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LOGIC GATES THEORY: Circuit that takes the logical decision and the process are called logic

gates. Each gate has one or more input and only one output. OR, AND and NOT are basic gates. NAND, NOR and X-OR are known as universal gates. Basic gates form these gates. AND GATE: The AND gate performs a logical multiplication commonly known as AND function. The output is high when both the inputs are high. The output is low level when any one of the inputs is low. OR GATE: The OR gate performs a logical addition commonly known as OR function. The output is high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low level when both the inputs are low. NOT GATE: The NOT gate is called an inverter. The output is high when the input is low. The output is low when the input is high. NAND GATE: The NAND gate is a contraction of AND-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low and any one of the input is low .The output is low level when both inputs are high. NOR GATE: The NOR gate is a contraction of OR-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low. The output is low when one or both inputs are high. X-OR GATE: The output is high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low when both the inputs are low and both the inputs are high.

AND GATE: SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

OR GATE:

NOT GATE: SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

X-OR GATE : SYMBOL : PIN DIAGRAM :

2-INPUT NAND GATE: SYMBOL: PIN DIAGRAM:

3-INPUT NAND GATE :

NOR GATE:

ADDER AND SUBTRACTOR HALF ADDER: A half adder has two inputs for the two bits to be added and two outputs one from the sum S and other from the carry c into the higher adder position. Above circuit is called as a carry signal from the addition of the less significant bits sum from the X-OR Gate the carry out from the AND gate. FULL ADDER: A full adder is a combinational circuit that forms the arithmetic sum of input; it consists of three inputs and two outputs. A full adder is useful to add three bits at a time but a half adder cannot do so. In full adder sum output will be taken from X-OR Gate, carry output will be taken from OR Gate. HALF SUBTRACTOR: The half subtractor is constructed using X-OR and AND Gate. The half subtractor has two input and two outputs. The outputs are difference and borrow.

The difference can be applied using X-OR Gate, borrow output can be implemented using an AND Gate and an inverter. FULL SUBTRACTOR: The full subtractor is a combination of X-OR, AND, OR, NOT Gates. In a full subtractor the logic circuit should have three inputs and two outputs. The two half subtractor put together gives a full subtractor .The first half subtractor will be C and A B. The output will be difference output of full subtractor. The expression AB assembles the borrow output of the half subtractor and the second term is the inverted difference output of first X-OR. LOGIC DIAGRAM: HALF ADDER

TRUTH TABLE: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 CARRY 0 0 0 1 SUM 0 1 1 0

K-Map for SUM:

K-Map for CARRY:

SUM = AB + AB

CARRY = AB

LOGIC DIAGRAM: FULL ADDER FULL ADDER USING TWO HALF ADDER

TRUTH TABLE: A 0 0 0 0 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 CARRY 0 0 0 1 0 1 SUM 0 1 1 0 1 0


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1 1

1 1

0 1

1 1

0 1

K-Map for SUM:

SUM = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

K-Map for CARRY:

CARRY = AB + BC + AC

LOGIC DIAGRAM: HALF SUBTRACTOR

TRUTH TABLE: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 BORROW DIFFERENCE 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

K-Map for DIFFERENCE:

DIFFERENCE = AB + AB K-Map for BORROW:

BORROW = AB
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LOGIC DIAGRAM: FULL SUBTRACTOR

FULL SUBTRACTOR USING TWO HALF SUBTRACTOR:

TRUTH TABLE: A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

BORROW 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

DIFFERENCE 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

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K-Map for Difference:

Difference = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

K-Map for Borrow:

Borrow = AB + BC + AC

CODE CONVERTOR THEORY: The availability of large variety of codes for the same discrete elements of information results in the use of different codes by different systems. A conversion circuit must be inserted between the two systems if each uses different codes for same information. Thus, code converter is a circuit that makes the two systems compatible even though each uses different binary code. The bit combination assigned to binary code to gray code. Since each code uses four bits to represent a decimal digit. There are four inputs and four outputs. Gray code is a non-weighted code.
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The input variable are designated as B3, B2, B1, B0 and the output variables are designated as C3, C2, C1, Co. from the truth table, combinational circuit is designed. The Boolean functions are obtained from K-Map for each output variable. A code converter is a circuit that makes the two systems compatible even though each uses a different binary code. To convert from binary code to Excess-3 code, the input lines must supply the bit combination of elements as specified by code and the output lines generate the corresponding bit combination of code. Each one of the four maps represents one of the four outputs of the circuit as a function of the four input variables. A two-level logic diagram may be obtained directly from the Boolean expressions derived by the maps. These are various other possibilities for a logic diagram that implements this circuit. Now the OR gate whose output is C+D has been used to implement partially each of three outputs.

MULTIPLEXER AND DEMULTIPLEXER MULTIPLEXER: Multiplexer means transmitting a large number of information units over a smaller number of channels or lines. A digital multiplexer is a combinational circuit that selects binary information from one of many input lines and directs it to a single output line. The selection of a particular input line is controlled by a set of selection lines. Normally there are 2n input line and n selection lines whose bit combination determine which input is selected. DEMULTIPLEXER: The function of Demultiplexer is in contrast to multiplexer function. It takes information from one line and distributes it to a given number of output lines. For this reason, the demultiplexer is also known as a data distributor. Decoder can also be used as demultiplexer. In the 1: 4 demultiplexer circuit, the data input line goes to all of the AND gates. The data select lines enable only one gate at a time and the data on the data input line will pass through the selected gate to the associated data output line.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR 4:1 MULTIPLEXER:

FUNCTION TABLE: S1 0 0 1 1 S0 0 1 0 1 INPUTS Y D0 D0 S1 S0 D1 D1 S1 S0 D2 D2 S1 S0 D3 D3 S1 S0

Y = D0 S1 S0 + D1 S1 S0 + D2 S1 S0 + D3 S1 S0 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR MULTIPLEXER:

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TRUTH TABLE: S1 0 0 1 1 S0 0 1 0 1 Y = OUTPUT D0 D1 D2 D3

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR 1:4 DEMULTIPLEXER:

FUNCTION TABLE: S1 0 0 1 1 S0 0 1 0 1 INPUT X D0 = X S1 S0 X D1 = X S1 S0 X D2 = X S1 S0 X D3 = X S1 S0

Y = X S1 S0 + X S1 S0 + X S1 S0 + X S1 S0

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LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR DEMULTIPLEXER:

TRUTH TABLE: INPUT S1 S0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1

I/P 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

D0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

OUTPUT D1 D2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

D3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

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PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 74150:

PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 74154:

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`ENCODER AND DECODER ENCODER: An encoder is a digital circuit that perform inverse operation of a decoder. An encoder has 2n input lines and n output lines. In encoder the output lines generates the binary code corresponding to the input value. In octal to binary encoder it has eight inputs, one for each octal digit and three output that generate the corresponding binary code. In encoder it is assumed that only one input has a value of one at any given time otherwise the circuit is meaningless. It has an ambiguila that when all inputs are zero the outputs are zero. The zero outputs can also be generated when D0 = 1. DECODER: A decoder is a multiple input multiple output logic circuit which converts coded input into coded output where input and output codes are different. The input code generally has fewer bits than the output code. Each input code word produces a different output code word i.e there is one to one mapping can be expressed in truth table. In the block diagram of decoder circuit the encoded information is present as n input producing 2 n possible outputs. 2n output values are from 0 through out 2n 1. PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 7445: BCD TO DECIMAL DECODER:

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PIN DIAGRAM FOR IC 74147:

LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR ENCODER:

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TRUTH TABLE: Y1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Y2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Y3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 INPUT Y4 Y5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Y6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Y7 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 OUTPUT A B C 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

LOGIC DIAGRAM FOR DECODER:

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TRUTH TABLE: INPUT A 0 0 0 1 1 OUTPUT D1 D2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

E 1 0 0 0 0

B 0 0 1 0 1

D0 1 0 1 1 1

D3 1 1 1 1 0

SHIFT REGISTER

A register is capable of shifting its binary information in one or both directions is known as shift register. The logical configuration of shift register consist of a DFlip flop cascaded with output of one flip flop connected to input of next flip flop. All flip flops receive common clock pulses which causes the shift in the output of the flip flop. The simplest possible shift register is one that uses only flip flop. The output of a given flip flop is connected to the input of next flip flop of the register. Each clock pulse shifts the content of register one bit position to right. Shift registers can have a combination of serial and parallel inputs and outputs, including serial-in, parallel-out (SIPO) and parallel-in, serial-out (PISO) types. There are also types that have both serial and parallel input and types with serial and parallel output. There are also bi-directional shift registers which allow you to vary the direction of the shift register. The serial input and outputs of a register can also be connected together to create a circular shift register. One could also create multi-dimensional shift registers, which can perform more complex computation.

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PIN DIAGRAM:

LOGIC DIAGRAM: SERIAL IN SERIAL OUT:

TRUTH TABLE: Serial in CLK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 0 0 1 X X X 0 0 0 1 0 0 1


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Serial out

LOGIC DIAGRAM: SERIAL IN PARALLEL OUT:

TRUTH TABLE: CLK 1 2 3 4 DATA 1 0 0 1 QA 1 0 0 1 OUTPUT QB QC 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 QD 0 0 1 1

LOGIC DIAGRAM: PARALLEL IN SERIAL OUT:

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TRUTH TABLE: CLK Q3 0 1 1 0 2 0 3 0

Q2 0 0 0 0

Q1 0 0 0 0

Q0 1 0 0 0

O/P 1 0 0 1

LOGIC DIAGRAM: PARALLEL IN PARALLEL OUT:

TRUTH TABLE: CLK 1 2 DA 1 1 DATA INPUT DB DC 0 0 0 1 DD 1 0 QA 1 1 OUTPUT QB QC 0 0 0 1 QD 1 0

INTRODUCTION TO 8 BIT AND 16 BIT MICROPROCESSORS H/W ARCHITECTURE COMPUTER AND ITS ORGANIZATION A Computer is a programmable machine. It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program ).Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery wires, transistors, and circuits is called hardware. The instructions and data are called software.
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All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components: Memory: Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs. Mass storage device: Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives. Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse are the input device through which data and instructions enter a computer. Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished. Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions. In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another. Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap: Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data. Working station: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higherquality monitor. Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously. Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second. Minicomputer: A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. A minicomputer, a term no longer much used, is a computer of a size intermediate between a microcomputer and a mainframe. Typically, minicomputers have been stand-alone computers (computer systems with attached terminals and other devices) sold to small and mid-size businesses for general business applications and to large enterprises for department-level operations.
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Workstation: A type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high- resolution graphics screen, at least 64 MB (mega bytes) of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Microcomputer: The term microcomputer is generally synonymous with personal computer, or a computer that depends on a microprocessor. Microcomputers are designed to be used by individuals, whether in the form of PCs, workstations or notebook computers. A microcomputer contains a CPU on a microchip (the microprocessor), a memory system (typically ROM and RAM), a bus system and I/O ports, typically housed in a motherboard.

INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR Microprocessor: A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal Computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. A microprocessor (sometimes abbreviated P) is a digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC).One or more microprocessors typically serves as a central processing unit (CPU) in a
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computer system or handheld device. Microprocessors made possible the advent of the microcomputer. At the heart of all personal computers and most working stations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles. Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors: Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute. Microcontroller: A highly integrated chip that contains all the components comprising a controller. Typically this includes a CPU, RAM, some form of ROM, I/O ports, and timers. Unlike a general-purpose computer, which also includes all of these components, a microcontroller is designed for a very specific task - to control a particular system. A microcontroller differs from a microprocessor, which is a general-purpose chip that is used to create a multi-function computer or device and requires multiple chips to handle various tasks. A microcontroller is meant to be more self-contained and independent, and functions as a tiny, dedicated computer. The great advantage of microcontrollers, as opposed to using larger microprocessors, is that the parts-count and design costs of the item being controlled can be kept to a minimum. They are typically designed using CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) technology, an efficient fabrication technique that uses less power and is more immune to power spikes than other techniques. Microcontrollers are sometimes called embedded microcontrollers, which just means that they are part of an embedded system that is, one part of a larger device or system Embedded system: An Embedded System is a specialized computer system that is part of a larger system or machine. Typically, an embedded system is housed on a single microprocessor board with the programs stored in ROM. Virtually all appliances that have a digital Interface- watches, microwaves, VCRs, cars -utilize embedded

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systems. Some embedded systems include an operating system, but many are so specialized that the entire logic can be implemented as a single program. Address Bus, Data Bus and Control Bus The preferred method for data/information transfer between system components is by a common data bus. Where point-to-point data transfer is required, the digital format is the preferred method

Control Bus The control bus is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the actions of the other functional areas of the computer. It is used to transmit a variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt, acknowledge, and so forth) necessary to control and coordinate the operations of the computer. The individual signals transmitted over the control bus and their functions are covered in the appropriate functional area description. Address Bus The address bus consists of all the signals necessary to define any of the possible memory address locations within the computer, or for modular memories any of the possible memory address locations within a module. An address is defined as a label, symbol, or other set of characters used to designate a location or register where information is stored. Before data or instructions can be written into or read from memory by the CPU or I/O sections, an address must be transmitted to memory over the address bus.

Data Bus The bidirectional data bus, sometimes called the memory bus, handles the transfer of all data and instructions between functional areas of the computer. The bi directional data bus can only transmit in one direction at a time. The data bus is used to transfer instructions from memory to the CPU for execution. It carries data (operands) to and from the CPU and memory as required by instruction translation. The data bus is also used to transfer data between memory and the I/O section during input/output operations

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Tristate bus Three-state, tri-state, or 3-state logic allows an output port to assume a high impedance state in addition to the 0 and 1 logic levels, effectively removing the output from the circuit. This allows multiple circuits to share the same output line or lines (such as a bus). Three-state outputs are implemented in many registers, bus drivers, and flip-flops in the 7400 and 4000 series as well as in other types, but also internally in many integrated circuits. Other typical uses are internal and external buses in microprocessors, memories, and peripherals. Many devices are controlled by an active-low input called OE (Output Enable) which dictates whether the outputs should be held in a high-impedance state or drive their respective loads (to either 0or 1-level). Clock generation A clock generator is a circuit that produces a timing signal (known as a clock signal and behaves as such) for use in synchronizing a circuit's operation. The signal can range from a simple symmetrical square wave to more complex arrangements. The basic parts that all clock generators share are a resonant circuit and an amplifier. The resonant circuit is usually a quartz piezo-electric oscillator, simpler tank circuits and even RC circuits may be used. although

The amplifier circuit usually inverts the signal from the oscillator and feeds a portion back into the oscillator to maintain oscillation. The generator may have additional sections to modify the basic signal. The 8088 for example, used a 2/3 duty cycle clock, which required the clock generator to incorporate logic to convert the 50/50 duty cycle which is typical of raw oscillators.
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Other such optional sections include frequency divider or clock multiplier sections. Programmable clock generators allow the number used in the divider or multiplier to be changed, allowing any of a wide variety of output frequencies to be selected without modifying the hardware. The clock generator in a motherboard is often changed by computer enthusiasts to control the speed of their CPU, FSB, GPU and RAM. Typically the programmable clock generator is set by the BIOS at boot time to the value selected by the enthusiast; although some systems have dynamic frequency scalingthat frequently re-program the clock generator. Connecting Microprocessor to I/O devices Memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and port I/O (also called isolated I/O or portmapped I/O abbreviated PMIO) are two complementary methods of performing input/output between the CPU andperipheral devices in a computer. An alternative approach, not discussed in this article, is using dedicated I/O processors commonly known as channels on mainframe computers that execute their own instructions. Memory-mapped I/O (not to be confused with memory-mapped file I/O) uses the same address bus to address both memory and I/O devices - the memory and registers of the I/O devices are mapped to (associated with) address values. So when an address is used by the CPU it may refer to a portion of physical RAM, or it can instead refer to memory of the I/O device. Thus, the CPU instructions used to access the memory are also used for accessing devices. Each I/O device monitors the CPU's address bus and responds to any of the CPU's access of address space assigned to that device, connecting the data bus to a desirable device's hardware register. To accommodate the I/O devices, areas of the addresses used by the CPU must be reserved for I/O and not be available for normal physical memory. The reservation might be temporary the Commodore 64 could bank switch between its I/O devices and regular memory or permanent. Port-mapped I/O uses a special class of CPU instructions specifically for performing I/O. This is generally found on Intel microprocessors, specifically the IN and OUT instructions which can read and write one to four bytes (outb, outw, outl) to an I/O device. I/O devices have a separate address space from general memory, either accomplished by an extra "I/O" pin on the CPU's physical interface, or an entire bus dedicated to I/O. Because the address space for I/O is isolated from that for main memory, this is sometimes referred to as isolated I/O.
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A device's direct memory access (DMA) is not affected by those CPU-to-device communication methods, especially it is not affected by memory mapping. This is because by definition, DMA is a memory-to-device communication method that bypasses the CPU. Hardware interrupt is yet another communication method between CPU and peripheral devices. However, it is always treated separately for a number of reasons. It is device-initiated, as opposed to the methods mentioned above, which are CPUinitiated. It is also unidirectional, as information flows only from device to CPU. Lastly, each interrupt line carries only one bit of information with a fixed meaning, namely "an event that requires attention has occurred in a device on this interrupt line". DATA TRANSFER SCHEMES Synchronous Data Transfer: Synchronous means at the same time. In this format of data transfer transmitter and receiver device are synchronized with the same clock pulse. This type of data transfer format is used in between the devices that match in speed. This method is invariably used in between memory and microprocessor as they are compatible. Asynchronous Data Transfer: Asynchronous means at a regular interval. In this method data transfer is not based on predetermined timing pattern in this technique the status of the IO device is checked by the microprocessor before the data is transferred. This method is invariably used in between microprocessor and IO devices MODES OF DATA TRANSFER THE MICROPROCESSOR receives or transmits binary data in either of two mode:PARALLEL MODE:-In a parallel mode , the entire word is transferred at one time .the device commonly used for data transfer are keyboards seven segment LEDs data converters and memory. SERIAL MODE:-In the serial mode , data are transferred one bit at a time over a single line between the microprocessors and a peripheral. It is commonly used with peripherals such as CRT terminals , printers, cassette tapes and modems for telephone.
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DMA: Direct Memory Access (DMA) is a method of allowing data to be moved from one location to another in a computer without intervention from the central processor (CPU). The way that the DMA function is implemented varies between computer architectures, so this discussion will limit itself to the implementation and workings of the DMA subsystem on the IBM Personal Computer (PC), the IBM PC/AT and all of its successors and clones. The PC DMA subsystem is based on the Intel 8237 DMA controller. The 8237 contains four DMA channels that can be programmed independently and any one of the channels may be active at any moment. These channels are numbered 0, 1, 2 and 3. Starting with the PC/AT, IBM added a second 8237 chip, and numbered those channels 4, 5, 6 and 7. The original DMA controller (0, 1, 2 and 3) moves one byte in each transfer. The second DMA controller (4, 5, 6, and 7) moves 16-bits from two adjacent memory locations in each transfer, with the first byte always coming from an even-numbered address. The two controllers are identical components and the difference in transfer size is caused by the way the second controller is wired into the system. The 8237 has two electrical signals for each channel, named DRQ and -DACK. There are additional signals with the names HRQ (Hold Request), HLDA (Hold Acknowledge), -EOP (End of Process), and the bus control signals -MEMR (Memory Read), -MEMW (Memory Write), -IOR (I/O Read), and -IOW (I/O Write). The 8237 DMA is known as a fly-by DMA controller. This means that the data being moved from one location to another does not pass through the DMA chip and is not stored in the DMA chip. Subsequently, the DMA can only transfer data between an I/O port and a memory address, but not between two I/O ports or two memory location

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Instruction AAA AAD

Meaning ASCII adjust AL after addition

AAM AAS ADC ADD AND CALL CBW CLC CLD CLI CMC CMP CMPSB CMPSW CWD DAA

Notes used with unpacked binary coded decimal ASCII adjust AX before division 8086/8088 datasheet documents only base 10 version of the AAD instruction (opcode 0xD5 0x0A), but any other base will work. Later Intel's documentation has the generic form too. NEC V20 and V30 (and possibly other NEC V-series CPUs) always use base 10, and ignore the argument, causing a number of incompatibilities ASCII adjust AX after Only base 10 version is multiplication documented, see notes for AAD ASCII adjust AL after subtraction Add with carry destination := destination + source + carry_flag Add Logical AND Call procedure Convert byte to word Clear carry flag Clear direction flag Clear interrupt flag Complement carry flag Compare operands Compare bytes in memory Compare words Convert word to doubleword Decimal adjust AL after addition (used with packed binary coded decimal)
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DAS

Decimal adjust AL after subtraction DEC Decrement by 1 DIV Unsigned divide ESC Used with floating-point unit HLT Enter halt state IDIV Signed divide IMUL Signed multiply IN Input from port INC Increment by 1 INT Call to interrupt INTO Call to interrupt if overflow IRET Return from interrupt Jxx Jump if condition (JA, JAE, JB, JBE, JC, JCXZ, JE, JG, JGE, JL, JLE, JNA, JNAE, JNB, JNBE, JNC, JNE, JNG, JNGE, JNL, JNLE, JNO, JNP, JNS, JNZ, JO, JP, JPE, JPO, JS, JZ) JMP Jump LAHF Load flags into AH register LDS Load pointer using DS LEA Load Effective Address LES Load ES with pointer LOCK Assert BUS LOCK# signal (for multiprocessing) LODSB Load signed byte LODSW Load signed word LOOP/LOOPx Loop control (LOOPE, LOOPNE, LOOPNZ, LOOPZ) MOV Move MOVSB Move byte from string to string MOVSW Move word from string to string MUL Unsigned multiply NEG Two's complement negation NOP No operation opcode (0x90) equivalent
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to XCHG EAX, EAX NOT OR OUT POP Negate the operand, logical NOT Logical OR Output to port Pop data from stack

POP CS (opcode 0x0F) works only on 8086/8088. Later CPUs use 0x0F as a prefix for newer instructions.

POPF PUSH PUSHF RCL RCR REPxx RET RETN RETF ROL ROR SAHF SAL SAR SBB SCASB SCASW SHL SHR STC STD STI STOSB STOSW

Pop data into flags register Push data onto stack Push flags onto stack Rotate left (with carry) Rotate right (with carry) Repeat (REP, REPE, MOVS/STOS/CMPS/LODS/SCAS REPNZ, REPZ) Return from procedure Return from near procedure Return from far procedure Rotate left Rotate right Store AH into flags Shift Arithmetically left (signed shift left) Shift Arithmetically right (signed shift right) Subtraction with borrow Compare byte string Compare word string Shift left (unsigned shift left) Shift right (unsigned shift right) Set carry flag Set direction flag Set interrupt flag Store byte in string Store word in string

REPNE,

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SUB TEST WAIT

Subtraction Logical compare (AND) Wait until not busy

Waits until BUSY# pin is inactive (used with floating-point unit)

XCHG XLAT XOR

Exchange data Table look-up translation Exclusive OR

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Intel 8085 Intel 8085

An Intel 8085AH processor. Produced Common manufacturer(s) Max. CPU clock rate Instruction set Package(s) From 1977 to 1990s Intel and others several

3, 5 and 6 MHz pre x86 40 pin DIP

The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1977. It was binary-compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 but required less supporting hardware, thus allowing simpler and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built. The "5" in the model number came from the fact that the 8085 requires only a +5volt (V) power supply rather than the +5V, -5V and +12V supplies the 8080 needed. Both processors were sometimes used in computers running the CP/M operating system, and the 8085 later saw use as a microcontroller, by virtue of its low component count. Both designs were eclipsed for desktop computers by the compatible Zilog Z80, which took over most of the CP/M computer market as well as taking a share of the booming home computer market in the early-to-mid1980s. The 8085 had a long life as a controller. Once designed into such products as the DECtape controller and the VT100 video terminal in the late 1970s, it continued to serve for new production throughout the life span of those products (generally longer than the product life of desktop computers)

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Description

The 8085 is a conventional von Neumann design based on the Intel 8080. Unlike the 8080 it does not multiplex state signals onto the data bus, but the 8-bit data bus was instead multiplexed with the lower part of the 16-bit address bus to limit the number of pins to 40. Pin #40 is used for the power supply (+5v) and pin #20 for ground. Pin #39 is used as the hold pin. Pins #15 to #8 are generally used for
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address buses. The processor was designed using nMOS circuitry and the later "H" versions were implemented in Intel's enhanced nMOS process called HMOS, originally developed for fast static RAM products. Only a 5 Volt supply is needed, like competing processors and unlike the 8080. The 8085 uses approximately 6,500 transistors.[1] The 8085 incorporates the functions of the 8224 (clock generator) and the 8228 (system controller), increasing the level of integration. A downside compared to similar contemporary designs (such as the Z80) was the fact that the buses required demultiplexing; however, address latches in the Intel 8155, 8355, and 8755 memory chips allowed a direct interface, so an 8085 along with these chips was almost a complete system. The 8085 has extensions to support new interrupts, with three maskable interrupts (RST 7.5, RST 6.5 and RST 5.5), one non-maskable interrupt (TRAP), and one externally serviced interrupt (INTR). The RST n.5 interrupts refer to actual pins on the processor, a feature which permitted simple systems to avoid the cost of a separate interrupt controller. Like the 8080, the 8085 can accommodate slower memories through externally generated wait states (pin 35, READY), and has provisions for Direct Memory Access (DMA) using HOLD and HLDA signals (pins 39 and 38). An improvement over the 8080 was that the 8085 can itself drive a piezoelectric crystal directly connected to it, and a built in clock generator generates the internal high amplitude two-phase clock signals at half the crystal frequency (a 6.14 MHz crystal would yield a 3.07 MHz clock, for instance). Programming model The 8085 is a binary compatible follow up on the 8080, using the same basic instruction set as the 8080 (developed by Computer Terminal Corporation). Only a few minor instructions were new to the 8085 above the 8080 set. Registers The processor has seven 8-bit registers named A, B, C, D, E, H, and L, where A is the 8-bit accumulator and the other six can be used as independent byte-registers or as three 16-bit register pairs, BC, DE, and HL, depending on the particular instruction. Some instructions use HL as a (limited) 16-bit accumulator. As in the
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8080, the contents of the memory address pointed to by HL could be accessed as pseudoregister M. It also has a 16-bit stack pointer to memory (replacing the 8008's internal stack), and a 16-bit program counter. HL pair is called the primary data pointers... Commands/instructions As in many other 8-bit processors, all instructions are encoded in a single byte (including register-numbers, but excluding immediate data), for simplicity. Some of them are followed by one or two bytes of data, which could be an immediate operand, a memory address, or a port number. Like larger processors, it has CALL and RET instructions for multi-level procedure calls and returns (which can be conditionally executed, like jumps) and instructions to save and restore any 16-bit register-pair on the machine stack. There are also eight one-byte call instructions (RST) for subroutines located at the fixed addresses 00h, 08h, 10h,...,38h. These were intended to be supplied by external hardware in order to invoke a corresponding interrupt-service routine, but are also often employed as fast system calls. The most sophisticated command was XTHL, which is used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value stored at the address indicated by the stack pointer. 8-bit instructions Most 8-bit operations work on the 8-bit accumulator (the A register). For two operand 8-bit operations, the other operand can be either an immediate value, another 8-bit register, or a memory cell addressed by the 16-bit register pair HL. Direct copying is supported between any two 8-bit registers and between any 8-bit register and a HL-addressed memory cell. Due to the regular encoding of the MOV-instruction (using a quarter of available opcode space) there are redundant codes to copy a register into itself (MOV B,B, for instance), which are of little use, except for delays. However, what would have been a copy from the HL-addressed cell into itself (i.e., MOV M,M) instead encodes the HLT instruction, halting execution until an external reset or interrupt occurred. 16-bit operations Although the 8085 is an 8-bit processor, it also has some 16-bit operations. Any of the three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE, HL) or SP could be loaded with an
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immediate 16-bit value (using LXI), incremented or decremented (using INX and DCX), or added to HL (using DAD). LHLD loaded HL from directly-addressed memory and SHLD stored HL likewise. The XCHG operation exchanges the values of HL and DE. Adding HL to itself performs a 16-bit arithmetical left shift with one instruction. The only 16 bit instruction that affects any flag was DAD (adding HL to BC, DE, HL or SP), which updates the carry flag to facilitate 24-bit or larger additions and left shifts (for a floating point mantissa for instance). Adding the stack pointer to HL is useful for indexing variables in (recursive) stack frames. A stack frame can be allocated using DAD SP and SPHL, and a branch to a computed pointer can be done with PCHL. These abilities make it feasible to compile languages such as PL/M, Pascal, or C with 16-bit variables and produce 8085 machine code. Subtraction and bitwise logical operations on 16 bits is done in 8-bit steps. Operations that have to be implemented by program code (subroutine libraries) included comparisons of signed integers as well as multiply and divide. Input/output scheme The 8085 supported up to 256 input/output (I/O) ports, accessed via dedicated I/O instructionstaking port addresses as operands. This I/O mapping scheme was regarded as an advantage, as it freed up the processor's limited address space. Development system Intel produced a series of development systems for the 8080 and 8085, known as the MDS-80 Microprocessor System. The original development system had an 8080 processor. Later 8085 and 8086 support was added including ICE (in-circuit emulators). It was a large and heavy desktop box, about a 20" cube (in the Intel corporate blue colour) which included a CPU, monitor, and a single 8 inch floppy disk drive. Later an external box was available with two more floppy drives. It ran the ISIS operating system and could also operate an emulator pod and an external EPROM programmer. This unit used the Multibus card cage which was intended just for the development system. A surprising number of spare card cages and processors were being sold, leading to the development of the Multibus as a separate product.

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The later iPDS was a portable unit, about 8" x 16" x 20", with a handle. It had a small green screen, a keyboard built into the top, a 5 inch floppy disk drive, and ran the ISIS-II operating system. It could also accept a second 8085 processor, allowing a limited form of multi-processor operation where both processors ran simultaneously and independently. The screen and keyboard could be switched between them, allowing programs to be assembled on one processor (large programs took awhile) while files were edited in the other. It had a bubble memory option and various programming modules, including EPROM and Intel 8048 and 8051 programming modules which were plugged into the side, replacing stand-alone device programmers. In addition to an 8080/8085 assembler, Intel produced a number of compilers including PL/M-80 and Pascal languages, and a set of tools for linking and statically locating programs to enable them to be burnt into EPROMs and used in embedded systems. The hardware support changes were announced and supported, but the software upgrades were not supported by the assembler, user manual or any other means. At times it was claimed they were not tested when that was false Applications For the extensive use of 8085 in various applications, the microprocessor is provided with an instruction set which consists of various instructions such as MOV, ADD, SUB, JMP etc. These instructions are written in the form of a program which is used to perform various operations such as branching, addition, subtraction, bitwise logical and bit shift operations. More complex operations and other arithmetic operations must be implemented in software. For example, multiplication is implemented using a multiplication algorithm. The 8085 processor was used in a few early personal computers, for example, the TRS-80 Model 100 line uses a 80C85. The CMOS version 80C85 of the NMOS/HMOS 8085 processor has several manufacturers. Some maufacturers provide variants with additional functions such as additional instructions. [citation needed] The rad-hard version of the 8085 has been in on-board instrument data processors for several NASA and ESA space physics missions in the 1990s and early 2000s, including CRRES, Polar, FAST, Cluster, HESSI, the Sojourner Mars Rover,[2] and THEMIS. The Swiss company SAIA used the 8085 and the 8085-2 as the CPUs of their PCA1 line of programmable logic controllers during the 1980s.

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Registers Accumulator or A register is an 8-bit register used for arithmetic, logic, I/O and load/store operations. Flag is an 8-bit register containing 5 1-bit flags: Sign - set if the most significant bit of the result is set. Zero - set if the result is zero. Auxiliary carry - set if there was a carry out from bit 3 to bit 4 of the result. Parity - set if the parity (the number of set bits in the result) is even. Carry - set if there was a carry during addition, or borrow during subtraction/comparison. Stack pointer is a 16 bit register., it points to a memory location in R/W memory canned the stack. The beginning of stack is defined by loading the 16 bit address in the stack pointer. Program counter is a 16-bit register, it points to the memory address from which the next byte is to be fetched, when the next byte is fetched the counter is incremented by one and point to next location. General registers: 8-bit B and 8-bit C registers can be used as one 16-bit BC register pair. When used as a pair the C register contains low-order byte. Some instructions may use BC register as a data pointer. 8-bit D and 8-bit E registers can be used as one 16-bit DE register pair. When used as a pair the E register contains low-order byte. Some instructions may use DE register as a data pointer. 8-bit H and 8-bit L registers can be used as one 16-bit HL register pair. When used as a pair the L register contains low-order byte. HL register usually contains a data pointer used to reference memory addresses.

Memory Program, data and stack memories occupy the same memory space. The total addressable memory size is 64 KB. Program memory - program can be located anywhere in memory. Jump, branch and call instructions use 16-bit addresses.
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Data memory - the processor always uses 16-bit addresses so that data can be placed anywhere. Stack memory is limited only by the size of memory. Stack grows downward

Interrupts The processor has 5 interrupts. They are presented below in the order of their priority (from lowest to highest): 1. INTR is maskable 8080A compatible interrupt. When the interrupt occurs the processor fetches from the bus one instruction, usually one of these instructions: 2. RST5.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack and branches to 2Ch (hexadecimal) address. 3. RST6.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack and branches to 34h (hexadecimal) address.

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4. RST7.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack 3Ch (hexadecimal) address. 5. Trap is a non-maskable interrupt. When this interrupt processor saves the contents of the PC register into stack 24h (hexadecimal) address. I/O ports 256 Input ports 256 Output ports

is received the and branches to is received the and branches to

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MEMORY Semiconductor memories are classified in different ways. A distinction is made between read-only (ROM) and read-write (RWM) memories. The contents RWMs can be changed in a short time for a virtually unlimited number of times and contents of ROMs are mostly useful for frequent reading and occasional writing. Since RWM memories use active circuitry (transistors) to store the information, they belong to the class of called volatile memories. This is because the data would be lost when the supply voltage is turned off. Read-only memories, on the other hand, encode information by the presence or absence of devices. Their data cannot be modified and they belong to the class of nonvolatile memories. That means the stored data is lost by the disconnection of supply voltage.
Table 1 : Classification Semiconductor Memories RWM Random Access Non Random Access SRAM DRAM FIFO E2PROM Shift Register FLASH Programmable ROM

NVRWM ROM EPROM Mask-programmed ROM

Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) A single SRAM memory cell is shown in Fig. 5. Two NMOS and two PMOS transistors (M1 to M4) forms the simple latch to store the data and two pass NMOS transistors (M5 and M6) are controlled by Word Line to pass Bit Line and into the cell. A Write operation is performed by first charging the Bit Line and with values that are desired to be stored in the memory cell. Setting the Word Line high performs the actual write operation, and the new data is latched into the circuit. A Read operation is initiated by pre-charging both Bit Line and to logic 1. Word Line is set high to close NMOS pass transistors to put the contents stored in the cell on the Bit Line and . Transistors M1 to M4 constitute the latch and are constantly toggling back and forth. During these switching the power consumption in CMOS circuits takes place and therefore, the sizes of these transistors are kept as small as possible. NMOS transistors are basically switches opening and closing access to the SRAM cell. To minimize the propagation delay caused by these transistors their sizes are kept relatively larger.

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Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) DRAM stores each bit in a storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a transistor. Capacitors tend to lose their charge rather quickly; thus, the need for recharging. The presence or absence of charge in the capacitor determines whether the cell contains a '1' or a '0'. The Read operation begins by precharging the bit line to an intermediate value, . The word line is raised to a high potential and the charge stored on capacitor is shared with that on the bit line. The change in the bit line voltage is given by the change on the bit line capacitor when the charge stored on capacitor C is shared with the bit line. Based on the access pattern, RWMs are classified as random access class and serial memories. FIFO (first-in-first-out) is an example for serial memories. Most memories belong to the random access class, which means memory locations can be read or written in random order. One would expect memories of this class to be called RAM (random access memory); nevertheless for historic reasons, RAM has been reserved for random access RWM memories. That means though most ROM units also provide random access, but the acronym RAM should not be used for them. VOLATILE MEMORIES : Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) and Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) are volatile memories. SRAM is used as a cache memory in computers since it offers the fastest write/read (~8ns) speed among all memories. Hardware design of a single SRAM cell consists of 6 transistors. A DRAM cell consists of one transistor and one capacitor and it is based on the charge stored in a capacitor. It is superior to SRAM because of its low cost per bit storage; nevertheless it is slower (`50ns). In DRAM, the stored charge in the capacitor can be maintained only for few milli-seconds and therefore, an extra hardware circuit is needed to periodically refresh the data periodically. NON-VOLATILE MEMORIES: Based on the programmability of the devices non-volatile memories are categorized as follows. Writing data into ROMs is possible only at the time of manufacturing the devices and used only for reading the data stored. Even though these devices are less in cost the constraint that they are to be programmed at the time of manufacturing is an inconvenience. PROM devices are one time
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programmable ROM. At the time of device manufacturing every cell is stored with "1" and can be programmed by customer once. But, single write phase makes them unattractive. For instance, a single error in the programming process or application makes the device unusable. EPROM is Erasable PROM. Multiple times programming feature is added in EPROM. In this case, first whole memory is to be erased by shining ultraviolet light. The erase process is slow and can take from seconds to several minutes, depending on the intensity of the UV source. Programming takes several (5-10) /word. EPROM cell is extremely simple and dense, making it possible to fabricate large memories at a low cost. EPROMs were therefore attractive in applications that not require frequent programming. Electrically-Erasable PROM (EEPROM) can be erased without removing from board, unlike in UV erasable where memory must be removed from the board. The voltage approximately applied for programming is 18V. In addition, it is a reverse process; means by applying high negative voltage at gate can erase the cell. Another advantage over EPROM is that EEPROM can be programmed for 105 cycles. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS Advantages The usual advantages of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits are: Digital systems interface well with computers and are easy to control with software. New features can often be added to a digital system without changing hardware. Often this can be done outside of the factory by updating the product's software. So, the product's design errors can be corrected after the product is in a customer's hands. Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noiseimmunity of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly. Robustness One of the primary advantages of digital electronics is its robustness. Digital electronics are robust because if the noise is less than the noise margin then the
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system performs as if there were no noise at all. Therefore, digital signals can be regenerated to achieve lossless data transmission, within certain limits. Analog signal transmission and processing, by contrast, always introduces noise. Disadvantages In some cases, digital circuits use more energy than analog circuits to accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat as well. In portable or battery-powered systems this can limit use of digital systems. For example, battery-powered cellular telephones often use a low-power analog front-end to amplify and tune in the radio signals from the base station. However, a base station has grid power and can use power-hungry, but very flexible software radios. Such base stations can be easily reprogrammed to process the signals used in new cellular standards. Digital circuits are sometimes more expensive, especially in small quantities. The sensed world is analog, and signals from this world are analog quantities. For example, light, temperature, sound, electrical conductivity, electric and magnetic fields are analog. Most useful digital systems must translate from continuous analog signals to discrete digital signals. This causes quantization errors. Quantization error can be reduced if the system stores enough digital data to represent the signal to the desired degree of fidelity. The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem provides an important guideline as to how much digital data is needed to accurately portray a given analog signal.

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Numbering System Many number systems are in use in digital technology. The most common are the decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems. The decimal system is clearly the most familiar to us because it is a tool that we use every day. Examining some of its characteristics will help us to better understand the other systems. In the next few pages we shall introduce four numerical representation systems that are used in the digital system. There are other systems, which we will look at briefly.

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Decimal System system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols. These 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Using these symbols as digits of a number, we can express any quantity. The decimal system is also called the base-10 system because it has 10 digits. 103 =1000 Most Digit 102 101 100 =1 . Decimal point 10-1 =0.1 10-2 10-3 Least Significant Digit

=100 =10 Significant

=0.01 =0.001

Even though the decimal system has only 10 symbols, any number of any magnitude can be expressed by using our system of positional weighting. Decimal Examples .1410 5210 102410

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Binary System In the binary system, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, 0 and 1. This base-2 system can be used to represent any quantity that can be represented in decimal or other base system. 23 =8 Most Digit 22 =4 Significant 21 =2 20 =1 . Binary point 2-1 =0.5 2-2 2-3 Least Significant Digit

=0.25 =0.125

Binary Counting The Binary counting sequence is shown in the table: 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 22 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 21 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 20 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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Representing Binary Quantities In digital systems the information that is being processed is usually presented in binary form. Binary quantities can be represented by any device that has only two operating states or possible conditions. E.g.. a switch is only open or closed. We arbitrarily (as we define them) let an open switch represent binary 0 and a closed switch represent binary 1. Thus we can represent any binary number by using series of switches.

Typical Voltage Assignment Binary 1: Any voltage between 2V to 5V Binary 0: Any voltage between 0V to 0.8V

Not used: Voltage between 0.8V to 2V in 5 Volt CMOS and TTL Logic, this may cause error in a digital circuit. Today's digital circuits works at 1.8 volts, so this statement may not hold true for all logic circuits.

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Octal System The octal number system has a base of eight, meaning that it has eight possible digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. 83 =512 Most Significant Digit 82 =64 81 =8 80 =1 8-1 =1/8 8-2 8-3 =1/64 =1/512 Least Significant Digit

. Octal point

Octal to Decimal Conversion 2378 = 2 x (82) + 3 x (81) + 7 x (80) = 15910 24.68 = 2 x (81) + 4 x (80) + 6 x (8-1) = 20.7510 11.18 = 1 x (81) + 1 x (80) + 1 x (8-1) = 9.12510 12.38 = 1 x (81) + 2 x (80) + 3 x (8-1) = 10.37510

Hexadecimal System The hexadecimal system uses base 16. Thus, it has 16 possible digit symbols. It uses the digits 0 through 9 plus the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F as the 16 digit symbols. 163 =4096 Most Significant Digit 162 =256 161 =16 160 =1 16-1 16-2 16-3 =1/16 =1/256 =1/4096 Least Significant Digit

. Hexa Decimal point

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion 24.616 = 2 x (161) + 4 x (160) + 6 x (16-1) = 36.37510


11.116 = 1 x (161) + 1 x (160) + 1 x (16-1) = 17.062510 12.316 = 1 x (161) + 2 x (160) + 3 x (16-1) = 18.187510

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Code Conversion Converting from one code form to another code form is called code conversion, like converting from binary to decimal or converting from Binary-To-Decimal Conversion Any binary number can be converted to its decimal equivalent simply by summing together the weights of the various positions in the binary number which contain a 1. Binary 110112 24+23+01+21+20 Result Binary 101101012 27+06+25+24+03+22+01+20 Result Decimal =16+8+0+2+1 2710 Decimal =128+0+32+16+0+4+0+1 18110

You should have noticed that the method is to find the weights (i.e., powers of 2) for each bit position that contains a 1, and then to add them up.

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Decimal-To-Binary Conversion There are 2 methods:


Reverse of Binary-To-Decimal Method Repeat Division

Reverse of Binary-To-Decimal Method Decimal 4510 Result Binary =32 + 0 + 8 + 4 +0 + 1 =25+0+23+22+0+20 =1011012

Repeat Division-Convert decimal to binary This method uses repeated division by 2. Convert 2510 to binary Division 25/2 12/2 6/2 3/2 1/2 Result Remainder = 12+ remainder of 1 = 6 + remainder of 0 = 3 + remainder of 0 = 1 + remainder of 1 = 0 + remainder of 1 2510 Binary 1 (Least Significant Bit) 0 0 1 1 (Most Significant Bit) = 110012

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Binary-To-Octal / Octal-To-Binary Conversion Octal Digit Binary Equivalent 0 000 1 001 2 010 3 011 4 100 5 101 6 110 7 111

Each Octal digit is represented by three binary digits. Example: 100 111 0102 = (100) (111) (010)2 = 4 7 28 Repeat Division-Convert decimal to octal This method uses repeated division by 8. Example: Convert 17710 to octal and binary Division 177/8 22/ 8 2/8 Result Binary Result = 22+ remainder of 1 = 2 + remainder of 6 = 0 + remainder of 2 17710 Binary 1 (Least Significant Bit) 6 2 (Most Significant Bit) = 2618 = 0101100012

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Hexadecimal to Decimal/Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Example:2AF16 = 2 x (162) + 10 x (161) + 15 x (160) = 68710 Repeat Division- Convert decimal to hexadecimal This method uses repeated division by 16. Example: convert 37810 to hexadecimal and binary: Division 378/16 23/16 1/16 Result Binary Result = 23+ remainder of 10 = 1 + remainder of 7 = 0 + remainder of 1 37810 Hexadecimal A (Least Significant Bit)23 7 1 (Most Significant Bit) = 17A16 = 0001 0111 10102

Binary-To-Hexadecimal /Hexadecimal-To-Binary Conversion Hexadecimal Digit Binary Equivalent Hexadecimal Digit Binary Equivalent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 8 9 A B C D E F 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Each Hexadecimal digit is represented by four bits of binary digit. Example: 1011 0 11112 = (1011) (0010) (1111)2 = B 2 F16 Octal-To-Hexadecimal Hexadecimal-To-Octal Conversion

Convert Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary first. Regroup the binary number by three bits per group starting from LSB if Octal is required. Regroup the binary number by four bits per group starting from LSB if Hexadecimal is required.

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Convert 5A816 to Octal. Hexadecimal 5A816 Result Binary/Octal = 0101 1010 1000 (Binary) = 010 110 101 000 (Binary) = 2 6 5 0 (Octal)

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Binary Codes Binary codes are codes which are represented in binary system with modification from the original ones. Below we will be seeing the following: Weighted Binary Systems Non Weighted Codes Weighted Binary Systems Weighted binary codes are those which obey the positional weighting principles, each position of the number represents a specific weight. The binary counting sequence is an example.

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

8421 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001

2421 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

5211 0000 0001 0011 0101 0111 1000 1010 1100 1110 1111

Excess-3 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100

8421 Code/BCD Code The BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) is a straight assignment of the binary equivalent. It is possible to assign weights to the binary bits according to their positions. The weights in the BCD code are 8,4,2,1. Example: The bit assignment 1001, can be seen by its weights to represent the decimal 9 because:

1x8+0x4+0x2+1x1 = 9

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2421 Code This is a weighted code, its weights are 2, 4, 2 and 1. A decimal number is represented in 4-bit form and the total four bits weight is 2 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 9. Hence the 2421 code represents the decimal numbers from 0 to 9. 5211 Code This is a weighted code, its weights are 5, 2, 1 and 1. A decimal number is represented in 4-bit form and the total four bits weight is 5 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 9. Hence the 5211 code represents the decimal numbers from 0 to 9.

Reflective Code A code is said to be reflective when code for 9 is complement for the code for 0, and so is for 8 and 1 codes, 7 and 2, 6 and 3, 5 and 4. Codes 2421, 5211, and excess-3 are reflective, whereas the 8421 code is not. Sequential Codes A code is said to be sequential when two subsequent codes, seen as numbers in binary representation, differ by one. This greatly aids mathematical manipulation of data. The 8421 and Excess-3 codes are sequential, whereas the 2421 and 5211 codes are not. Non Weighted Codes Non weighted codes are codes that are not positionally weighted. That is, each position within the binary number is not assigned a fixed value. Excess-3 Code Excess-3 is a non weighted code used to express decimal numbers. The code derives its name from the fact that each binary code is the corresponding 8421 code plus 0011(3). Example: 1000 of 8421 = 1011 in Excess-3 Gray Code The gray code belongs to a class of codes called minimum change codes, in which only one bit in the code changes when moving from one code to the next. The Gray code is non-weighted
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code, as the position of bit does not contain any weight. The gray code is a reflective digital code which has the special property that any two subsequent numbers codes differ by only one bit. This is also called a unit-distance code. In digital Gray code has got a special place.

Decimal Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Binary Code 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Gray Code 0000 0001 0011 0010 0110 0111 0101 0100 1100 1101 1111 1110 1010 1011 1001 1000

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Binary to Gray Conversion Gray Code MSB is binary code MSB. Gray Code MSB-1 is the XOR of binary code MSB and MSB-1. MSB-2 bit of gray code is XOR of MSB-1 and MSB-2 bit of binary code. MSB-N bit of gray code is XOR of MSB-N-1 and MSB-N bit of binary code.

Error Detecting and Correction Codes For reliable transmission and storage of digital data, error detection and correction is required. Below are a few examples of codes which permit error detection and error correction after detection. Error Detecting Codes When data is transmitted from one point to another, like in wireless transmission, or it is just stored, like in hard disks and memories, there are chances that data may get corrupted. To detect these data errors, we use special codes, which are error detection codes. Parity In parity codes, every data byte, or nibble (according to how user wants to use it) is checked if they have even number of ones or even number of zeros. Based on this information an additional bit is appended to the original data. Thus if we consider 8-bit data, adding the parity bit will make it 9 bit long. At the receiver side, once again parity is calculated and matched with the received parity (bit 9), and if they match, data is ok, otherwise data is corrupt. There are two types of parity:

Even parity: Checks if there is an even number of ones; if so, parity bit is zero. When the number of ones is odd then parity bit is set to 1. Odd Parity: Checks if there is an odd number of ones; if so, parity bit is zero. When number of ones is even then parity bit is set to 1.

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Error-Correcting Codes Error correcting codes not only detect errors, but also correct them. This is used normally in Satellite communication, where turn-around delay is very high as is the probability of data getting corrupt. ECC (Error correcting codes) are used also in memories, networking, Hard disk, CDROM, DVD etc. Normally in networking chips (ASIC), we have 2 Error detection bits and 1 Error correction bit. Hamming Code Hamming code adds a minimum number of bits to the data transmitted in a noisy channel, to be able to correct every possible one-bit error. It can detect (not correct) two-bits errors and cannot distinguish between 1-bit and 2-bits inconsistencies. It can't - in general - detect 3(or more)-bits errors The idea is that the failed bit position in an n-bit string (which we'll call X) can be represented in binary with log2(n) bits, hence we'll try to get it adding just log2(n) bits. Alphanumeric Codes The binary codes that can be used to represent all the letters of the alphabet, numbers and mathematical symbols, punctuation marks, are known as alphanumeric codes or character codes. These codes enable us to interface the input-output devices like the keyboard, printers, video displays with the computer.

Counter In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal. In practice, there are two types of counters: up counters which increase (increment) in value down counters which decrease (decrement) in value

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Counters in electronics

Toggle flip-flop. Output is not shown. Red=1, blue=0 In electronics, counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as the flip-flop, and a wide variety of designs exist, e.g: Asynchronous (ripple) counters Synchronous counters Johnson counters Decade counters Up-Down counters Ring counters Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are digital in nature, and count in binary, or sometimes binary coded decimal. Many types of counter circuit are available as digital building blocks, for example a number of chips in the 4000 series implement different counters. Asynchronous (ripple) counters

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Asynchronous Counter created from JK flip-flops. The simplest counter circuit is a single D-type flip flop, with its D (data) input fed from its own inverted output. This circuit can store one bit, and hence can count from zero to one before it overflows (starts over from 0). This counter will increment once for every clock cycle and takes two clock cycles to overflow, so every cycle it will alternate between a transition from 0 to 1 and a transition from 1 to 0. Notice that this creates a new clock with a 50% duty cycle at exactly half the frequency of the input clock. If this output is then used as the clock signal for a similarly arranged D flip flop (remembering to invert the output to the input), you will get another 1 bit counter that counts half as fast. Putting them together yields a two bit counter: cycle 0 1 2 3 4 Q1 0 0 1 1 0 Q 0 0 1 0 1 0 (Q1:Q0)dec 0 1 2 3 0

You can continue to add additional flip flops, always inverting the output to its own input, and using the output from the previous flip flop as the clock signal. The result is called a ripple counter, which can count to 2n-1 where n is the number of bits (flip flop stages) in the counter. Ripple counters suffer from unstable outputs as the overflows "ripple" from stage to stage, but they do find frequent application as dividers for clock signals, where the instantaneous count is unimportant, but the division ratio overall is. (To clarify this, a 1-bit counter is exactly equivalent to a divide by two circuit - the output frequency is exactly half that of the input when fed with a regular train of clock pulses). Up-Down Counters It is a combination of up counter and down counter, counting in straight binary sequence. There is an up-down selector. If this value is kept high, counter increments binary value and if the value is low, then counter starts decrementing the count. The Down counters are made by using the complemented output to act as the clock for the next flip-flop in the case of Asynchronous counters. An Up counter is constructed by linking the Q out of the J-K Flip flop and putting it into a Negative Edge Triggered Clock input. A Down Counter is constructed by taking the Q output and putting it into a Positive Edge Triggered inpu

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