if mg = f < N i.e. mg < m R 2 . Theminim m ang lar speed of rotation of the cylinder is !! R ! / g min " 5 s 1 5.40 Consider the free-body diagram of the bead hen the radi s vector joining the centre of the ire makes an angle ith the vertical do n ard direction. We have mg = N cos and m R sin 2 = N sin

 

 

. These e ations give cos = g/R 2 . Since cos 1,the bead remains at its lo ermost point for Rg / " .For 0 60 # .e.i 21 # cos,2 !!! Rg ! . Chapter 66.1 (a) +ve (b) ve (c) ve (d) + ve (e) ve 6.2 (a) 882 J ; (b) 247 J; (c) 635 J ; (d) 635 J;Work done by the net force on a body e als change in its kinetic energy. 6.3 (a) x > a ; 0 (c) x < a , x > b ; V 1 (b) < x < ; V 1 (d) b /2 < x

< a / 2, a / 2 < x < b / 2; V 1 6.5 (a) r cket; (b) F r a c nservative f rce w rk d ne ver a path is minus f change inp tential energy. Over a c mplete rbit, there is n change in p tential energy; (c) K.E.increases, but P.E. decreases, and the sum decreases due t dissipati n against fricti n;(d) in the sec nd case. 6.6 (a) decrease; (b) kinetic energy; (c) external f rce; (d) t tal linear m mentum, and als t tal energy (if the system f tw b dies is is lated). 6.7 (a) F ; (b) F ; (c) F ; (d) F (true usually but n t always, why?) 6.8 (a) N (b) Yes(c) Linear m mentum is c nserved during an inelastic c llisi n, kinetic energy is, f c urse, n t c nserved even after the c llisi n is ver.(d) elastic. 6.9 (b) t ANSWERS 227 6.10 (c) 2/3 t 6.11 12 J 6.12 The electr n is faster, v e / v p = 13.5 6.13 0.082 J in each half ; 0.163 J 6.14 Yes, m mentum f the m lecule + wall system is c nserved. The wall has a rec ilm mentum such that the m mentum f the wall + m mentum f the utg ing m leculeequals m mentum f the inc ming m lecule, assuming the wall t be stati nary initially.H wever, the rec il m mentum pr duces negligible vel city because f the large mass f the wall. Since kinetic energy is als c nserved, the c llisi n is elastic. 6.15 43.6 kW 6.16 (b) 6.17 It transfers its entire m mentum t the ball n the table, and d es n t rise at all.

 

 

 

  

 

  

 

6.18 5.3 m s 1 6.19 27 km h 1 (n change in speed) 6.20 50 J 6.21 (a) m Avt (b) 3 /2 K Av t (c) P = 4.5 kW 6.22 (a) 49,000 J (b) 6.45 10 3 kg 6.23 (a) 200 m 2 (b) c mparable t the r f f a large h use f dimensi n 14m 14m. 6.24 21.2 cm, 28.5 J 6.25 N , the st ne n the steep plane reaches the b tt m earlier; yes, they reach with thesame speed v, [since mgh =(1/2) m v 2 ] v B = v C = 14.1 m s 1 , t B = 2 2 s , t C

 

 

= 2 2 s 6.26 0.125 6.27 8.82 J f r b th cases. 6.28 The child gives an impulse t the tr lley at the start and then runs with a c nstant relative vel city f 4 m s 1 with respect t the tr lleys new vel city. Apply m mentumc nservati n f r an bserver utside. 10.36 m s 1 , 25.9 m. 6.29 All except (V) are imp ssible. Chapter 77.1 The ge metrical centre f each. N , the CM may lie utside the b dy, as in case f a ring, a h ll w sphere, a h ll w cylinder, a h ll w cube etc. 7.2 L cated n the line j ining H and C1 nuclei at a distance f 1.24 fr m the H end. 7.3 The speed f the CM f the (tr lley + child) system remains unchanged (equal t v )because n external f rce acts n the system. The f rces inv lved in running n thetr lley are internal t this system. 7.6 l z = xp y yp x , l x = yp z zp y , l y = zp x xp z 7.8 72 cm 7.9 3675 N n each fr nt wheel, 5145 N n each back wheel. 7.10 (a) 7/5 MR 2 (b) 3/2 MR

 

 

 

 

  

    

  

2 ANSWERS 228 7.11 Sphere 7.12 Kinetic Energy = 3125 J; Angular M mentum = 62.5 J s 7.13 (a) 100 rev/min (use angular m mentum c nservati n).(b) The new kinetic energy is 2.5 times the initial kinetic energy f r tati n. The childuses his internal energy t increase his r tati nal kinetic energy. 7.14 25 s 2 ; 10 m s 2 7.15 36 kW 7.16 at R/6 fr m the center f riginal disc pp site t the center f cut p rti n. 7.17 66.0 g 7.18 (a) Yes; (b) Yes, (c) the plane with smaller inclinati n ( ! a sin ) 7.19 4J 7.20 6.75 10 12 rad s 1 7.21 (a) 3.8 m (b) 3.0 s 7.22 Tension = 98 N, N B = 245 N, N C = 147 N. 7.23 (a) 59 rev/min, (b) No, the K.E. is increased and it comes from ork done by man inthe process. 7.24 0.625 rad s 1 7.27 (a) By ang lar moment m conservation, the common ang lar speed = ( I 1

  

  

 

 

 1 + I 2 2 ) / ( I 1 + I 2 )(b) The loss is d e to energy dissipation in frictional contact hich brings the t odiscs to a common ang lar speed . Ho ever, since frictional tor es are internalto the system, ang lar moment m is naltered. 7.28 Velocity of A = o R in the same direction as the arro ; velocity of B = o R in theopposite direction to the arro ; velocity of C = o R /2 in the same direction as thearro . The disc ill not roll on a frictionless plane. 7.29 (a) Frictional force at B opposes velocity of B. Therefore, frictional force is in the samedirection as the arro . The sense of frictional tor e is s ch as to oppose ang lar motion. ooooo and are bo h normal o he paper, he firs in o he paper, and he secondcoming ou of he paper.(b) Fric ional force decreases he veloci y of he poin of con ac B. Perfec rollingensues when his veloci y is zero. Once his is so, he force of fric ion is zero. 7.30 Fric ional force causes he CM o accelera e from i s ini ial zero veloci y. Fric ional orque causes re arda ion in he ini ial angular speed o . The e ations of motion are: k m g =

 

 

 

  

   

    

 

    

 

m a and k m g R = I , which yield v = k g t , = o k m g R t / I . Rollingbegins hen v = R . For a ring, I = m R 2 , and rolling begins at t = o R /2 k g . For a disc, I = m R 2 and rolling starts at break line t = R

o /3 k g . Th s, the disc begins toroll earlier than the ring, for the same R and o . The act al times can be obtained for R = 10 cm, o = 10 rad s 1 , k = 0.2 AN WER 229 7.31 (a) 16.4 N(b) Zero(c) 37 approx. Chapter 88.1 (a ) No.(b) Yes, if the size of the space ship is large enough for him to detect the variation in g.(c) Tidal effect depends inversely on the cube of the distance unlike force, which dependsinversely on the square of the distance. 8.2 (a) decreases; (b) decreases; (c) mass of the body; (d) more. 8.3 maller by a factor of 0.63. 8.5 3.54 10 8 years. 8.6 (a) Kinetic energy, (b) less, 8.7 (a) No, (b) No, (c) No, (d) Yes[The escape velocity is independent of mass of the body and the direction of projection.It depends upon the gravitational potential at the point from where the body is launched. ince this potential depends (slightly) on the latitude and height of the point, the escapevelocity (speed) depends (slightly) on these factors.] 8.8 All quantities vary over an orbit except angular momentum and total energy. 8.9 (b), (c) and (d) 8.10 and 8.11 For

these two problems, complete the hemisphere to sphere. At both P, and C,potential is constant and hence intensity = 0. Therefore, for the hemisphere, (c) and (e)are correct. 8.12 2.6 10 8 m 8.13 2.0 10 30 kg 8.14 1.43 10 12 m 8.15 28 N 8.16 125 N 8.17 8.0 10 6 m from the earths centre 8.18 31.7 km/s 8.19 5.9 10 9 JP C AN WER 230 8.20 2.6 10 6 m/s 8.21 0, 2.7 10 -8 J/kg; an object placed at the mid point is in an unstable equilibrium 8.22 9.4 10 6 J/kg 8.23

G M / R 2 = 2.3 10 12 m s -2 , 2 R = 1.1 10 6 m s -2 ; here is the ang lar speed of rotation.Th s in the rotating frame of the star, the in ard force is m ch greater than the o t ardcentrif gal force at its e ator. The object ill remain st ck (and not fly off d e tocentrif gal force). Note, if ang lar speed of rotation increases say by a factor of 2000,the object ill fly off. 8.24 3 10 11 J 8.25 495 km ANSWERS 203 A PPENDICES APPENDIX A 1THE GREEK ALPHABETAPPENDIX A 2COMMON SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES 204 PHYSICS APPENDIX A 3SOME IMPORTANT CONSTANTS Other sef l constants 205APPENDICES APPENDIX A 4CONVERSION FACTORS Conversion factors are ritten as e ations for simplicity. Length Angle and Ang lar Speed 1 km = 0.6215 mi rad = 180 1mi = 1.609 km 1 rad = 57.30 1m = 1.0936 yd = 3.281 ft = 39.37 i

 

 

 

  

= 1.745 10 2 rad1 i = 2.54 cm 1 rev mi 1 = 0.1047 rad s 1 1 ft = 12 i = 30.48 cm 1 rad s 1 = 9.549 rev mi 1 1 yd = 3ft = 91.44 cm Mass 1 lightyear = 1 ly = 9.461 x 10 15 m 1 kg = 1000 g1 A = 0.1 m 1 to e = 1000 kg = 1 Mg Area 1 u = 1.6606 10 27 kg1 m 2 = 10 4 cm 2 1 kg = 6.022 10 26 u1km 2 = 0.3861 mi 2 = 247.1 acres 1 slug = 14.59 kg1 i 2 = 6.4516 cm 2 1 kg = 6.852 10 2 slug1ft 2 = 9.29 x 10 2 m 2 1 u = 931.50 MeV/c 2 1 m 2 = 10.76 ft 2 De sity 1 acre = 43,560 ft



2 1 g cm 3 = 1000 kg m 3 = 1 kg L 1 1 mi 2 = 460 acres = 2.590 km 2 ForceVolume 1 N = 0.2248 lbf = 10 5 dy 1m 3 = 10 6 cm 3 1 lbf = 4.4482 N1 L = 1000 cm 3 = 10 3 m 3 1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf 1 gal = 3.786 L Time 1 gal = 4 qt = 8 t = 128 oz = 231 i 3 1 h = 60 mi = 3.6 ks1 i 3 = 16.39 cm 3 1 d = 24 h = 1440 mi = 86.4 ks1ft 3 = 1728 i 3 = 28.32 L = 2.832 10 4 cm 3 1y = 365.24 d = 31.56 Ms S eed Pressure 1 km h 1 = 0.2778 m s 1 = 0.6215 mi h 1 1 Pa = 1 N m 2 1mi h 1 = 0.4470 m s 1 = 1.609 km h 1

1 bar = 100 kPa 1mi h 1 = 1.467 ft s 1 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar Mag etic Field 1atm = 14.7 lbf/i 2 = 760 mm Hg1 G = 10 4 T = 29.9 i Hg = 33.8 ft H 2 O1 T = 1 Wb m 2 = 10 4 G 1 lbf i 2 = 6.895 kPa 1 torr = 1mm Hg = 133.32 Pa 206 PHYSICS E ergy Power 1 kW h = 3.6 MJ 1 horse ower (h ) = 550 ft lbf/s1 cal = 4.186 J = 745.7 W 1ft lbf = 1.356 J = 1.286 10 3 Btu 1 Btu mi 1 = 17.58 W 1 L atm = 101.325 J 1 W = 1.341 10 3 h 1 L atm = 24.217 cal = 0.7376 ft lbf/s1 Btu = 778 ft lb = 252 cal = 1054.35 J Thermal Co ductivity 1 eV = 1.602 10 19 J 1 W m 1 K 1 = 6.938 Btu i /hft 2 F 1 u c 2 = 931.50 MeV 1 Btu i /hft 2 F = 0.1441 W/m K 1 erg = 10 7 J APPENDIX A 5MATHEMATICAL FORMULAEGeometry Circle of radius r: circumfere ce = 2

 r; area = r 2 S here of radius r: area = 4 r 2 ; volume = 43 3 r Right circular cyli der of radius r a d height h: area = 2 r 2 +2 r h ;volume = h r 2 ;Tria gle of base a a d altitude h .area = 12 a h Quadratic Formula If ax 2 + bx + c = 0,the 24 2 ac b b x = Trigo ometric Fu ctio s of A gle

 

sin costan cot sec csc y x r r y x x y r r x y = == == = Pythagorean Theorem In this right triangle, a 2 + b 2 = c 2 Fig. A 5.2 Triangles Angles are A, B, C Opposite sides are a, b, c Angles A + B + C = 180 0 c C b B a A sinsinsin == c 2 = a 2 + b 2 2 ab cos C Exterior angle D = A + C Fig. A 5.1 207APPENDICES Fig. A 5.3 Mathematical Signs and Symbols= e als e als approximately ~ is the order of magnit de of is not e al to is identical to, is defined as> is greater than (>> is m ch greater than)< is less than (<< is m ch less than) is greater than or e al to (or, is no lessthan) is less than or e al to (or, is no morethan) pl s or min s is pr p rti nal t the sum f x r < x

 

  

> r x av the average value f x Trig n metric Identities sin (90 0 ) = cos cos (90 0 ) = sin sin / cos = tan sin 2 + cos 2 =1sec 2 tan 2 = 1csc 2 cot 2 = 1sin2 = 2 sin cos cos2 = cos 2 sin 2

 

 = 2cos 2 1= 1 2 sin 2 sin( ) = sin cos cos sin cos ( ) = cos cos ! sin sin tan ( ) = t nt nt nt n 1 ! = sin sin ()() 1 12sin cos2 2 a a = m cos

+ cos ( ) ( ) 21cos 21cos 2 += cos cos ( ) ( ) + = 21sin21sin2 Binomi l Theorem )1x .....( !2x )1n(n !1nx 1)x 1( 22n <+ + = )1x .....( !2x )1n(n !1nx 1)x 1( 22n <+++= ! Exponenti l Exp nsion .....!3x !2x x 1e 32x ++++= Log rithmic Exp nsion ( ) 2 3 1 1ln (1+x) = x x + x ..... x <12 3 Trigonometric Exp nsion( in radians) .....1523=tan.....!4!2 1=cos.....!5!3 =sin 534253 ++ + + Prod cts of Vectors Let "" i, j k and be nit vectors in the x, y and z directions. Then "" "" " " "" "" ""

i i j j k k , i j j k k i = = = 1 = = = 0 jik ,ik j ,k ji ,k k jj ii = = =0=== Any vector a with components a x , a y , and a z a ong the x,y, and z axes can be written, a i + j + k = a a a x y z " " 208 PHYSICS Let a, b and c be arbitary vectors withmagnitudes a , b and c . Then ( ) ( ) ( ) a b c a b a c = + + ( a) b a ( b) (a b)s s s = = (s is a sca ar)Let be the smaller of the t o anglesbet een a and b

. Then cosabba ba ba zzy y x x == = abba sinab = ba ( ) ( ) ( ) x y z x y z y z y z z x z x x y x y a a a b b b a b b a a b b a a b b a = - == - + - + i j ka b b ai j k a .( b c) = b . (c a) = c . ( a b)a (b c) = ( a . c) b (a . b) c APPENDIX A 6SI DERIVED UNITSA 6.1Some SI Derived Units expressed in SI Base Units 209APPENDICES A 6.2SI Derived Units ith special namesA 6.3Some SI Derived Units expressed by means of SI Units ith special names

210 PHYSICS APPENDIX A 7GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES Symbols for physical antities are normally single letters and printed in italic (or sloping) type.Ho ever, in case of the t o letter symbols, appearing as a factor in a prod ct, some spacing isnecessary to separate this symbol from other symbols. Abbreviations, i.e., shortened forms of names or expressions, s ch as p.e. for potential energy,are not sed in physical e ations. These abbreviations in the text are ritten in ordinary normal/roman ( pright) type. Vectors are printed in bold and normal/roman ( pright) type. Ho ever, in class room sit ations,vectors may be indicated by an arro on the top of the symbol. M ltiplication or prod ct of t o physical antities is ritten ith some spacing bet een them.Division of one physical antity by another may be indicated ith a horizontal bar or ith Absorbed dose rate 211APPENDICES solid s, a slash or a short obli e stroke mark (/) or by riting it as a prod ct of then merator and the inverse first po er of the denominator, sing brackets at appropriateplaces to clearly disting ish bet een the n merator and the denominator. Symbols for chemical elements are ritten in normal/roman ( pright) type. The symbol isnot follo ed by a f ll stop.For example, Ca, C, H, He, U, etc. The attached n merals specifying a n clide are placed as a left s bscript (atomic n mber)and s perscript (mass n mber).For example, a U-235 n clide is expressed as 92235 U ( ith 235 expressing the mass n mber and 92 as the atomic n mber of rani m ith chemical symbol U). The right s perscript position is sed, if re ired, for indicating a state of ionisation (incase of ions).For example, Ca 2+ , 34 PO APPENDIX A 8GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR SI UNITS, SOME OTHER UNITS, ANDSI PREFIXES Symb ls f r units f physical quantities are printed/written in N rmal/R man (upright) type. Standard and rec mmended symb ls f r units are written in l wer case r man (upright)type, starting with small letters. The sh rter designati ns f r units such as kg, m, s, cd,etc., are symb ls and n t the abbreviati ns. The unit names are never capitalised. H wever,the unit symb ls are capitalised nly if the symb l f r a unit is derived fr m a pr per name f scientist, beginning with a capital, n rmal/r man

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

letter.F r example, m f r the unit metre, d f r the unit day, atm f r the unit atm sphericpressure, Hz f r the unit hertz, Wb f r the unit weber, J f r the unit j ule, A f r the unit ampere, V f r the unit v lt, etc. The single excepti n is L, which is the symb l f r theunit litre. This excepti n is made t av id c nfusi n f the l wer case letter l with theArabic numeral l. Symb ls f r units d n t c ntain any final full st p at the end f rec mmended letter andremain unaltered in the plural, using nly singular f rm f the unit.F r example, f r a length f 25 centimetres the unit symb l is written as 25 cmand n t 25 cms r 25 cm. r 25 cms., etc. Use f s lidus ( / ) is rec mmended nly f r indicating a divisi n f ne letter unit symb l by an ther unit symb l. N t m re than ne s lidus is used.F r example :m/s 2 r m s 2 (with a spacing between m and s 2 ) but n t m/s/s;1 Pl =1 N s m 2 = 1 N s/m 2 = 1 kg/s m=1 kg m 1 s 1 , but n t 1 kg/m/s;J/K m l r J K 1 m l 1 , but n t J/K/m l; etc. Prefix symb ls are printed in n rmal/r man (upright) type with ut spacing between theprefix symb l and the unit symb l. Thus certain appr ved prefixes written very cl se t theunit symb l are used t indicate decimal fracti ns r multiples f a SI unit, when it isinc nveniently small r large.F r example :megawatt ( 1MW = 10 6 W); nan sec nd (1 ns = 10 9 s);centimetre (1 cm = 10 2 m); pic farad (1 pF = 10 12 F);.kil metre ( 1 km = 10 3 m); micr sec nd (1 s = 10 6 s);millivolt (1 mV= 10 3 V); gigahertz (1GHz = 10 9 Hz); 212 PHY IC kilowatt-hour (1 kW h = 10

  

   

 

 

 

 

     

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

 

  

      

 

 

3 W h = 3.6 MJ = 3.6 10 6 J);microampere (1 A = 10 6 A); micron (1 m = 10 6 m);angstrom (1 =0.1 nm = 10 10 m); etc.The unit micron which equals 10 6 m, i.e. a micrometre, is simply the name given toconvenient sub-multiple of the metre. In the same spirit, the unit fermi, equal to a femtometre or 10 15 m has been used as the convenient length unit in nuclear studies.Similarly, the unit barn, equal to 10 28 m 2 , is a convenient measure of cross-sectionalareas in sub-atomic particle collisions. However, the unit micron is preferred over theunit micrometre to avoid confusion of the micrometre with the length measuringinstrument called micrometer. These newly formed multiples or sub-multiples (cm, km, m, s, ns) of SI units, metre and second, constitute a new composite inseparable symbolfor units. When a prefix is placed before the symbol of a unit, the combination of prefix and symbol isconsidered as a new symbol, for the unit, which can be raised to a positive or negativepower without using brackets. These can be combined with other unit symbols to formcompound unit. Rules for binding-in indices are not those of ordinary algebra.For example :cm 3 means always (cm) 3 = (0.01 m) 3 = (10 2 m) 3 = 10 6 m 3 , but never 0.01 m 3

or 10 2 m 3 or 1cm 3 (prefix c with a spacing with m 3 is meaningless as prefix c is to be attachedto a unit symbol and it has no physical significance or independent existence without attachment with a unit symbol).Similarly, m 2 means always (m ) 2 = (0.001 ) 2 = (10 3 ) 2 =10 6

2 or m 2 ;1 cm 1 = (10 2 m) 1 =10 2 m 1 , but not 1c m 1 or 10 2 m 1 ;1 s 1 means always (10 6 s) 1 =10 6 s 1

2 , but never 0.001 2 or 10 3

! ! !

, but not 1 10 6 s 1 ;1 km 2 means always (km) 2 = (10 3 m) 2 =10 6 m 2 , but not 10 3 m 2 ;1mm 2 means always (mm) 2 = (10 3 m) 2 =10 6 m 2 , but not 10 3 m 2 . prefix is never used alone. It is always attached to a unit symbol and written or fixedbefore (pre-fix) the unit symbol.For example :10 3 /m 3 means 1000/m 3 or 1000 m -3 , but not k/m 3 or k m -3 .10 6 /m 3 means 10,00,000/m 3 or 10,00,000 m

3 , but not M/m 3 or M m 3 Prefix symbol is written very close to the unit symbol without spacing between them, whileunit symbols are written separately with spacing when units are multiplied together.For example :m s -1 (symbols m and s 1 , in lower case, small letter m and s, are separate and independent unit symbols for metre and second respectively, with spacing between them) means metreper second, but not milli per second.Similarly, ms 1 [symbol m and s are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m(for prefix milli) and unit symbol s, in lower case, small letter (for unit second) without any spacing between them and making ms as a new composite unit] means per millisecond,but never metre per second.mS 1 [symbol m and S are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m (for prefix milli) and unit symbol S, in capital roman letter S (for unit siemens) without any spacingbetween them, and making mS as a new composite unit] means per millisiemens, but never per millisecond.C m [symbol C and m are written separately, representing unit symbols C (for unit coulomb)and m (for unit metre), with spacing between them] means coulomb metre, but never centimetre, etc. The use of double prefixes is avoided when single prefixes are available.For example : 213 PPENDICES 10 9 m = 1nm (nanometre), but not 1m m (millimicrometre),10 6 m= 1 m (micron), but not 1mmm(millimillimetre),10 12 F= 1 pF (picofarad), but not 1 F (micromicrofarad),10 9 W=1 GW (giga watt), but not 1 kMW (kilomegawatt), etc. The use of a combination of unit and the symbols for units is avoided when the physical quantity is expressed by combining two or more units.For example :joule per mole kelvin is written as J/mol K or J mol 1 K 1 , but not joule/mole K or J/ mol kelvin or J/mole K, etc.joule per tesla is written as J/T or J T 1 , but not joule /T or J per tesla or J/tesla, etc.newton metre second is written as N m s, but not Newton m second or N m second or N metre sor

newton metre s, etc.joule per kilogram kelvin is written as J/kg K or J kg 1 K 1 , but not J/kilog K or joule/kg K or J/kg kelvin or J/kilogram K, etc. To simplify calculations, the prefix symbol is attached to the unit symbol in the numerator andnot to the denominator.For example :10 6 N/m 2 is written more conveniently as MN/m 2 , in preference to N/mm 2 . preference has been expressed for multiples or sub-multiples involving the factor 1000, 10 +3n where n is the integer. Proper care is needed when same symbols are used for physical quantities and units of physicalquantities.For example :The physical quantity weight ( W ) expressed as a product of mass ( m ) and acceleration due togravity ( g ) may be written in terms of symbols W , m and g printed in italic ( or sloping) type as W = m g , preferably with a spacing between m and g . It should not be confused with the unit symbols for the units watt (W), metre (m) and gram (g). However, in the equation W = m g , thesymbol W expresses the weight with a unit symbol J, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg and g as the acceleration due to gravity with a unit symbol m/s 2 . Similarly, in equation F = m a

, thesymbol F expresses the force with a unit symbol N, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg, and a as the acceleration with a unit symbol m/s 2 . These symbols for physical quantities should not be confused with the unit symbols for the units farad (F), metre(m) and are (a).Proper distinction must be made while using the symbols h (prefix hecto, and unit hour), c(prefix centi, and unit carat), d (prefix deci and unit day), T (prefix tera, and unit tesla), a (prefix atto, and unit are), da (prefix deca, and unit deciare), etc. SI base unit kilogram for mass is formed by attaching SI prefix (a multiple equal to 10 3 ) kilo toa cgs (centimetre, gram, second) unit gram and this may seem to result in an anomaly. Thus,while a thousandth part of unit of length (metre) is called a millimetre (mm), a thousandth part of the unit of mass (kg) is not called a millikilogram, but just a gram. This appears to give theimpression that the unit of mass is a gram (g) which is not true. Such a situation has arisenbecause we are unable to replace the name kilogram by any other suitable unit. Therefore, asan exception, name of the multiples and sub-multiples of the unit of mass are formed by attachingprefixes to the word gram and not to the word kilogram.For example :10 3 kg =1 megagram ( 1Mg), but not 1 kilo kilogram (1 kkg);10 6 kg = 1 milligram ( 1 mg), but not 1 microkilogram ( 1 kg);10 3 kg = 1 gram (1g), but not 1 millikilogram (1 mkg), etc.It may be emphasised again that you should use the internationally approved and recommendedsymbols only. Continual practice of following general rules and guidelines in unit symbol writingwould make you learn mastering the correct use of SI units, prefixes and related symbols for physicalquantities in a proper perspective. 214 PHYSICS PPENDIX 9DIMENSION L FORMUL E OF PHYSIC L QU NTITIES 215 PPENDICES 216 PHYSICS 217 PPENDICES 218 PHYSICS Physics 11

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* 1.1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ? <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/1/WHAT-IS-PHYSICS> * 1.1 What is physics ? <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/2/What-is-physics> * 1.2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/3/SCOPE-AND-EXCITEMENT-OF-PHYSICS> * 1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/4/PHYSICS-TECHNOLOGY-AND-SOCIETY> * 1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE* <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/5/FUNDAMENTAL-FORCES-IN-NATURE> * 1.5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/6/NATURE-OF-PHYSICAL-LAWS> * 2.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/7/INTRODUCTION> * 2.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/8/THE-INTERNATIONAL-SYSTEM-OF-UNITS> * 2.1 Introduction <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/9/Introduction> * 2.2 The international system of units <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/10/The-international-system-of-units> * 2.3 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/11/MEASUREMENT-OF-LENGTH> * 2.4 MEASUREMENT OF MASS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/12/MEASUREMENT-OF-MASS> * 2.5 MEASUREMENT OF TIME <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/13/MEASUREMENT-OF-TIME> * 2.6 ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/14/ACCURACY-PRECISION-OF-INSTRUMENTS-AND -ERRORS-IN-MEASUREMENT> * 2.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/15/SIGNIFICANT-FIGURES> * 2.8 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/16/DIMENSIONS-OF-PHYSICAL-QUANTITIES> * 2.9 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/17/DIMENSIONAL-FORMULAE-AND-DIMENSIONALEQUATIONS> * 2.10 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/18/DIMENSIONAL-ANALYSIS-AND-ITS-APPLICAT IONS> * 3.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/19/INTRODUCTION> * 3.2 POSITION, PATH LENGTH AND DISPLACEMENT <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/20/POSITION-PATH-LENGTH-AND-DISPLACEMENT > * 3.3 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEED <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/21/AVERAGE-VELOCITY-AND-AVERAGE-SPEED> * 3.4 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/22/INSTANTANEOUS-VELOCITY-AND-SPEED> * 3.5 ACCELERATION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/23/ACCELERATION> * 3.6 KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/24/KINEMATIC-EQUATIONS-FOR-UNIFORMLY-ACC ELERATED-MOTION> * 3.7 RELATIVE VELOCITY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/25/RELATIVE-VELOCITY> * 4.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/26/INTRODUCTION> * 4.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

<http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/27/SCALARS-AND-VECTORS> * 4.1 Introduction <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/28/Introduction> * 4.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL NUMBERS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/29/MULTIPLICATION-OF-VECTORS-BY-REAL-NUM BERS> * 4.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS GRAPHICAL METHOD <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/30/ADDITION-AND-SUBTRACTION-OF-VECTORS-% E2%80%94-GRAPHICAL-METHOD> * 4.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/31/RESOLUTION-OF-VECTORS> * 4.6 VECTOR ADDITION ANALYTICAL METHOD <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/32/VECTOR-ADDITION-%E2%80%93-ANALYTICALMETHOD> * 4.7 MOTION IN A PLANE <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/33/MOTION-IN-A-PLANE> * 4.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/34/MOTION-IN-A-PLANE-WITH-CONSTANT-ACCEL ERATION> * 4.9 RELATIVE VELOCITY IN TWO DIMENSIONS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/35/RELATIVE-VELOCITY-IN-TWO-DIMENSIONS> * 4.10 PROJECTILE MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/36/PROJECTILE-MOTION> * 4.11 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/37/UNIFORM-CIRCULAR-MOTION> * 5.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/38/INTRODUCTION> * 5.3 THE LAW OF INERTIA <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/39/THE-LAW-OF-INERTIA> * 5.4 NEWTONS FIRST LAW OF MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/40/NEWTON%E2%80%99S-FIRST-LAW-OF-MOTION> * 5.5 NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/41/NEWTON%E2%80%99S-SECOND-LAW-OF-MOTION > * 5.6 NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/42/NEWTON%E2%80%99S-THIRD-LAW-OF-MOTION> * 5.7 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/43/CONSERVATION-OF-MOMENTUM> * 5.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/44/EQUILIBRIUM-OF-A-PARTICLE> * 5.9 COMMON FORCES IN MECHANICS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/45/COMMON-FORCES-IN-MECHANICS> * 5.10 CIRCULAR MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/46/CIRCULAR-MOTION> * 5.11 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/47/SOLVING-PROBLEMS-IN-MECHANICS> * 6.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/48/INTRODUCTION> * 6.1 Introduction <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/49/Introduction> * 6.2 NOTIONS OF WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY: THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/50/NOTIONS-OF-WORK-AND-KINETIC-ENERGY-TH E-WORK-ENERGY-THEOREM> * 6.4 KINETIC ENERGY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/51/KINETIC-ENERGY> * 6.5 WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/52/WORK-DONE-BY-A-VARIABLE-FORCE> * 6.6 THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM FOR A VARIABLE FORCE <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/53/THE-WORK-ENERGY-THEOREM-FOR-A-VARIABL E-FORCE> * 6.7 THE CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL ENERGY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/54/THE-CONCEPT-OF-POTENTIAL-ENERGY> * 6.8 THE CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/55/THE-CONSERVATION-OF-MECHANICAL-ENERGY

> * 6.9 THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SPRING <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/56/THE-POTENTIAL-ENERGY-OF-A-SPRING> * 6.10 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY : THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/57/VARIOUS-FORMS-OF-ENERGY-THE-LAW-OF-CO NSERVATION-OF-ENERGY> * 6.12 COLLISIONS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/58/COLLISIONS> * 7.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/59/INTRODUCTION> * 7.2 CENTRE OF MASS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/60/CENTRE-OF-MASS> * 7.3 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/61/MOTION-OF-CENTRE-OF-MASS> * 7.4 LINEAR MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/62/LINEAR-MOMENTUM-OF-A-SYSTEM-OF-PARTIC LES> * 7.5 VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/63/VECTOR-PRODUCT-OF-TWO-VECTORS> * 7.6 ANGULAR VELOCITY AND ITS RELATION WITH LINEAR VELOCITY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/64/ANGULAR-VELOCITY-AND-ITS-RELATION-WIT H-LINEAR-VELOCITY> * 7.7 TORQUE AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/65/TORQUE-AND-ANGULAR-MOMENTUM> * 7.8 EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/66/EQUILIBRIUM-OF-A-RIGID-BODY> * 7.9 MOMENT OF INERTIA <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/67/MOMENT-OF-INERTIA> * 7.10 THEOREMS OF PERPENDICULAR AND PARALLEL AXES <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/68/THEOREMS-OF-PERPENDICULAR-AND-PARALLE L-AXES> * 7.11 KINEMATICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/69/KINEMATICS-OF-ROTATIONAL-MOTION-ABOUT -A-FIXED-AXIS> * 7.12 DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/70/DYNAMICS-OF-ROTATIONAL-MOTION-ABOUT-A -FIXED-AXIS> * 7.13 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN CASE OF ROTATION ABOUT A FIXED AXIS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/71/ANGULAR-MOMENTUM-IN-CASE-OF-ROTATIONABOUT-A-FIXED-AXIS> * 7.14 ROLLING MOTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/72/ROLLING-MOTION> * 8.1 INTRODUCTION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/73/INTRODUCTION> * 8.2 KEPLERS LAWS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/74/KEPLER%E2%80%99S-LAWS> * 8.3 UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/75/UNIVERSAL-LAW-OF-GRAVITATION> * 8.4 THE GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/76/THE-GRAVITATIONAL-CONSTANT> * 8.5 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY OF THE EARTH <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/77/ACCELERATION-DUE-TO-GRAVITY-OF-THE-EA RTH> * 8.6 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY BELOW AND ABOVE THE SURFACE OF EARTH <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/78/ACCELERATION-DUE-TO-GRAVITY-BELOW-AND -ABOVE-THE-SURFACE-OF-EARTH> * 8.7 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/79/GRAVITATIONAL-POTENTIAL-ENERGY> * 8.8 ESCAPE SPEED <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/80/ESCAPE-SPEED> * 8.9 EARTH SATELLITES <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/81/EARTH-SATELLITES> * 8.10 ENERGY OF AN ORBITING SATELLITE <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/82/ENERGY-OF-AN-ORBITING-SATELLITE>

* 8.11 GEOSTATIONARY AND POLAR SATELLITES <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/83/GEOSTATIONARY-AND-POLAR-SATELLITES> * 8.12 WEIGHTLESSNESS <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52897269/84/WEIGHTLESSNESS> Share & Embed <http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F528972 69%2FPhysics-11A%23source%3Afacebook><http://twitter.com/home?source=scribd.com& status=Reading%20%22Physics%2011A%22%20on%20Scribd%20http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com %2Fdoc%2F52897269%20%23Readcast><http://www.google.com/buzz/post?url=http%3A%2F% 2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F52897269%2FPhysics-11A&message=This%20book%20is%20meant %20for%20the%20students%20studying%20in%20schools%20which%20follows%20CBSE%20or% 20similar%20curriculum.%20It%20can%20also%20be%20referred%20for%20General%20Stud ies%20paper%20of%20UPSC%27s%20Civil%20Services%20Exam.%20All%20rights%20are%20re served%20by%20the%20publisher%20i.e.%20NCERT.%20The%20contents%20of%20the%20book %20has%20been%20downloaded%20from%20the%20site%3A%20http%3A...> <#> Related Documents PreviousNext 1. p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/48150045/Physics-Class-11-part-1> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/42327248/Physics-Inter-Ist-Year> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/35950331/Physics-XI-PartI> 2. p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/33638869/NCERT-Book-Physics-XI-1> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/19598964/NCERT-Physics-Inter-Ist-Year> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/14118870/NCERT-Book-Physics-XI-PartI> 3. p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/43756265/11th-Class-Physics-Www-Prep4civils-Com> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/35994601/0393112071-Physics-for-Engineers-and-Sc ientists-3E-Part1b> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/37545354/16/Speed-and-Velocity> 4. p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/37545354/35/Forces-I> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/37545354/w1book> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52035003/2/Dynamics-of-Rotational-Motion> 5. p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52035003/3/Gravitation-and-Space-Science> p. <http://www.scribd.com/doc/52035003/Std11-Phys-EM-1> p.

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