2010

THEBASICSOFSAILING

TheAdventureBegins

THE BASICS OF SAILING

Three factors which control sail performance are POSITION, SHAPE and SIZE. Whenever a sailboat turns the sails will need to be adjusted. Hoisting the sails: Before leaving the dock you should determine the amount of sail needed. If high winds are expected, it is best to reef or decrease sail area at the dock than forced to reef while underway. The mainsail usually has between one and three reefing points which allow its size to be decreased. The jib will often have roller furling (a foresail that can be rolled around the headstay) which can be used to reduce its size. If not, the size of the jib hoisted will have to be determined before setting sail. Mainsail: If you leave the dock under power, secure the halyard to the head of the mainsail and remove the mainsail's cover. This allows rapid hoisting of the sail, if the motor dies. Make sure the boom vang and sheets are loose to allow the boom to elevate to the proper height. If hoisting a full sail, make sure the Cunningham and reefing lines are also loose. You should also adjust the outhaul before hoisting the mainsail. Once the mainsail is hoisted, loosen the boom toping lift so the mainsail can assume the proper shape and swing freely from side to side. Do not turn off the motor until after the sails are hoisted. Jib: Many sailboats, and most charter boats, now use a roller furling system for the jib. The roller furling line is uncleated and pulling the jib's sheets the jib is unfurled. Tension should be kept on the roller furling line to keep the line from tangling as it is rolled on the drum. If the jib has to be hoisted, it is usually attached to the forestay using "hanks". The size of the jib is selected based upon wind conditions. Control of the sails: The two most commonly used lines by the beginning sailor to control the sails are the halyards and sheets. The halyard is mainly used to hoist the sails and the sheets used to control sail position in relation to the wind. However, both of these lines will also change the sail's shape. Other lines are present to adjust the sail's shape as the sail is eased out or trimmed toward midline. The angle of the sailboat in relationship to the wind is called the point-of-sail. When turning a sailboat, the boat is taken from one point-of-sail to another by adjusting the rudder and sail trim. In general, the closer you sail to the wind, the closer the sails are pulled or trimmed to the midline of the boat. As you sail away from the wind, the sails are progressively let out. Winches are used to help trim the sail and adjust lines under the force of the wind. Many winches have a self-feeding cleat on the top, which allows you to pull a line in under force without slippage. Be very careful using a winch to pull in a line which should be pulled in by hand, i.e., the jib's roller furling line. If these lines are not pulled in easily, it usually means that they are caught. Forcing them may damage the rigging.

Taking down the sails: Before you take down the sails the motor should be turned on. The halyard should not be removed and the sail cover should not be placed on the mainsail until the boat is at dock. Thus, if the motor fails, the sails can be quickly hoisted. There are two basic methods of taking down the mainsail - heading into the wind and heaving-to. In the first method, the boat is first placed in a deep broad reach (sailing almost directly away from the wind) so the mainsail is shielding the jib's (front sail's) wind. This decreases the wind pressure on the jib and allows for easier furling. The jib is rolled in, keeping some tension on the sheets to tighten the roll and to keep the sail from flogging (strong whipping of the sail caused by the wind). Under power, the boat is then headed into the wind and the mainsail is lowered and flaked over the boom.

In the second method, the boat is heaved-to and the mainsail is let out until it is luffing. In this method, the mainsail is lowered first over the boom. Since the boom is out over the water, the mainsail is doused (taken straight down) and may be flaked after the boat reaches the dock or once the mast is secured back to midline. The jib is then furled. However, when heading into the wind, the wind may forcefully pull the jib out. In a strong wind, the boat is placed into a deep broad reach. The sheets are loosened and the jib furled. (Note: In heaving-to, the forward motion of the boat is slowed, the bow of the boat is turned through the wind but the jib is not released on the windward side (the jib is backed). The mainsail is then eased out and the boat is now turned into the wind. Two opposing forces now exist. The jib pushes the boat away from the wind but the rudder pushes the boat into the wind. Thus, the boat comes to a near standstill, drifting slowly to leeward.)

SAIL TRIM AND SHAPE Wind: The wind is what powers a sailboat. Both the direction and strength of wind is important in setting the sails and maintaining control of the boat. True-wind direction is different from apparent-wind direction. The true-wind is the direction of the wind which makes the waves. The true-wind is perpendicular to the waves. The apparent-wind sails the boat. When the speed of the boat and the velocity of the wind are close, the difference between the apparent and true-wind is the greatest. The apparent wind is forward of the true-wind, except when sailing directly into or away from the true-wind. As one sails faster, the apparent-wind is drawn further forward. When sailing with the wind the apparent-wind has less of a force that the true-wind. When sailing against the wind, i.e., in a close reach, the apparent-wind has a greater force than the true wind. In general, the closer you sail to the wind, the closer the sails are pulled or trimmed to the midline of the boat. As you sail away from the wind, the sails are progressively let out. The exact position of the sails is based upon the direction and speed of the apparent-wind. (The direction of the apparent-wind is determined by the sailboat's tack [or relationship to the true-wind] and the relationship of the speed of the true-wind to the speed of the boat.) For the beginner sailor, it is easy to remember the five basic directions of sail (points-of-sail) each of which has its distinct characteristics of speed, heel and sail position.

Point-of-Sail Point-of-Sail In Irons Close-Hauled (Beating) Close Reach Beam Reach Broad Reach Running Wind Direction Into the Wind 30-40 Deg 60 Deg 90 Deg 135 Deg 180 Deg

BASIC SAILING CONDITIONS

Sailing on a Close Reach: All directions except heading directly into (in irons) or away from the wind. A close reach is one of the fastest points of sail. When sailing on a close reach, the sails should be bowed (having a draft) and have the appearance similar to an airplane wing. The apparent-wind travels parallel to the sail. The wind actually pulls the sails similar to an airplane wing with the air passing faster over the longer leeward curvature of the sail. In this point of sail, the apparent wind is stronger than the true wind and the boat has increased heel. In a close hauled point of sail the sailboat is trying to sail into the wind. It is a contest between the boat and the wind and the boat tries to beat the wind. This point of sail is also called beating. If the sailboat heels too much from a strong gust of wind, the boat can go slightly into the no-go zone, reducing heel and changing the course a little closer to the desired destination. This is called feathering. As the wind dies the boat bears away (turns away from the wind) and resumes sailing in a close hauled point of sail. Sailing efficiently close hauled is also called sailing in the groove. Sailing on a Broad Reach refers to sailing at an angle with the wind. In this point of sail, both the jib and mainsail are on the same side of the boat and are filled with wind. As one turns directly downwind, the mainsail blocks the jib's wind and one is then sailing on a run. Sailing on a Run refers to sailing with the wind directly behind the boat and the sails let out almost 90 degrees. One must be careful the spreader (a spar or pole which holds the shroud [sidestay] away from the mast) does not place too much pressure on the mainsail. Often a spinnaker is set; or the jib is placed on the side opposite to the mainsail (Sailing Wing and Wing). In a run, the wind should be perpendicular to the sail. A steady course must be taken to keep each sail full of wind and to prevent an accidental jibe (the mainsail swinging quickly from one side of the boat to the other. This is very dangerous and can also damage the rigging. A strong line called a preventer (picture below) can be attached from the end of the boom to prevent rig damage and injury during an accidental jibe. This line runs forward to the bow and then backward being secured in the cockpit. Never have the boom touching the shrouds. If you do and an accidental jibe occurs, the boom may snap the shrouds on the opposite side as it forcefully swings around. Having the crew sit on the same side of the cockpit as the boom will help prevent an accidental jib which may occur if the boat is hit abeam ( on the side ) by a wave or wake. When sailing wing and wing, a whisker pole can be positioned from the mast to the jib's sheet. This pole will allow the jib to better fill with wind.

Heeling is minimal when sailing on a run and the apparent wind is less than the true wind. The sails are not trimmed since the wind pushes the sails similar to a parachute. In a run the wind should be perpendicular to the sail. The speed of the boat is mainly dependent upon the amount of sail hoisted and, in a hull displacement boat, the length of the hull at the waterline. Finally one may turn the boat directly into the wind or In Irons: Since a sailboat cannot sail directly into the wind, this is usually done to stop the boat. In this position the wind cannot power the sails. A sailboat cannot sail directly into the true-wind. Most boats can only sail 40 degrees to the wind but some boats can sail as close as 30 degrees. Changing directions: Turning the sailboat away from the wind is to fall off or bear away. Turning into the wind is to head up or harden up. As the sailboat falls off the sails should be eased or let out. As the sailboat heads up the sails need to be trimmed or moved toward midline. When one changes the point-of-sail it is advantageous to change the position of the mainsail before or during the maneuver, not after. For example, if one is going to change from a close reach to a broad reach, you should change the sail position before completing the turn or the wind will hit the sail at 90 degrees and may excessively heel the boat. Changing directions through the wind: There are two basic maneuvers to change directions through the wind- Tacking (Coming About) and Jibing. "We use one of these two maneuvers anytime the change in our course causes the wind to change from one side of the boat to the other. Both maneuvers will accomplish this objective. Tacking does so by taking the bow through the wind. Jibing does so by taking the stern through the wind. Which one you choose depends upon a number of factors. First is the direction you want to turn. Is it easier to turn to starboard (boats right) or to port (boats left) to steer to your new objective? If the closer turn takes the bow through the wind, it is generally better to tack. If it is closer to turn downwind and take the stern through the wind, then generally jibing is the desired maneuver. Other factors to consider are wind strength and proximity to obstructions such as shoals a dock and other boats. In
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stronger winds, jibing can be a more challenging maneuver often intimidating less experienced sailors as well as subjecting the boat and its equipment to serious stress due to the rapid shift of the wind force from one side to another. If you have serious doubts in you or your crew to perform a jib or about the integrity of your boat, consider doing what we call a "Chicken Jib" which is heading up and tacking around the long way." Coming-About (Tacking): In this maneuver, the bow of the boat goes through

the wind as one changes from a close-hauled point-of-sail on one tack (direction) to a close hauled point-of-sail on the other direction. Only the jib needs to be adjusted, the working sheet of the jib is changed and the new working sheet is placed on a winch. The mainsail is left alone and will by itself often assume the correct position. Coming about or tacking will change the boat's tack (direction) by approximately 90 degrees. To determine when to stop the turn, it is useful to identify a structure, landmark or even a cloud abeam (90 degrees off the windward side of the boat) before the turn starts and end the turn heading toward this structure. Don't get confused remember the term "tack" can refer to three things: (1) The front lower corner of the sail. (2) A direction of sail - i.e. a starboard tack. (3) Coming About.
Jibe: In this maneuver, the stern of the boat goes through the wind as one

changes from a broad reach on one tack (direction) to a broad reach in the other tack (direction). Both the jib and mainsail will need adjusting. The mainsail is first centered, the turn made and the mainsail is then let out. The jib's working sheet is changed and the new working sheet is placed on a winch. One may wish to divide a jibe into a series of steps. First, enter a deep broad reach. This is the point-of-sail just before the jib starts to flap as the mainsail masks the jib's wind. Turn the boat directly downwind in a run and sail Wing-on-Wing. The jib and jib's working sheet can now be switched to the outer side of the boat and adjusted for the new point of sail. Next, center the mainsail and jibe the boat. Unlike comingabout, in a jibe the boat only needs to be turned a few degrees to allow the mainsail to switch to the other side. Once the mainsail swings to the other side, quickly ease its sheet and trim the main for the new tack. An interesting maneuver is to turn the boat 180 degrees from a close-hauled tack to a broad reach by performing a jibe. In a close-hauled tack, the mainsail is close to the mast. One may be tempted to not adjust the mainsail until the jibe takes place because it must be centered anyway. If this is attempted, the wind will hit the mainsail at 90 degrees as one enters a beam reach, causing excessive heeling of the boat. Thus, one must first let the mainsail out as the boat falls off and enters a beam and then a broad reach. From a deep broad reach one can then center the mainsail and perform a jibe. (This change in direction is much easier to do by coming-about.) Remember as you head away from the wind the sails are progressively let out.

Maximum Hull Speed Formula: This formula estimates the theoretical maximum speed of a hull displacement boat. (1.34 times the square root of the length of the hull at the water line of a boat loaded with cargo.) The maximum Hull speed of 45 foot boat is: 8.99 knots The following is the formula used to calculate The Theoretical Maximum Hull Speed: Maximum Hull Speed = 1.34 * LWL1/2 LWL: Boat Length at Water Line

SAIL SHAPE WHEN SAILING ON A REACH The Mainsail: For maximum efficiency a sail should have a curve, or draft. The larger the draft or curvature of the sail usually creates a more powerful sail. In moderate wind conditions, the draft should be approximately 45% of the way back from the luff (front edge of the sail), much like a wing of an airplane. In light winds, the mainsail should be set for maximum efficiency. The larger the draft or curvature of the sail usually creates a more powerful sail. However, in stronger winds it may be desirable to flatten the mainsail. Flattening the curvature of the sail will make it less aerodynamic and reduce the "pull" on the leeward side of the sail. This can be done by tightening the backstay (flattens the upper 2/3 of the sail), and by tightening the outhaul of the mainsail (flattens the lower 1/3 of the sail). Tightening the backstay will bend the top of the mast backward and the midportion of the mast forward. This will flatten the upper two thirds of the mainsail and depower the sail. However, this also moves the draft or maximum curvature of the sail aft (toward the stern). Setting the Cunningham will tighten the sail's luff (front edge of the sail) and move the draft forward and back to its correct position approximately 45% of the way back from the luff (front edge of the sail).

Picture of the Cunningham set with a line (left-hand picture). Non-set Cunningham (picture on the right side).
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Tightening the outhaul will flatten the foot of the mainsail and depower the sail. Loosening the outhaul will increase the draft of the mainsail and power-up the sail. One must be careful not to cup the sail with too little tension on the foot of the sail by having the outhaul too loose. Tightening the boom vang will reduce the twist of the mainsail. Loosening the boom vang will tend to twist the sail, causing the superior portion of the sail to be let out in relation to the lower portion. Adjusting the boom vang will compensate for a change in sail shape as the mainsail is let out or eased. It can also be used to compensate for an increase in wind speed and change in apparent wind direction which is present aloft (towards the top of the mast). Twisting of a sail is a fine adjustment which is guided by the behaviour of the telltales on the mainsail's
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leech (back edge of the sail). If the boom is over the water, one may want to first trim the lower part of the mainsail by using the mainsail's sheet, then loosen the boom vang until the aft (top) portion of the mainsail or telltales start to luff then tighten the boom vang until the luffing stops and the telltales are streaming backward. Once the proper shape of the mainsail has been achieved, any changes in the tension of the boom vang or the mainsail's sheet will change the shape of the sail. The mainsail's sheet not only determines the position of the boom in relationship to the deck but also places a downward pull on the leech (aft or back edge) of the mainsail. If one lets the mainsail out by loosing its sheet, decrease tension on the main's leech may occur, resulting in an undesirable twist of the sail. If one wishes to let out the mainsail with little change in sail shape, the "traveller" should be used. (By also adjusting the mainsail's sheet, the sail can be let out without any change in shape). The traveller is a track with an adjustable car to which the mainsail's sheet is attached. By sliding the travellers car to port or starboard the position of the boom is changed without changing the length of the mainsail's sheet. Many beginning sailors will only use the mainsail's sheet to trim the sail. However, for maintaining proper sail shape the mainsail's sheet, traveller and boom vang should all be used. All three lines will change the sail's twist and trim (position from the sailboat's midline) to some degree. When the boom is near midline, being over the sailboat, the traveller can be used to ease or trim the sail and the main's sheet's used to control sail twist. (In this position, the sheet's main pull is downward) As the boom is let out over water, the mainsail's sheet can be used to trim or ease the sail and the boom vang to control sail twist. (In this position, the sheet's main pull is horizontal.) The Jib: There are three ways of modifying jib shape. The first is with the jib sheet. In moderate winds, a rule of thumb is to have the maximum sail draft (deepest part of the curve in the sail) about 45% back from the sail's luff (front edge). One can also ease the jib (or let the jib out) and trim it (pull it in), stopping just as it ceases luffing. It is important not to have the jib to tight or cupped. If this happens, significant power may be lost from not only the jib but also the mainsail.

 The second is to move the jib sheet's block (fair lead) aft (towards the stern or back of the boat) or forward. Moving the block aft will place more tension on the foot (bottom edge) of the sail as the jib's sheet is tightened. This will flatten the foot or bottom of the sail and twist the top of the sail, thus, depowering the jib. Moving the bock forward will place more tension on the top of the leech (back edge) as the jib's sheet is tightened. This will result in an increased draft of the jib and untwisting of the sail. This will power up the jib. If the jib luffs at the top of the leech first, the fair lead is too far aft. If the jib luffs at the bottom of the leech first, the fair lead is too far forward. The third way is to straighten the forestay (or headstay) which the luff (front edge) of the jib is attached to. This will straighten the front of the jib and improve efficiency. This is done by tightening the backstay. One should note that when the backstay is tightened, the mainsail's sheet and boom vang may also have to be adjusted or the mainsail's shape will change. Never tighten the jib reefing line using a winch handle. On one of the charters, the crew was in a high-wind situation and chose to decrease the sail area by rolling in the jib. Because of the force of the wind, the jib rolled in tightly and about 10% of the sail would not roll around the forestay. Despite pulling on the reefing line, we could not get the jib to fully reef. One of the crew started to place the line on a winch with the intention of using a winch handle to tighten the line. He was immediately stopped. On inspecting the reefing line, it was fully out and only attached to the forestay by a stopper knot. The line was too short, but there was nothing we could do about it at the time. If the line would have been forcefully pulled, it could have broken the forestay and in the high-wind conditions this could have destabilized the mast and demasted the boat. Sailor's Tip: Never force a line; check it to see where it is caught.

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TRIMMING THE SAILS ON A CLOSE REACH When sailing on a reach, the experienced sailor trims the sails based upon the apparent-wind. This is important because sails cannot be efficiently positioned based upon the point-of-sail or the direction of the true-wind. An extreme example is ice-sailing on a broad reach, a sudden strong gust of wind can cause the craft to reach high speeds and cause apparent-wind conditions similar to a close reach. On a close reach, one method of testing mainsail and jib position is to let the sail out until it luffs (the leech starts flapping) then pull it in (or trim the sail) until the sail is steady. It is easier to tell if the mainsail and jib are let out too much, than if the sail is over trimmed (pulled in). Telltales may also be used as a guide. Telltales are small pieces of yarn attached to the sail. Although telltales are helpful when sailing on a reach, they are not useful when running (sailing directly downwind). In a run, the wind should be perpendicular to the sail. Whenever the sails are trimmed using the sheets a change in sail shape occurs. Other lines and the "fair lead" may have to be adjusted to maintain sail shape. Jib: The jib is let out and trimmed using a line called a sheet which is attached to the lower back corner or clew of the sail. As a general guide, the windward front jib telltale should stream aft (backwards) with an occasional lift; the leeward front telltale should stream aft. The first picture below shows the shadow, through the sail, of the jib's leeward telltale and a slight lifting of the jib's windward telltale. (Often there is a plastic window in this position so one can easily see both telltales.) In some high wind conditions it may be desirable to have the the windward telltale fluttering.

The picture on the right above shows a poorly trimmed jib with the telltales turning downward. If the windward telltale flutters, sheet in the jib or bear away (turn the boat away from the wind). If the leeward telltale flutters, let the jib out or head up (turn the boat into the wind). Sailor's Tip: If the outside telltale flutters, let the sail out. flutters, sheet the sail in. If the inside telltale

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 Mainsail: Mainsail can be let out and trimmed using two different lines: The mainsail's sheet and the traveller. The telltales are on the leech (back edge of the sail) and should be streaming backwards. If they go in circles or flutter, the sail is not trimmed properly.

The picture on the right shows a poorly trimmed mainsail with a "Luff Bubble" forming just behind the front edge or luff of the sail.

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SAILING A KETCH
A ketch is a two-masted sailing vessel that has a second mast behind (aft of) the rudder post, but ahead of the rudder post, making the fine-tuning of the boat more precise and flexible. Sailing a ketch is a bit different than sailing single masted sloops, or even yawls, so it's important to follow some steps to sail the boat correctly. 1. Learn the rig of your ketch, particularly the mizzen mast. The mizzen mast's rig (sloop or gaff, for example) should be the same as the main mast rig. Still, since the ketch's mizzen is aft of the rudder post you need to know how to set the various sails, especially less familiar sails such as a mizzen staysail. 2. Hoist the mizzen first. This will keep your boat's head to wind. You can easily hoist other sails in this condition. Use your mizzen when on anchor. You boat will always keep the head to wind. 3. The mizzen is very good for keeping your route. Arrange your sail trim well, lock your tiller or steering and adjust your mizzen and this will keep the boat going in the same direction. You can stay nearly hove to with the mizzen only. 4. Play with the sail set of the mizzen mast to achieve a comfortable balance on your boat. Since each boat responds slightly differently to the effects of a mizzen mast you should try trimming and easing the mizzen under various weather conditions and with full main in order to ease or, in the more rare case, increase your weather helm. 5. The mizzen performance on beat (upwind) and run (downwind). Unlike most yawls with their smaller mizzens, on most ketches the mizzen is needed for balance and also represents a larger percentage of the sail area so it is rarely dropped going upwind or on a run. Ketches do best on a reach and are pretty poor on a beat or run. 1. Downwind the mizzen makes the main uneasy, since the mizzen sail is more likely to grab wind out the mainsail than provide extra propulsion and leads to more chafe against the shrouds. 2. When sailing directly with the wind, keep the mizzen opposite to the main, and the Genoa on the same side to the main. Ketch rigs are very efficient in this way since the mizzen gives more stability. Furl your mizzen mast sails when your mainsail is on the same side and if losing performance when running in front of the wind (downwind). 3. Upwind or in beat the mizzen is not much help because the main makes it uneasy. The Genoa (Jib or Furling) disturbs the wind that reaches the mainsail; therefore, you have to keep the main more straight. The mizzen is affected from the mains wind and you have to keep the mizzen very straight which will not deliver any drive. Try dropping the mizzen, it might be worth the effort, as it contributes
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heavy weather helm making steering more work as a result when beating or (very) close reaching.

6. The mizzen of a ketch rigged boat starts to come into its own on a close reach and can still be useful on a broad reach. Reaching with a mizzen staysail set (in addition to the mizzen itself) on a ketch can be a thrill. So, use the mizzen when it seems to help but dont feel bad if the boat does better if you put it to bed on some points of sail. 1. Bring your mizzen sail all the way in to the centreline on close reaches. Ease the sail if you find that it causes excessive weather helm. As the wind approaches high speeds (in excess of 20 knots, for example), consider bringing down the main and reefing the ketch's mizzen sail for a more comfortable and safe ride. 7. Do use your mizzen instead of your main when going to the wind if the wind is good. The Genoa will work well, because you do not have a main that will affect the wind to the mizzen, it will give very good drive 8. Try to use the mizzen mast and the other two sails to steer the boat. You'll find that with experience, intelligent, minor sail set changes with the mizzen can alter the boat's course without upsetting the balance you've achieved. 9. The basics for sail trimming on a ketch are: start trimming from the bow and work to your aft. In other words trim the jib by its luff telltales (18 or so inches back from the luff), then the mainsail and then the mizzen both by their leech telltales. The mizzen is often a little over- or under- trimmed to help balance the helm. 10. In heavy air the mainsail is often dropped (jig and jigger mentioned above) which results in balanced rig with minimal sail area. Dropping the mizzen first in heavy air is often not an option as most ketches will develop lee helm (not a good thing in a heavy breeze). While modern mainsail reefing allows most sloops (or yawls for that matter) to quickly shorten sail and be in balance, on most ketches, the mainsail is so far forward that dropping the mizzen in heavy air can create real steering problems. 11. The mizzen has been found especially suitable across and downwind in the Caribbean where the breezes are heavier, especially for a short-handed crew. Ease of sail handling is a worthy goal. 12. Always check weather conditions periodically, and if confronted with the likelihood of heavy weather you must wear a flotation device and a safety line. Ready yourself for reducing wind pressure when encountering sudden or strong gust.

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THE DYNAMICS IN DEALING WITH HEAVY WINDS

A good strategy that works in real heavy conditions is to tension the halyard, outhaul, mainsheet and vang to really flatten the sail. Then lower the traveller close to its stops to adjust the sail to a small angle of attack. This will reduce heeling and weather helm. In lighter air you dont want to tighten the leach. In lighter winds, gradient wind effects typically require a lot of twist in your sails. This means slightly loosening the vang, halyards, outhaul and mainsheet and bringing the traveller car well to windward. The idea is to get the air flowing across the sail so that the leech telltales on the mainsail are flying most of the time. Heres the point, in heavy air, you want to be bladding out your mainsail, in other words, making it as flat as possible and then reducing its angle of attack. This reduces weather helm and reduces heel. To do this requires tensioning all of the controls on the mainsail (outhaul, halyard, vang, and mainsheet, and backstay- if you have an adjustable backstay) and dropping the traveller to leeward. When you ease the vang and tension the topping lift, you are powering up the sail and twisting the sail, which increases weather helm and heeling, and reduces drive. This is not the best solution in heavy conditions. The amount of force that a sail generates is related to the shape of the sail and its angle of attack to the wind. Angle or attack, or incident angle, is the angle of the sail to the wind. A sail that is fuller (rounder) in shape generates more lift (the term lift is used because a sail is seen as a wing on edge and because, except down wind, the drive that a sail produces pulls the boat from the low pressure side of the sail rather than pushing the sail as one might otherwise assume). The flatter the sail the less lift is generated. A sail generates lift perpendicular to the surface of the sail with the most lift generated at the luff of the sail and next to no lift generated at the trailing edge. As a result the accumulated forces of a sail can be thought of as having three active components; Drive- which is the component of the force that acts in the forward direction of the boat, Drag which is a component that acts to reduce drive, and Heeling Forces which operate across the boat. In an ideal sense the goal in sailing is to maximize drive while keeping the other two components under control. For any given boat, in any given conditions, there is an ideal amount of curvature (camber) in the sail and an ideal angle of attack. In light air the goal is to produce the maximum lift that you can regardless of heel angle, etc. But in heavier conditions it is possible to produce too much lift. First of all, except for planning boats, most displacement boats can only use so much drive, i.e. enough drive to push the boat at hullspeed. Second of all with the increased lift comes increased heeling and aerodynamic drag, which may actually slow a boat down and make it less safe and comfortable to sail. So, the one critical goal in heavier air is to flatten the shape of the sail in order to reduce lift. The other goal in heavier conditions is try to make sure that the sail
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has the proper incident angle. When you have the sail pulled in too far the sail produces too much heeling for the amount of drive making control and comfort less than ideal. This brings us to twist. If you sight up a sail you will notice that if you drew a straight horizontal line from the mast to the leech of the sail these lines would not all be parallel. Some would be seen to have at a larger angle to the centreline of the boat than others. This is called twist. When you have a lot of twist in heavy air, part of the sail is over trimmed and part of the sail is often under trimmed and the result is that the part of the sail that is over trimmed is causing the boat to heel excessively. So talking about the how this applies to actual sail trim underway. In light air you generally can tolerate more power and more twist for a variety of reasons. To power up a sail, the halyard, outhaul, backstay adjuster, and boom vang are eased. The traveller is brought high above the centreline of the boat so that the mainsheet is pulling more horizontally rather than downward. Pulling downward tends to reduce twist and flatten the sail. As the winds increase, the force on the sail stretches the fabric and in the absence of a boom vang pulls the boom upward, both add curvature to the sail and so provide more lift, increasing drive, drag and heeling. At some point you have too much lift and so you need to flatten the sail out. On a beat you lower the traveller to leeward and tighten the mainsheet. This reduces twist, and fullness in the sail. You also tension the halyards, outhaul, backstay adjuster, and boom vang to further reduce fullness. By the time that the boat is getting overpowered you want to have a very flat sail pointed at a very flat angle to the wind. The traveller should be all the way to leeward and the mainsheet tensioned. The jib car should be slightly aft of its normal position. When reaching, without a vang the sail wants to get a lot of twist and to power up in the gusts. This is backward of what you really want to happen. A boom vang, by keeping the boom from rising, reduces twist and so keeps the various portions of the sail at similar angles of attach to each other. This allows you to adjust the sail so that you have just the right angle of attack up and down the sail rather than have one part over trimmed and one part too eased. As a result you have less weather helm and also heel less. For beginners it seems as if heel equals speed. Generally, heeling does not equate to greater speed. When a boat heels it generally produces greater drag, leeway and is less comfortable to move about on. Beginners usually look at an over-trimmed sail as producing more drive because it produces more heel. In a general sense an over trimmed sail does not produce more drive (or even more lift), just a greater heeling moment due to the greater sideforce of the wind impacting the sail at a deeper angle. It is only when all of that fails to achieve a comfortable heel and rudder angle that reducing sail area becomes necessary. To keep the terms clear, depowering is reducing the power of the sail area that you have up, and reefing is reducing the area of the sail that you have up. The terms are not interchangeable.

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DEPOWERING THE SAILS

The easiest way of handling a sudden gust of wind is to let the mainsail out. This will immediately spill the wind and remove the force of the wind on the sails. The problem with this method is that it may cause the mainsail to hit the spreader on the sidestay. Over a long period of time this may damage the sail. This is the main drawback of Hunter Sailboats. Hunters do not have a backstay but instead have a backward placement of the shrouds (sidestays). Another method is to sail into the wind. Regardless of your tack, this will cause wind to spill from your sails and remove the force on your mainsail. However, it will also cause the boat to change course. This method is desirable if one is sailing on a close hauled approach and trying to sail upwind. In other points of sail, this method is often used by sailors who are out sailing just to have fun and not concerned about holding a steady course. If the increase in wind speed is sustained, the one my wish to flatten the mainsail, taking out the horizontal curvature which is needed for maximum sailing efficiency. There are three main techniques to do this. --One may set the Cunningham Cringle (grommet), which is found a few inches above the tack (lower front corner) of the mainsail, over a small hook found on the forward part of the boom. This shortens the luff (front edge) of the sail, flattens the sail and moves the draft forward. --Another way to flatten the sail is to tighten the outhaul. This method tends to flatten the lower one-third of the sail allowing it to spill wind.

--The last method is to tighten the backstay to create a large vertical curvature in the mast which flattens the upper two thirds of the mainsail. However, if undue tension is placed on the mast by bending it, it may increase the chances of mast failure in a heavy wind situation and demast the boat. Don't forget to loosen the boom topping lift after you hoist the mainsail. --On one charter, a sailboat was unable to successfully tack into the wind on a closehauled approach because the end of the boom was over-elevated by almost two feet. Until the problem was detected and the boom lowered by adjusting the boom topping lift and boom vang, the sailboat could not make any headway. --The boom topping lift keeps the boom from falling when the mainsail is taken down. The boom topping lift should be loose when the mainsail is hoisted. This allows the mainsail to switch from side to side, as one changes tacks, without hitting or being restricted by the boom topping lift.

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SAILING ON HEAVY WEATHER

Tactics: By heavy weather we mean weather conditions and high winds which cause a boat and crew to depart from their planned track and take evasive action to prevent capsizing and loss of the craft. Needless to say, the best tactic to deal with heavy weather is to avoid it. Before leaving port always consult the weather forecast. A tight time commitment to be somewhere, or to return a charter boat, has to come second to not going out in dangerous weather. When chartering, always have a contingency plan for the loss of a day sailing due to the weather. Sailor's Tip: The first thing you should do before leaving the dock is check the weather. It is best not to go out if there is a chance of a heavy storm. The easiest sailing is in winds from 5 to 12 knots. Below 5 knots the wind is too light and maneuvering and powering the boat with the sails may become difficult. Above 12 knots, the boat may heel excessively and some sail area may have to be taken down or at least the sails depowered and made less efficient to the wind. A beginner sailor should try to prevent keel boats from heeling more than 20 degrees and centerboard boats from heeling more than 10 degrees. Higher winds require an experienced sailor and when winds exceed 20 to 25 knots many charter companies will not allow their boats to be taken out. However the ability of a sailboat to handle strong winds is also dependent upon design and size. Some large sailboats are designed to sail efficiently and comfortably with winds of 20 to 25 knots. Excessive heeling of the boat may be fun but it will also have the following adverse effects: Increase the leeway or lateral drift of the boat with the wind because the keel is no longer near vertical. Makes the boat harder to steer, Slows the boat If a heavy iron keel is present, a heeling error in compass readings may occur. The objective of all heavy weather tactics is to avoid knocking down or capsizing the boat. A non-breaking wave, no matter how high, will not capsize a conventional boat with good stability (1). Breaking waves are the dangerous waves and can easily capsize a boat if the height of the wave is equal to or greater than 60% of the length of the boat when hit end on or much smaller if the breaking wave hits the boat on its side. Boat stability is the ability of the boat to resist capsizing when hit on its side. It should be obvious that one of the major goals of heavy weather tactics is to keep the bow or stern of the boat end-on into the waves. In doing so, boat stability has only a little impact on surviving the storm. The main factors are length of the boat, longer is better, and the ability of the crew to keep the bow or stern positioned into the wind. A slight increase in wave height can easily overcome boat stability characteristics. Large breaking waves should be avoided at all cost and a skilled crew to maneuver the boat under reduced sails or bare poles is
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the most important factor to surviving a storm. Thus, active tactics which allow the crew to maneuver the boat away from large breaking waves are preferable to passive tactics which invite knockdowns or the possibility of being capsized. The ability of a boat to upright after it has capsized is another important characteristic. It can be estimated by calculating the angle of vanishing stability, or angle of heel that the boat will still upright itself. For most offshore boats this angle should be greater than 140 degrees.

Learn to anticipate the wind by looking at the water. Puffs (areas of strong wind) and lulls (areas of weak wind) can easily be seen in the picture above. It is imperative that one have a basic knowledge of how to manage a sailboat in high winds. It is very easy to be caught in a storm. Remember a sailboat is a hull displacement vessel and it is slow, its maximum speed is 1.34 times the square root of the length of the curvature of the hull at the waterline. A 30 foot sailboat (LWL: load waterline length) will have a maximum speed of 7.34 knots. Thus, you may not have enough time to enter a safe harbour. If caught in a storm with high winds it may be safer to stay out at sea than to head into a narrow harbor. A 30 foot LWL sailboat's maximum speed is a little over 7 knots. If the currents and waves have a greater speed, then you may be at their mercy as you enter a narrow inlet.

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The picture above shows the water on a lake with a 3 mile fetch (length of water the wind is blowing over). The apparent wind was 18 to 19 knots with a true wind speed at approximately 15 knots (force 4 on the Beaufort scale). Fairly frequent white caps are present. The waves are not large because of the small fetch. All sailboats on the lake were reefed. Weather Service Warnings Small Craft Advisory - Up to 33 knots Gale Warning - 34 to 47 Knots Storm Warning - 48+ knots Hurricane Warning - 64+ knots

Sea and Sailing Conditions - SAILING Recommendations. 0 to 10 knots: Smooth water with small waves. The boat will be easy to handle under full sail. 11 to 16 knots: Moderate seas with some white caps. If the boat feels overpowered, consider reefing. 17 to 21 knots: Lengthening waves with many white caps and some spray. The boat will be more difficult to manage and you should seriously consider reefing. 22 to 27 knots: Large waves, many white caps and spray. The boat will need at least one reef in the mainsail and a smaller jib. These conditions require considerable sailing experience. Listen to radio weather for small craft advisories. 28 to 47 knots: Gale conditions. High waves with white caps and foam. This is a good time to Stay Ashore.

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As the winds approach and exceed 15 knots, many sailboats should have a single reefing point placed. In large sailboats (greater than 30 feet LOA: Overall Length) the second point, is often placed when winds exceed 25 knots. Smaller boats (below 26 to 30 feet LOA) may have greater difficulty in high winds. Often it is best to sail with a storm jib (25% jib) or, if a beginning sailor, to hoist the "Iron Genoa" (turn on the motor and take down the sails). Some large sailboats are designed to sail efficiently and comfortably without reefing in winds of 20 to 25 knots.

One should remember the best way to judge when to reef is by the degree of heel and weather helm produced by the boat since the ability a vessel to sail in high winds will vary with its size and design. Sailor's Tip: It is always easier to reef in the sails before you leave port and then take out the reef if not needed, than it is to place a reef in high winds. An increase in wind speed is easy to feel when beating or sailing closehauled. However, when running with the wind or on a broad reach, the wind may not seem as strong and may increase rapidly in strength before it is noticed. Sailor's Tip: Always have a safety harness.

WHEN CAUGHT IN A HIGH WIND SITUATION When caught in a high wind situation, it is often desirable to head the boat into or away from the wind. Because one cannot sail directly into the wind and running with the wind under a mainsail can be dangerous in a storm with changing wind direction, it may be best to head into or away from the wind at a 40 degree angle (Close Reach - into the wind, or Broad Reach - away from the wind.). If one chooses to run with the wind one should consider sailing only with a storm jib to eliminate the danger of an accidental Jibe. The point of sail and sail configuration selected will depend upon the strength of the wind, size of the craft and how it handles in high winds, and if the wind is steady or direction changing, etc. In other words, this can be a very dangerous situation, one that is dependent upon the exact weather conditions encountered, experience of the crew, design of the boat, and a situation which is best anticipated and avoided, than encountered. Preparation for heavy weather includes the securing of gear above and below deck, placement of jacklines (heavy lines or cable run on the deck to attach a tether from a safety harness), and the crew wearing PFDs and safety harnesses, and the reduction of sail area. Most tactics involve the positioning of the bow or stern directly towards or at an angle to the waves and the avoidance of being hit beam-on with a breaking wave (which can most easily capsize the boat).
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Successful tactics when caught in heavy weather have included:

Running with the Storm and "Surfing" Use of a Sea Anchor or Drogue - helps to position the boat into or away from the wind. "Heaving-To" Under Sail "Lying-A-Hull" In a Yawl or Ketch the Mizzen sail alone may be partially raised to act as a weather vane and head the boat's bow into the wind.

Whether or not to head into a harbor during a storm is not an easy question to answer. For example, if you are outside an unfamiliar harbor with a narrow rocky inlet and a cross wind, it may be better to stay out. A sailboat is one of the best designed boats for heavy weather; they shed water and are resistant to capsizing.

ACTIVE & PASSIVE TACTICS Active Tactics: The difference between a gale and what has become known as a "survival" storm is that in the former, with winds of force 8, or perhaps 9 (say 30 to 45 knots mean velocity), the skipper and crew retain control and can take measures which they think best, whereas in a survival gale of force 10 or over, perhaps gusting at hurricane strength, wind and sea become the masters. If you are able, actively sailing in heavy weather is preferable to passively riding out the storm. Sailing also has the advantage of helping you to avoid large breaking waves and positioning your boat in an area where it can better ride out the storm. If you are in a coastal area, you may want to approach a windward shore (a shore that the wind is blowing from). In this area, the waves will be smaller because of the reduced fetch (distance of water that the wind is blowing over). Avoid areas where the wind is blowing against the current, since larger, breaking waves with a more frequent period will be found in this location. Finally, you may find a safe harbor to enter but be careful. A wide-mouthed harbor on the windward shore is ideal. However, a harbor on the leeward shore with a narrow entrance may be too dangerous to enter. Reduce sails or running with bare poles: Reduce the ship's sails by reefing the main or going to a storm trysail (a small heavy weather sail) and by hoisting a storm jib (even smaller than a number 4 jib). If the boat still has too much sail, consider running with bare poles. "Bare poles" refers to sailing the craft without sails hoisted. In this situation, the force of the wind on the hull and rigging generates enough force to propel the craft.

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Running with the wind and surfing: The first tactic is to run with the wind. This reduces the force of the apparent wind and may allow you to navigate the boat away from the path of the storm or into safer waters. If large waves are present, the boat may begin to surf down the waves. When this happens, the restrictions of hull speed are thrown out the window and even a heavy displacement cruiser may achieve a significant increase in speed. Control of the boat as you travel down the waves is of utmost importance. Often the boat needs to navigate down the waves at an angle to prevent slamming into the back side of the wave in front of you. If this happens, crew can be injured; the boat may lose its rigging or be pitchpolled. However, by going down the waves at an angle, you also place your boat at a greater risk of broaching and capsizing. Running warps and use of a drogue: Controlling the boat can be difficult, since waves will often be travelling faster than the boat and will be breaking over the boat's stern. This will tend to push the boat sideways creating a danger of broaching (uncontrolled broadside positioning of the boat in relationship to the waves) and capsizing. To help keep the boat on course, you may want to increase the drag of the water on the stern of the boat. A small amount of drag will help keep the stern pointing into the oncoming waves but not enough to appreciably slow the forward motion of the boat. A small amount of drag can be created by running warps, or loops of lines secured on the port primary winch, into the water off the stern, then looping back and secured to the starboard winch. If the boat is still at risk of broaching, then increase the drag by using a drogue. This is a small-cone shaped device which is attached to a rode. The rode is then attached to a bridle (a line running from one port winch or cleat, into the water behind the stern and attached to the starboard winch or cleat.) A bridle will reduce the load on a cleat or winch by distributing the force between both the port and starboard sides of the boat.

The drogue should be set so it is in the wave's trough when the boat is on a wave's crest. The bridle can also be adjusted to help steer the boat. When too many waves are coming over the stern and you are unable to control the forward motion of the boat, it is time to adopt a passive technique.

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Passive Tactics: Being Hove to in a long gale is the most boring way of being terrified. Passive techniques involve positioning the bow of your boat into the wind to help avoid broaching and capsizing. Unlike active techniques, the boat has no hope of lessening the force of the storm, or avoiding an approaching large breaking wave which can pitchpoll (end-over-end capsizing of the boat) the boat.

Heaving-To: In this technique, the forward motion of the boat is slowed, the bow of the boat is turned through the wind but the jib is not released on the windward side (the jib is backed). The mainsail is then eased out and the boat is now turned into the wind. The mainsail is trimmed to help balance the jib, to keep the boat as close to the wind as possible. Two opposing forces now exist. The jib pushes the boat away from the wind but the rudder pushes the boat into the wind. Thus, the boat comes to a near standstill, drifting slowly to leeward. Use of a sea anchor off the bow: Sea anchors are essentially large drogues. Initially, many were made from military parachutes and are often referred to as parachute anchors. The large size of the anchor creates a large amount of drag which will significantly slow the motion of the craft and align the bow directly into the waves. Unlike a drogue, a sea anchor is always placed off the bow and not the stern since the bow cuts into the waves and sheds water much better than the stern of the boat. (The diameter of the parachute anchor should be at least 35% of the boat's LOA)

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Hoisting of a small sail at the stern of the boat: On a two masted boat, a small sail can be hoisted on the aft mast. This sail can act as a weather vane and help keep the bow pointed into the wind. On a sloop, a small sail, riding sail, can be set on the backstay. This technique can be used in conjunction with a sea anchor.

The picture above shows a riding sail to help keep a boat pointed into the wind while at anchor. Note the lee boards on the side of this vessel which project out at a slight angle. This design is characteristic of wooden boats built in the Netherlands. These boards or fins (there is one on each side) rotate into the water and prevent lateral drift of the vessel under the force of the wind. They function similar to a keel and are designed to be approximately perpendicular in the water when the boat heels. Lying a-hull: As a last resort one might elect to go down below and ride out the storm, letting the boat find its own path in the water. This almost always exposes the beam of the boat to oncoming waves and increase the chance of capsizing. Some authors have stated that a boat lying-a-hull and drifting will have a calming effect on the seas and prevent waves from breaking. A sinusoidal wave no matter how large will not capsize a boat. When hit beam on, the breaking wave has only to be higher than the width of the beam of the boat to capsize the craft. If you choose to lie a-hull your craft should have a very high angle of vanishing stability so that it will have a high probability of righting itself in the event it capsizes.

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Avoiding Heavy Weather

For sailors, weather has a strong influence overeven to the point of controllingour emotions and behaviour. Most sailors know this to be a true statement, even though we often attempt to deny it. A boat's crew is happy and joyful when the sun is shining and the winds and seas are abaft the beam. On the other hand, we say prayers for a crew who has to beat to windward in breaking seas under gray skies and makes only gradual progress, since there is little joy on this boat. It takes a fast boat, attention to detail, and humility to avoid bad Avoiding bad weather is the first line of weather consistently, but defence in dealing with it. vigorous, low-pressure systems usually catch us all if we eventually spend enough time on the water. We can improve our odds of keeping morale up and emotions positive if we avoid fatigue, both mental and physical. Fatigue occurs when we are deprived of rest and sleep, which happens when we are exposed to prolonged heavy-weather sailing. It is not the fatigue itself that is so relevant; it is that fatigue diminishesoften dramaticallya person's ability to think coherently, to make simple decisions, and to engage in rational thought. So what happens after a bad decision is made? Accidents! Coast Guard statistics show human error, not equipment failure or design, causes 80 percent of marine accidents. With many of these accidents, a dominant ingredient is fatigue. So it's clear that tired sailors make bad decisions and these bad decisions have a high likelihood of contributing to or causing accidents.

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For example, if a bad routing decision exposes a vessel to sustained winds of Force 7 (28 to 33 knots) for more than three days, then waves and seas in that region will become dangerous, both in height and propensity to break. Breaking seas regularly occur along the edges of ocean currents (where large temperature gradients exist). A good rule of thumb for avoiding dangerous winds and seas is to minimize the duration of encounter with Force 7, or greater conditions, by allowing two degrees of separation between your vessel and the Once inside the two-degreeareas where these conditions exist. separation zone, mariners Where did this two-degree separation strategy can expect conditions to come from? Well, two degrees, or 120 nautical deteriorate rapidly. miles, take into account the error, what I would call "slop," in analysing and forecasting weather systems. Consider this analogy: you are watching a truck move down a highway and you know its destination. With good information you can track its progress, predicting where this truck will be at a given time. What you probably do not know is what lane this truck will be in at any given time. Maybe it moves into the left lane and passes another vehicle, and then slides back into the center lane. Then it slows down in the right lane before speeding up again. These are micros-cale movements, which are difficult to track and predict, but they also occur with weather systems. Our two-degree margin accounts for these micros-cale movements in weather systems, essentially averaging out the "wobble" or "slop" in their movement. Now, let's say despite your best efforts, you and your crew are caught in the wrong part of the ocean at the wrong time. Winds and seas are hammering you. You have two choices: (1) rig your storm sails and make slow but steady progress away from the weather system and toward your destination or (2) heave-to, wait for conditions to improve, and then resume sailing toward your destination. For some sailors the obvious choice is to keep moving. Although, there may be equipment problems or other extenuating circumstances that would support the option of heaving-to, all things being equal, if you can keep moving you should! Why? Mostly for crew morale and the fact that we operate better when making progress toward a destination or goal.

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There is a Chinese proverb that goes: "Everyone pushes a falling wall." What does this have to do with sailing? If you are making progress and your boat is moving, your crew will be thinking positively and will be able to tackle and solve problems. Morale will be high and there will be few crew squabbles and usually fewer equipment problems. On the other hand, try heaving-to for more than a day. You will likely have a mutiny on Keeping your vessel on track and making your hands. Crew members will progress will have a positive impact on eventually get on each other's crew morale. nerves, and with crew below decks, personal space becomes an issue-the head begins smelling, and people start to lose interest and patience. Also fatigue often increases in these situations, which makes people become withdrawn and the Chinese "wall" of group cooperationnormally focused on accomplishing a voyagebegins to lean and fall, and everyone begins pushing. A good advice is to keep the boat moving, keep people engaged, and demonstrate progress. Imagine this scene, you wake up after a few hours off watch and find you have made significant miles toward your landfall. Is that a good feeling? Compare this to the feeling of waking up to find you have lost the same number of significant miles. I wager the first feeling is one that would make you utter an enthusiastic 'Yes! while the second scenario would have you saying little, but thinking about taking up camping. Traditionally, sailors as a breed relish overcoming difficulty and taking on challenges. Sitting hove-to is too passive. Inactivity breeds depression and frustration. The best solution is to keep a vessel moving, determine the boat's hull speed (1.3 multiplied by the square root of waterline length) and do all you can to maintain that speed. To keep the boat moving you need to know its performance characteristics, what racers call polars (given this designation because "polars" are typically presented in a polar graph format). At a minimum, you must know your vessel's upwind and downwind velocity made good (VMG) targets, i.e. the best points of sail for going upwind or downwind at a specified wind speed. By knowing these optimal sailing angles to the true wind, you

These are conditions you definitely want to avoid, and knowing your vessel's performance characteristics can help you do that.

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can maximize your vessel's sailing potential, sailing the minimum miles necessary to reach a destination. What are a few extra miles you say? On an ocean crossing, a few extra miles every day will add up to hundreds of miles over a few weeks. When you hike a mountain or drive to a 7-11 for coffee do you take the shortest route? You bet you do, so why sail more miles than you need to. It is just unnecessary wear and tear on you, your crew, and your boat, and it increases your exposure to inappropriate weather conditions! Ultimately, this discussion leads to a conclusion about the mixing of weather, boats, and people, which we call seamanship. Seamanship involves massaging, tweaking, and combining these elements to accomplish a voyage. I find myself drawn to a definition of seamanship penned by Captain Lincoln Colcord, a ship captain from Maine. Having spent his life at sea, Captain Colcord defined seamanship as "an attitude and way of life, which face facts, which deal in realities without evasion, which know that the only failure is dishonesty and that error is truth betrayed." That remark says it all.

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Various Opinions and Experiences about Dealing with Heavy Weather

From experience in dealing with Force 10 storms in the Gulf, It could be said that theres the following formula to dealing with heavy weather: It's 25% strong boat that can take that kind of whipping and 75% sailor that knows the boat inside and out, can keep a clear head and can handle the failures and setbacks that come at the worst times in heavy weather. When we say heavy weather, were not talking about 30 knot winds and 15-20 foot seas - we mean full gale, 50-60+ knot winds, 30+ foot seas - if you and your boat aren't prepared for that, don't venture very far afield, because the more time and longer distances you are far from sheltered waters, the more likely you are to encounter some very trying circumstances. Nothing can prepare you for the first time you're in full charge of your own boat and you come up on deck in a shrieking 60 knot wind and see breaking 30 foot waves stretching from horizon to horizon. Baptism by fire is the only way you'll experience dealing with heavy weather; this is because no one is going to take you out in such conditions for a mentoring session and when you get into such conditions, you'll learn real fast the first time or you'll not get the opportunity again. You could sail for many years before experiencing extremely heavy sea conditions and when you do, it will scare the hell out of you and the crew, but if you manage and survive, and next time you won't be as scared and youll manage better. One absolute constant in ocean sailing - when you're out there, you deal with whatever gets chucked at you and interestingly, most of us survive. Learn whatever you can from the books that are available because it'll all help but the final lesson is a practical one that can only be gained from your own experience. "Book learning Reading will only take you so far, but it can help you prepare for passage making and heavy wax sailing. For example -- keeping a list of things experienced sailors do to prepare and the lessons they learned from mistakes will help you develop a "Heavy Wax to Do List" for your own boat. Procedural things, like hanking on the storm trysail well in advance of a storm's arrival, and marina/mooring projects like designing and fabricating the means of securing your batteries, lockers and floor boards in case of a rollover. Reading helps prevent being in a situation where "you don't know what
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you don't know". It can't tell you how to handle every situation, but it can help you envision what might happen on passage in a storm. From there you can start the process of preparing for it. Gaining "passage making experience" -- Once you have your own boat you do overnights and then longer passages of 2-3 days. If you learn to safely do a three day passage there's no reason to think you can't do a much longer one. A ten or even twenty day passage is in many ways just a series of overnights except you need to carry more provisions, ration your crew's energy, fix things when they break vs. when you get to port, and generally have your head more out into the future -- thinking about / planning over a time horizon that you know will get you to safe harbor. In preparing for heavy weather -- there are two types of preparation that need to be considered: preparing the "physical" stuff -- the boat, gear etc, and "psychological" preparation of skipper and crew. You can learn a lot about preparing the boat from reading, and undertaking projects on the boat that get the boat ready for heavy weather long before it's experienced. Things like keeping your rig and gear in top condition are good places to start. Things like rigging your storm sails and sailing with them in moderate conditions, learning to heave-to, practicing deploying your storm drogue / para-anchor, etc. -- all these things help you prepare the boat and yourself before any 'trial by fire'. While much of this type of pre-work and practice can be done in moderate conditions, it really helps to have actually sailed your boat in strong winds (gale force) because that's the only way you learn how the boat and gear behaves when it's under real stress. It is not advisable going out in a gale to learn how to sail in one. But if you haven't got the experience in other ways, forcing yourself out on a day when it's really snotty may be the only way to get the experience you seek. Psychological preparation for heavy weather offshore is equally important. One of the hardest parts of sailing offshore in bad conditions is knowing that it's going to last for a while and that it may get worse before it gets better. It's knowing that it's bad and you really can't control things -- you can't make it better and that you can't make it go away -- that's what can really wear you (and your crew) down. Fear is your worst enemy and at times seems to be your constant companion.

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 Training helps a lot. Confidence in the boat and crew are also important, but there's probably no real substitute for doing it. First priority is always to avoid bad weather. I've avoided many more gales than I've sailed through. The rules are simple: 1.) Be in the right place at the right time (i.e. stay out of the hurricane box in hurricane season. 2.) Pick a favourable weather window for departing on passage. Don't be in a hurry to leave. 3.) When you're at sea and there's bad weather ahead of you, change course to avoid the worse of it, slow down or stop (heave-to) to let it pass. If you're at sea and bad weather is going to overtake you (i.e. you can't avoid it) -- make sure you do everything you can long before it arrives. Tend to overprepare --Put in one more reef than is likely to be needed 6-12 hours before you expect the wind to get strong and leave it in 12 or more hours longer than is needed. If it's forecast to blow 35-40 knots from abaft the beam take the main down completely and run on a reefed jib or staysails alone. The boat slows down the motion is less violent -- the crew can get better rest... stress on boat and people is less. Storms at sea will usually go away faster if you are going slower. Reading helps, sailing offshore with experienced people helps a lot more, but in the end -- you just have to do it. If you sail a lot you'll end up sailing in bad conditions. Hopefully, you have a few 30-40 knot experiences before you have a 50 knots experience. Don't let the fear of the 50 knot experience keep you at the dock. When (if) you find the 50 knot gale, remember two things: 1. Boats float if you keep the water out and that's easier when you batten down and slow down; 2. Storms go away eventually -- never lose hope that 'this too, shall pass'

"The simple answer to avoid capsizing is to avoid breaking waves." Model tests carried out showed that: "When the breaking wave was 30% of the hull length high, from trough to crest, it could capsize some of the yachts, while waves to a height of 60% of the hull length would comfortably overwhelm all of the boats we tested. In real terms this means that for a 33' boat, when the breaking wave is 10', this presents a capsize risk; and when the breaking wave is 20' high, this appears to be a capsize certainty in any shape of boat." The waves can be extremely high/steep and not necessarily cause the boat to capsize if they aren't breaking.
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 Heaving to means your sails (possibly a storm jib and trysail) are up, but counterbalanced, and you are roughly on a close reach. The boat is slightly into the waves and usually you are making just a bit of headway. It's a 'live' boat, even if its progress is mostly leeway. Lying ahull usually means sails are down or flogging, the boat is broadside to the waves and just rolling as they come. Very dangerous position, especially in breaking waves -- the boat can be rolled. Much more passive than heaving to. Most boats will reach a point in storm conditions when they can no longer heave to or forereach -- the bow keeps getting pushed off the wind and there is the danger of foundering. At that point you can deploy a sea anchor off the bow, or turn downwind and run before it -- maybe with sails up, maybe on bare poles. Much depends on the size and steepness of the waves, and on your self-steering mechanisms. Some advise using drogues or parachutes when the boat begins surfing, as that's often prelude to a broach. Running before the wind has the advantage of reducing the apparent wind and keeping the boat buoyant; an anchor off the bow may pin you down as the waves crash over you, possibly removing your rig. If you are running before the wind, you may find yourself hand-steering for sixty hours -- and one mistake, you're rolled. Drogues can stop you surfing under bare poles in greater than 70knots. The boat might be able to sail at 7knots without drogues and slowed to 2.5 knots with them. There could be a better chance of rudder damage anchored from the front because no matter how good your anchor is; there will be brief moments when the anchor moves with the waves. When that happens, you're moving backwards and that is when the rudder will break. At least running with a drogue gives you some forward motion and a wave pooping you will wash over the boat and will not generate enough force under the boat to damage the rudder. Laying a-hull in breaking waves is a really bad idea Many people have learned that lesson the hard way. On extreme conditions what you should consider is a storm jib on a detachable inner forestay and a storm trysail. You want this configuration as the heads of both sails will pull opposite of each other on the mast giving you a more stable rig. The problem with third reefs or a trysail is there is no opposing stay to counteract the force and the trysail will try to pull the mast out of column.
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 If you own a boat then absolutely get out in "bad" weather, whats Bad weather, well anything that scares you a bit. You'll find that the boat is stronger than you are and if you practice close to home that always gives you some mental reassurances. Try a MOB training exercise during the day and then at night time; also when the conditions are less favourable. This will give you some working knowledge about boat sailing and rescuing your crew. The moral here is you have to push yourself outside your comfort zone in a controlled manner. 1. A bad storm is whatever scares you. That could be an F6 or a hurricane. 2. Mental state is key, panic or too much self doubt can kill you (literally). 3. Deep, deep water is your friend if in doubt get off the continental shelf. Avoid seamounts they are bad things happening in storms around seamounts. 4. Wind in itself is not the problem, Breaking waves are the problem. You can cope in almost anything outside of a hurricane as long as the waves dont break, thats why (3) is good. 5. Everything goes fine until it doesnt; the event cascade usually starts from something small. Watch for event cascades. 6. All the techniques in the books work, but they tend to work for that particular skipper in that particular boat. Your mileage WILL differ. 7. On a modern flat bottom fin kneel, only active techniques really work according to some; that is running off, with the option of towing wraps/drogues, it can work well. 8. Modern boats tend to be lousy at heaving to, they tend to either sit almost beam on, inadvertently tack or generally get unsettled. These techniques work in moderate gales (i.e. in ones that you could sale through). But they are not survival techniques in these types of boats. You should feel and hear the crack when the jib comes over in these situations; from inside it feels like the mast came down. And lying ahull, in a modern boat, yes if you want to turn it into a motorboat and the inside resembles a washing machine after a spin cycle. If at all possible keep sailing using active survival techniques, although youll get very tired. 9. Active running away downwind seems to some the only way. Try and sailing downwind diagonally out of the storm or you tend to prolong the miserly. But it requires a crew. If you shorthanded or incapacitated then you have real problems. You could be forced to heave to. (See 8). 10. Remember in a storm, the key thing is to sail the boat in any direction that keeps her happy (and you have sea room). Forget about destinations, settle the boat 11. Modern boats can also "jog" or Dodge to windward under engine and triple

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reefed main quite nicely, motion is fairly severe and the prop comes out of the water a lot. 12. Knockdowns often occur almost without your realising it, the thing with novices is they dont realise when they are getting into trouble and react way too late. 13. High levels of ship traffic and big winds and waves are really bad. 14. Do not be tempted into running for home see (3); land is your enemy in these conditions, dont listen to inexperienced crew (your wife will always seek land.) 15. Some seas can be worse than major oceans. Sometimes the short sharp seas are terrible and the motion could very severe. 16. Night time in a storm requires good mental control. Banish your demons, better still just be blindly optimistic. 17. During Day Time in a storm, marvel at nature, look at those huge waves with awe you are witnessing something very few people ever will. And remember the sea is not to out to get you, it doesnt care about you. 18. Dolphins always turn up AFTER you realise you are in the brown stuff. Face it, their having a laugh. 19. Buy a cheap satellite phone on eBay, nothing scares the wife and kids back home when you are four days overdue. 20. Use every bit of info you can get on where the weather systems are and try and actively track them, adjust your destination according, dont just keep blindly sailing on. 21. The key is to not try and do things that the gear wont do. Remember rule 10. 22. Lots of advice has to be weighed against what is the background of the provider. A person with a heavy long keeled boat may advise you to do all the wrong things. Be very careful about voices of authority, Harbour masters, etc, they may have no idea about small boat sailing or vice versa. 23. Whatever you do in a storm stay tethered to the boat. Going over is final. 24. Lots of people go on about eating and staying dry etc. Everyone needs liquids, but people can go for days on small amounts of food. If youre in the cockpit you will be wet. Sometimes you have to turn in extremely heavy storms and as you come around massive waves could brake over the boat from the bow that the whole boat can go under. Your face could be just above the foam, but stay calm and quick. 25. Afterwards, and remember there is always an afterwards, you will be wrecked, tired like never before and so elated like never before. Master of the universe feelings etc, however just remember rules 5 & rule 17.

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 With the sea anchor off the bow, the experience of some sailors is that they are not keen to use one in earnest. These anchors put enormous shock loadings on the cleats, etc. and chaff is a huge problem. The fact that all this requires trips to the bow, like has anyone actually messed around on the bow in extremely heavy storms which is sometimes a near death experience. The sheer force of water hitting you means youre almost incapacitated. The big crunch is with a shorthanded crew you have to rest and that means stopping. You have to practice and see if your boat will heave to in the middle of a storm. But if she will not you'll have to deal with the deck your given. In case you are confronted by a storm you have to rely on the boat to heave to, but you need to be sure the boat can do it. The problem some people have experienced is that in major survival storms, boats simply dont remain stable and on a consistent tack. You tend to be able to heave to in a storm that in practice you could sail through. The fact is that a hove to boat needs to be able to remain so for a reasonable period. Some keen sailors would recommend that only active techniques work best. In reference to the drogues, the major mistake people make is to slow the boat down too much, i.e. to 2 knots or so. The key thing is to let her run down the waves close to hull speed. Some Drogues are often far too effective, especially with a heavy steel. Sometimes towing simple warps is enough, and the autopilot should manage with warps out. Normally if the autopilot can handle the situation then it could be judged that the boat is settled. Active sailing in the middle of a storm is the preference of many crews. However, you would have to experiment with a drogue. Also you want to be doing six knots out there, not only to get a lot of helm response, but just to get out of the worst of it that much sooner. Warps are an option, as are the old time idea of putting some chain and a tire at the end, and the idea of a long, small cone drogue that always has some of its length on the waves behind, and has some "give" in respect of shock loading. The main function of a drogue is not in the speed component, but in the directional aspect. If you think of it as a sort of "super long rudder assist", you can keep your stern at the right angle to the wave trains to both avoid getting pooped and to avoid having gravity itself take you down a wave front like a freight train. There is NOTHING to stop you practising heaving-to, sea anchor, warps, drogue, etc. in first 15 knot conditions, and then 20 knots conditions, and so on. For one thing, you will learn how to get a drogue back aboard without blowing out a back disc, and for another, you will get a sense of scale about
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how these methods and gear work when it's 40-50 knots and you really want to slow down or fore-reach at a knot so you can catch some sleep. And if anything breaks at 20 knots, it's not a life-ender, and you have time to repair it for the ocean conditions you hope you'll never see. Every now and then you should go out and chuck a ring overboard and say "MAN OVERBOARD". Then you run time trials for quick-stops, coming about, and retrieval. It is exceptionally instructive. A few of lighter boats have trouble heaving too or keeping their bows pointed into the wind in really heavy conditions. Therefore these boats would do better running, which includes the majority of modern production boats, and hence explains why running is so popular. If you look at boats with heavy long keels, they would be great for heaving too, but is in the minority. If you chose to carry a parachute sail off the bow, you should have some heavy duty fittings on the bow as it places enormous forces on the front of the boat. There have also been plenty of recorded cases where conditions got so rough that people were not prepared to go onto the bows to rig up a parachute anchor. However, there are lots of recorded cases of people successfully using para anchors off the bows; hence its a legitimate technique. You need to figure out what's the best technique for yourself. For some boats heaving too appears to be the best technique for extreme conditions. With boats of heavy construction, long keel, mizzen mast and pilot house a fair way back, these boats easily heave to without having to worry about a para-anchor or drogue. One crew got stuck in a pretty bad blow in the middle of the Tasman Sea half way between Tasmania and New Zealand. They choose the sea anchor off the bow, in an attempt to ride it out for a bit and 'get a good night sleep.' Basically they choose the sea anchor option over heaving to or running off as they had been hard on the wind the whole trip with every mile sorely earned and they didn't want to give a single inch of ground back. By using the sea anchor they only moved one nautical mile in the entire night. For some the retrieving of the sea anchor off the bow has been arduous work. There is one example of a boat with a full crew of board taking a couple of hours to retrieve it. Also there an example of another boat that got the parachute caught under the boat during the retrieval mid pacific in 45 knots. The effect was they ended up stuck stern to the seas, with no option to sail off, or use the engine. Eventually they cut the thing free, and well nothing happened.
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 In Force 10 storms crews with parachute drogues on board have chosen to run before the storm, and with 60+ knot winds and 30-foot seas. You want to keep the steering as crisp as possible and keeping the boat moving as fast as she will go - no drogue, no heaving to, no lying ahull - just moving with the storm, works best on some occasions and for some crews. Like diarrhoea, event cascades are not avoidable, but you can reduce the risk, and your best preparation could take place every day, in good weather and without drama: it consists of checking the gear over and over, and practicing everyday operation of it till it is automatic. Normally is not the weather that is the problem, or missing storm tactics, but inexperience with the simplest of regular routines on your boat that lets you down. Surfing will fatigue you until you make a mistake, broach to, and get rolled. You can't trust the autopilot or wind vane to surf for you. For most vessels, holding it together in storm or survival conditions is best achieved via drogue(s) of the stern quarter to keep you moving but prevent surfing, and letting the waves slip under the counter. Some very heavy older boats with full keels might be fine hove to, but lightweight modern finners have trouble holding that attitude. Multihulls seem to fare pretty well with sea anchors off the bow and some mono sailors swear by them, while others feel they place undue pressure on the rudder and bow tackle. Bow anchors tend to blow apart after a day or two, and retrieving them is nearly impossible. Given sea room, one could opt for a drogue off the stern combined with active sailing. Some boats wont heave to; you'll just have to find out. If you can heave to with full sail in mild conditions, chances are you will be able to heave to with storm gear in a blow. If you run with a storm, you will be in it longer - let it pass over it should be less time in it. Thats one of the messages old sailors tend to advice.
Every storm is different, every set of conditions and misfortunes is different,

and every boat is different. You have no idea what's going to happen when you get hit with winds over 60 and seas quickly building to 10, then 20, then 30 feet. When you get hit with a big storm, you have to do what works at the time under those particular conditions. If you have a drogue, a couple hundred feet of line and chain, know how to heave to, lie ahull and can handle a boat running downwind at greater than hull speed, then you are ready to go to sea.

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SAILBOAT BALANCE
Balance of a sailboat is important when sailing in high winds. A sailboat will have a tendency to turn into or away from the wind depending up on the sail configuration and balance of the boat. As shown in the figure below, the force of the wind produces a "center of effort" and the resistance to this force by the sailboat and keel produces a "center of lateral resistance". If the "center of effort" is aft (behind) the "center of lateral resistance" the boat will have the tendency to turn into the wind. In heavy winds, this force can be quite strong and is referred to as weather helm. Reefing in the main more than the jib will reduce weather helm and make the boat easier to sail. However, some weather helm is desirable. If the "center of effort" is forward to the "center of lateral resistance", this will cause the boat to turn away from the wind. In a strong wind this can cause excessive heeling and even an accidental jibe. If the rudder is lost, a sailboat can be steered by adjusting the boat's balance. Reducing the sail area of jib in relationship to the mainsail will turn the boat into the wind (head up). Reducing the sail area or depowering the mainsail in relationship to the jib will cause the boat to turn away from the wind (head down).

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JUDGING THE STRENGTH OF THE WIND & THE BEAUFORT SCALE By vision the best signs are white caps and foam in streaks. Frequent white caps form at 10 knots and foam in streaks at 28 knots. The decision of when reef is dependent upon the sailboat design and the wind conditions. The best indicators are too much heel and too much weather helm. In most sailboats, if there are many white caps the wind is probably enough to place one reefing point. Extensive white caps with spray, indicates winds which may require at least two reefing points. Small sailboats or inexperienced sailors should not be out in such conditions.

* Wave height is only a rough estimate. Wave height is determined by three factors, wind speed, duration the wind has been blowing and the fetch, or distance, the wind blows over a body of water. Below is a description of the Beaufort scale:

Whitecaps: Foam crests on the top of waves. Spray: Water blown off the top of waves. Spindrift: heavy spray.

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BEAUFORT SCALE
Wind Strength (Knots) 0 1-3 4-6 7-10 11-16 17-21 22-27 Wave Height* (feet) 0 1/4 - 1/2 1/4 - 1/2 Beaufort Scale (Force) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Force on Sails (lbs per sq foot) 0.02 0.11 0.31 0.79 1.56 2.59

Sea Appearance like glass small ripples small wavelets some crests larger wavelets rare whitecaps small waves some whitecaps frequent whitecaps, some spray large waves, some spray, many whitecaps

Wind Description Calm Light Air Light Breeze

Gentle Breeze 2 Moderate Breeze Fresh Breeze 3 6

Strong Breeze 10

28-33

white foam starting to form Near Gale streaks, breaking waves breaking waves, edges of crests breaking into spindrift, well marked steaks of foam High waves with dense foam steaks, some waves rolling over, visibility reduced by spray Very high waves. The whole sea looks white, decreased visibility, waves rolling over with force Huge waves, all wave edges are blown into froth, patches of foam covers the sea The air is covered with foam and spray, the sea is completely white, enormous waves.

13

7 4.01

34-40

Gale

18

5.90

41-47

Strong Gale

22

8.34

48-55

Storm

29

10

11.43

56-63

Violent Storm

37

11

15.26

64-71

Hurricane

45

12

19.64

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SAIL REEFING REVIEWED

When to reef, is a difficult question to answer, since it depends upon the size and stability of your boat. You should consider reefing if your boat is heeling excessively, your crew in uneasy or if you are expecting high winds. If you think about reefing it is best to reef. It should be remembered that it is much easier to reef in the sails at the dock and then if unneeded to un-reef the sails, than it is to reef the sails under high-wind conditions. Steps in Reefing: 1) Loosen the boom vang. You may also need to loosen the mainsail's sheets, if the mainsail is tethered securely in the midline. 2) Loosen the halyard and carefully lower the mainsail just enough to allow the reefing cringle (grommet) at the sail's luff to be secured to the boom. 3) Secure the reefing cringle (grommet), forming a new tack. If you are in a high wind situation and need to secure the reefing cringle to a reefing hock or horn, placing a long piece of hard foam in the cringle will help hold it on the hook or horn while you are tightening the mainsail's halyard. 4) Tighten the jiffy reefing line, securing the reefing cringle (grommet) at the sail's leach, forming a new clew. 5) Tighten the boom vang. 6) If possible, secure the reefing lines below the below the foot of the sail and above the boom--see picture below: Most large sailboats will have one to three reefing points on the mainsail. These points are reinforced cringles (grommets) on the luff and leech of the sail. The cringles on the sails leech usually have a line through them which passes through the boom, down the mast and into the boat's cockpit. The line may also pass through the cringles on the sail's luff. This is called Jiffy Reefing and the entire sail can be reefed by lowering the main and tightening the reefing line. Few chartered boats have this reefing configuration. Most boats require a sailor to go up to the mast and secure the cringle on the sail's luff. (This is where a safety harness is needed.) The cringle can be secured by using a rope or if present, by placing over a hook (see picture to the left). In high winds, the placement of the cringle on a hook can be difficult, since after it is placed one must then let go of the cringle (grommet) to pull and tighten the main's halyard. During theses few seconds the wind may blow the cringle off the hook.

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Sailor's Tip: A piece of firm foam rubber placed through the reefing cringle (grommet) while it is placed on the hook will hold the cringle in place, while the mainsails halyard is tightened. Also, bring extra rope to secure the reefing cringle, in case the primary reefing system fails.

After the mainsail's reefing clew (back corner) and reefing tack (front corner) are secured, the excess sail in the middle should be secured by using the reefing points and lines in the middle of the sail. This will prevent the sail from accumulating water in the rain and flapping in the wind.

Sailor's Tip: On a loose foot mainsail, these reefing lines should be tied around the bottom of the sail and above the boom. Tying them around the boom may cause the sail to rip in high winds (see picture above). If a hook is not present on the boom, a line may be used to secure a reefing cringle (grommet). Often there is a cleat on the mast to secure the line. If there is no obvious was to secure the line, wrap the line around the anterior portion of the boom at the gooseneck, pulling the sail down and forward. The line was secured with a reef or square knot (Gooseneck: The fitting which secures the boom to the mast.)
In very high wind conditions, one will often take down the main and sail

only with a storm (25%) jib. However, this will depend upon the balance of your sailboat. For example, in strong winds the Colgate 26 sails with little weather helm with no jib and a mainsail which has been reefed.

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The jib or foresail can also be reefed. Most boats have a roller furling system which allows the jib to be partially rolled in and thus adjusts the amount of sail. The amount of jib needed depends upon the strength of the wind and the balance of the boat. If only the mainsail is out with no jib, the boat may be very difficult to control and may head forcefully toward the wind-this is called weather helm. A little weather helm is desirable, but not a lot. Remember in a heavy gust of wind you want the boat to turn into the wind to depower, not away from the wind which will cause the wind to hit the sails at 90 degrees and the boat to heel excessively. Rolling the jib is best done in a deep broad reach or running reach. In this point-of-sail, the mainsail masks the jib's wind. This will prevent excess luffing of the sail. In a pinch, you can always let the jib out by loosening its sheet and roll in the jib, but in high winds excess luffing may occur and this can damage the sail. A few words about the roller furling jib line. This is a small line which attaches to the bottom of the forestay of the boat to which the jib is attached. In high winds this line may be difficult to control. As you loosen this line, a high-wind may pull the line through your hands and unintentionally unroll the jib. It is sometimes helpful to place several loops of the line around a winch so the line can be stabilized. Then loosen the jib's sheet and with your hands pull in the jib's furling line. The same problem exists when unfurling the jib in a high-wind situation. First loosen the furling line by a few feet and then secure it. Then un-furl the jib using the jib's working sheet. If you unroll the jib first with the sheet and the wind catches the sail, it may fully unroll the jib and pull the furling line through your hands. Thus, secure the furling line first. NEVER TIGHTEN THE JIB's FURLING LINE USING A winch HANDLE. If the line gets caught on the forestay, this could bring down your rigging and in a high-wind situation demast the boat. There should be enough roller furling line to fully furl the jib, wrapping the sheet around it several times, regardless of the tightness of the furl. The jib will often furl tightly in high wind conditions.

REEFINGTHE BASICS Simply put, reefing is the art and practice of reducing sail area. Every sailor knows that the wind exerts its force over the exposed surface of a sail, but many don't realize that even a small increase in wind speed can bring about substantial increases in the force of the wind. And, when you consider that spars and rigging, along with the sails, create windage that absorbs the wind's energy, it's easy to see that the more surface area that's presented to the wind, the more impact the wind's energy will have on the handling characteristics of a vessel.

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Knowing when to reef is a much-debated subject among sailors. If you find yourself fighting the helm as though King Neptune himself were wrestling the rudder beneath you, or if the cabin down below has become a zero-gravity environment with hooting crew members flying amid airborne gear, it's pretty obvious that it's time to reef. However, prudent sailors recognize the tell tale signs that indicate a reef might be necessary well in advance and they respond accordingly. If there's an increase in wind speed or a change in sea state, they take note. They might also discern increased cloud cover or a decrease in the air temperature or a drop in the barometric pressure. When underway, it's important to notice these changes and reef before the sails start loading up too much or before the conditions deteriorate and managing the boat becomes dangerous. The time-tested rule for veteran mariners is to reef deep and reef early. Shortening sail to suit the power of the gusts instead of the average wind speed will keep the boat balanced and life below more manageable. Ideally, the procedure should occur in anticipation of strengthening conditions. If you're daysailing, reefing while still at the dock is prudent if the forecast calls for heavy air. If you're offshore, analysing and interpreting weather events and comparing these to the forecast should lend insight into whether reefing will be necessary or not. While we all like to make good time underway, safety should take precedence. And reefing early can keep things like sail cars, battens, blocks, and other essentials from breaking when the wind really starts to blow. Reefing is often discussed with a spectre of dread hanging about the topic, and it becomes easy to imagine crew members clinging to the mast, shouting desperately at each other in the face of a maelstrom. But this needn't be the scenario at all, because with the proper equipment, reefing the mainsail can be accomplished in a few simple steps. Here's how: Before you start tightening your reef, look up to see that the halyard is run cleanly from the masthead and isn't tangled around anything like a spreader Let's say you're planning to reef the mainsail before you even leave the dock. So, with the boat oriented into the wind, you take the sail cover off, find the main halyard, and attach it to the head of the sail. Then you look up to see that the halyard is run cleanly from the masthead and not twisted around the shrouds or anything else. After you attach the halyard securely to the head of the mainsail you can release the mainsheet and other mainsail controls (like the vang, cunningham, and reef lines) and then raise the sail, taking care that the wind isn't going to swing the boom into any nearby boats. Once the sail is up, take a look at it to ensure that all battens are in place and won't shake loose, and that there are neither tears nor other anomalies that disqualify the sail for heavy-air work. Then lower the sail and find its luffthe edge closest to the mastand choose which set of reef points you'll be using. Along that edge of the sail there will be a series of cringles, or large stainless grommets. Some sails may have only one set of reef points while other sails may have two or three. Complicating this is the fact that some sails may have an attachment point for the cunningham, a sail flattening device whose luff grommet looks similar to the first reef cringle. This is a good time to examine the sail to determine whether you are working with a cunningham or the
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reef tack. Reef points usually have several layers of heavy reinforcement designed to take the full load of the sail, and cunninghams typically have less reinforcement.

The reef points and reinforcement patches on this mainsail are clearly visible. This sail would be described as having two full sets of reef points.

Once you locate the first reef point, find the reef hook, horn, or other gear that is used to secure the luff cringle. The reef hook may be a fitting located on the boom near the gooseneck where the sail is connected to the boom or it may be a stainless steel hook tied to a piece of line and attached to a cleat while others may have a hook connected to the forward end of the boom. Regardless of the system your boat has, put the forward most reef cringle over the hook or put the hook through the reef cringle. Then tension the halyard so that the cringle stays attached to the hook. Now it's time to focus on the other end of the sail near the aft end of the boom. The clew of the sail should be attached to the outhaulthe sail trim device that controls the draft of the sail and puts tension fore and aft on the foot, or bottom of the sail. Run your hands up the leechthe trailing edge of the sailuntil you come to the first reef cringle there. This should have a line travelling through it if the reefing line is already led. But every boat is different, so you may have to hunt around to find the reefing line if it's not already led to the cringle. The idea is to make sure that the line is led up from the boom, through the cringle, and then back down to the boom and secured somehow there. Depending upon how your boat is rigged, the reefing line should be led forward along or through the boom to a winch or a cleat on the boom, or it may travel all the way forward to a block on the mast and back down to a winch on the deck. Before you tension the reefing line, make sure that you are dealing with the same set of reef points along the leech of the sail as you are along the luff. Once you are sure the reef points are the same and the lines are sorted out, get the reef line as taut as humanly possible. Any slack in this line will leave your sail looking like a wrinkled handkerchief and not the flat, aerodynamic shape you need in heavy air. After that, you can raise the halyard as far as it will go and apply a generous amount of halyard tension. Remember; always look up when raising a sail. If you just crank away blindly on a winch, you won't know if the halyard is lead around the spreader or snagged somewhere else and you'll end up damaging either the sail or the rig, and certainly the halyard.

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When using reefing hooks, make sure that they face outboard to avoid chafing against the sail

At this point, your reef is now almost complete. All you have to do now is tidy up the bulk of the sail that's not being used. If your sail has them, you can use the reef tiesthe lines that hang from small grommets in line with the reef cringlesto secure the sail. Again, notice the manner in which the sail is constructed. Typically reef ties are small diameter lines led through grommets. Contrary to popular belief, these ties are not structural, but are put in place in order to keep the bunt, or bottom part of the sail, from flapping around. If the reef ties are tied too tightly and the clew becomes loose, long vertical creases will develop in the sail, radiating from the reef ties. If that happens, the reef points can easily tear out of the sail and leave a big hole in the sail. Tie the reef lines with a slip knot or a square (reef) knot. Should the winds lighten, these knots can be easily untied, releasing the sail, and allowing you to ease the halyard, release the clew, and re-hoist the full sail. Now, if your sail isn't set up with reef lines, don't worry, you can still tidy up that bulk of sail that's hanging around the boom by rolling it and tying sail ties around the roll near the aft and forward-most reef points. Reefing while underway essentially follows the same procedures outlined above, although balance becomes more of an issue should you or one of your crew have to go forward to put the luff hook in place and handle the halyard and clew line. Heaving-to is probably the easiest way to put a reef in, though plenty of reefs have been put in with the boat head-to-wind, or by paying out the main until it luffs.

You can tell when a reef isn't properly set. In the photo above (looking forward along the boom), the aft reef cringle is too loose and the reef ties are too tight so the sail ends up looking baggy and has awkward creases.

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 Now, there are a number of different ways in which reefing systems are set up. What I've described above is usually called jiffy reefing, but some boats are set up so that you use just one line to affect the reef and there aren't any hooks or other fittings involved. That is usually referred to as single-line reefing. And some systems have the reefing lines terminate on the mast, some on the boom, and others are led back to the cockpit for convenience. Also, there are methods of roller reefing, but the idea is essentially the samethe object is to shorten sail in the face of rising wind velocities. In the case of roller reefing, the technique is somewhat different. Some boats have booms with internal gears and an accompanying crank that allow you to roll the sail around the boom. With this set up you first raise the mainsail and then lower the halyard while cranking the boom to roll the sail around the boom until you get to the desired setting. Other systems can include a spring in the goosenecka manual mechanism that allows the sail to be rolled up by hand like a window shade. And there are a number of newer systems that are capable of stowing the entire mainsail either in the boom, behind the mast, or inside the mast.

No matter what system you use, you'll know that you have reefed correctly if the sail is free of creases and wrinkles. If you have reef points, you might consider using bungee cord instead of line for these. Should these areas load up, they'll be less likely to rip holes in the sail if there's a little give built in by way of the bungee cord. One thing every sailor can do to ensure that reefing works as intended is to practice tucking in a reef in the mainsail before the wind kicks. Doing this will provide familiarity with the procedure and A smooth, flat sail should be build your confidence for when the real need the end result of a properly arises. Reefing really needn't be intimidating. reefed mainsail. Remember, there's plenty of good sailing to be had when the wind pipes up.

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WIND ORIENTATION Wind is one of the trickiest elements for the new sailor to become attuned to because it can only be observed indirectly. Although we have moving air around us all of our lives, most of us are oblivious to it. Insulated in automobiles and offices, we don't have much need to pay attention to it unless a hurricane or other extreme weather event is in the forecast. While natural man probably was better at noticing approaching cloud formations and seasonal winds because his survival depended on it, in the age of instant everything, it's easy to ignore The simplest, cheapest, and perhaps wind completely. Because sailing craft most effective method to see the use wind, having a heightened sense of windthe lowly yarn telltale. where wind is and being aware of its shifts obviously has its advantages for sailors. What is wind, anyway? All wind is an extension of energy from the sun, 93 million miles away. Solar radiation warms the earth and its atmosphere, but the air does not heat or cool uniformly, resulting in air masses of different temperature and pressure. At the poles, masses of cold, high-pressure air are produced and make their way south to meet masses of warm, low-pressure air from the equator. Now throw in the rotation of the earth, the fact that most of the world's surface is ocean, disruptions caused by its various land features, and the differences in the rate that air masses heat and cool, and the result is incessantly moving airwind. Envision your sailing grounds on a more localized scale. Land areas warm and cool more rapidly than bodies of water. For that reason, cooler, denser air often flows from the water toward land, a sea breeze, during the day, and from the land toward water at night. Because the temperature contrast is usually greater during the day in summer, the sea breeze is usually stronger. Becoming aware of wind is often less science and more commonsense art. For the sailor preparing for the first day on the water, there are a number of things to notice dockside to cue one in on wind conditions. There are namely two variables we are looking for, speed and direction. Most sailing schools have some kind of banner functioning not only as a nautical flourish, but as something that can indicate what the wind is doing. Flapping wildly meansyou guessed itlots of wind; hanging straight down, a lack of wind; and alternating in between the two likely means puffy conditions. At the top of many sailboat masts is a wind fly, which will point in the direction the wind is coming from. Pieces of yarn tied to the stays, also let the sailor know the wind direction. The wind can also be sensed with the ears, face, or hands. Anchored boats can also indicate wind direction, although current can complicate the picture. If there is no current, they will point into the wind. If the current is stronger
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than the wind, however, the boats may point in the direction of the current. If the wind and current are exerting about the same force on a boat, it will point midway between the current and wind directions. Puffs of stronger wind can also be seen on the water in the form of wind lines, or darker, choppier water advancing toward the boat. Whitecaps form when the wind is between 11 to 16 knots. Below this speed, it takes some practice to see wind lines, and in light air one might be sailing with mere ripples visible on the water. Once sailing, a good exercise is to watch for changes in wind speed and call the puffs and lulls out. Also bear in mind that currents can also distort the appearance of the wind on the water. Anytime the current flows against the wind, choppier waters result. When the current flows with the wind, the waters are smoother. The important thing about wind is that the speed and direction are always shifting and require continual monitoring. Sometimes the boat experiences favourable windshifts called lifts that allow a boat to point higher into the wind. Other times the boat experiences headers, which force the boat to sail lower than the desired course. How the air interacts with headlands, swirls off city buildings, or funnels through bridges affects how boats sail. Other boats nearby can likewise produce a change in wind speed. Race boats use their sails to blanket the wind from each other to assert tactical advantages. Large ships can also block wind and create large windholes. Terrain can amplify wind speed since a narrow strait of water between two promontories is likely to funnel and accelerate wind. Long expanses of unobstructed water also have an effect on sea state, allowing wind to sweep across the surface and build wavelets into chop, and chop into swells. It is also good to recognize that the wind you feel at sea level is related to the clouds above you. Do the bottom layers of clouds move faster than the top layers? Are the clouds and the wind you feel moving in the same direction? Is there a clearing trend or are the clouds billowing up into intimidating thunderheads? Is the wind you experience sucking you toward them? Noting conditions before you leave the dock will give you something of a benchmark once you get underway. One can read information about the wind from other sailboats as well. A boat upwind several miles away heeling over on its ear while you are barely moving means more wind is heading your way. Conversely, a boat upwind that seems to be flat and listless means a lull lies in that direction. It doesn't take a rocket scientist to figure out that a sailboat returning with its crew in full foul-weather gear and with a reef in the main has seen some breeze, and that if you are just heading out, you might do well to put a reef in as well.

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Beaufort Scale The Beaufort Scale is a useful tool to estimate wind speed from sea state. Force Force 0 Force 1 Force 2 Force 3 Force 4 Wind Speed Less than knot 1-3 knots 4-6 knots 7-10 knots 11-16 knots 17-21 knots 22-27 knots 28-33 knots Description Sea Conditions 1 Calm Light Air Light Breeze Gentle Breeze Moderate Breeze Fresh Breeze Strong Breeze Near Gale Sea like a mirror. Feet 0

Ripples with the appearance 1/4-1/2 of scales; no foam crests. Short, small-pronounced 1/4-1/2 wavelets. Large wavelets with some 2 crests. Increasingly longer small waves; some with whitecaps 4 (foam crests). Moderate lengthening waves, with many whitecaps 6 and some spray. Large waves, extensive 10 whitecaps, and some spray. Heaps of waves, with some breakers whose foam is 14 blown downwind in streaks. Moderately high waves of increasing length and edges of crests breaking into 18 spindrift (heavy spray). Foam is blown downwind in well-marked streaks.

Force 5 Force 6 Force 7

Force 8

34-40 knots

Gale

Force 9

41-47 knots 48-55 knots 56-63 knots 64-71 knots

High waves with dense foam streaks and some Strong Gale 23 crests rolling over. Spray reduces visibility. Storm Violent Storm Hurricane Very high waves with long, 29 overhanging crests. Exceptionally high waves that may obscure medium 37 size ones. The air is filled with foam and spray, and the 45ft sea 45 is completely white
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Force 10 Force 11

Force 12

Understanding Apparent Wind

Apparent wind is a very simple concept that continues to mystify many people who have been sailing for years. It is the combination of two winds: the one derived by the boat moving through the air and the wind produced by naturethe true wind. Thus, it is the wind you feel on the boat. Cigarette smoke, telltales, and the electronic wind direction indicators of boats all show the apparent-wind direction. We often get the comment from people on their first time out, "You said we sail All sailors encounter the concept of apparent within 40 degrees of the wind wind whether they're aware of it or not. when close-hauled, but the wool on the shrouds indicates we're sailing almost into the wind." This is their first experience with apparent wind on a sailboat. Imagine yourself standing up in a convertible. It is a calm day, so there's no true wind. As the convertible starts forward, you will begin to feel a breeze on your face that increases as the speed of the car increases. At 10 mph you will feel a 10-mph breeze on your face. This is apparent wind. Now imagine yourself in the same car heading north and there's an easterly wind of 10 mph blowing. This nature-produced wind from the east is what we call true wind. It is hitting the right side of your face. As the car starts forward you will not feel two different winds, one on the side and one on the front of your face, but a resultant wind coming from an angle forward of the true wind. What you feel is the apparent wind.

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By drawing a parallelogram from the boat speed and the true wind, you can determine the force and direction of the apparent wind. (Refer to Figure 1.) Let's say your boat tacks through 80 degrees. That means the true wind is 40 degrees off your bow. If, for example, the boat speed is six knots and the true wind is 12 knots, measure off the units as boatspeed wind and true wind in Figure 1. Then draw a parallelogram, the diagonal of which is the apparent wind. By measuring the length of the diagonal, you can determine the speed in knots of the apparent wind.

In this example (see Figure 1), the apparent wind (the diagonal) measures 17 knots and bears 27 degrees from your heading versus 40 degrees for the true wind. Notice how the direction of the apparent wind changes with the true wind in the subsequent diagrams. (For the purposes of these diagrams we'll keep true-wind speed and boat speed constant, which would only be the case at different points of sailing if the boats were different sizes.) Four points are obvious from these diagrams. First, the apparent wind is always forward of the true wind (unless the true wind is dead ahead or astern). Second, as the true wind comes aft, the apparent wind lessens in velocity. Third, when the true wind is well aft, a small change in true-wind direction makes a large change in apparent-wind direction. And fourth, when the boat is on a beam reach or closehauled, the apparent wind is of greater velocity than the true wind. The first point is important when considering when to jibe. Since it is desirable to sail at a slight angle to the wind rather than dead downwind, you may not be heading to your desired destination and will have to jibe to reach it. It's important, therefore, to determine the direction of the true wind and the angle your heading is making with it. If you know you are steering 20 degrees from dead downwind on one jibe then you will be on the same point of sail when you are 20 degrees from dead downwind Figure 2: Apparent wind is on the other jibe. The point of jibing should come always forward of the true when your destination bears 40 degrees off your wind. bow from your present heading. The key, of course, is determining the direction of the true wind. By glancing at your telltales and at the wind signs on the waterlike streaks and ripplesyou can judge about how far aft of the apparent wind the true wind is.
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Figure 1: Draw a simple parallelogram like this one to help determine the force and direction of the apparent wind.

A more positive way of determining true-wind direction is by heading off momentarily until the apparent wind and the true wind line up, i.e., dead downwind. The difference between the new heading and your former heading, 20 degrees in the example above, when doubled (40 degrees) is the number of degrees through which you'll jibe. The second pointas the true wind comes aft, the apparent wind speed lessensis obvious if you have ever seen power boats head downwind. Sometimes they cruise along at the same speed and direction as the true wind. Their exhaust hangs around the boat in an enveloping cloud (one reason we sail!), and the apparent wind is just about zero. This reduction of the wind speed you feel on the boat and thereby the force of the wind on the sails can lull you into forgetting the difference which becomes evident when you round a mark and start on a beat. You may have started your sailing outing on a run, so you had no idea of the apparent-wind strength on a beat. Or the wind may have As the true wind moves increased during the run. Either way you must further aft, the apparent wind consider the possibility that you may have to decreases in speed. shorten sail on a cruising boat when you come up on a beat, and it is easiest to change jibs while still on the run. Let's say a boat is going nine knots in a 16-knot breeze. If dead downwind, the apparent wind is the true wind minus the boat speed, or just seven knots. This doesn't feel like much wind and the force on the sails is relatively light. When the boat starts beating, she may slow down to six knots, but the apparent wind increases to almost 21 knots. You would assume that, since the apparent wind is now three times greater than the downwind velocity, it exerts three times the force against the sails. Wrong. The force of the wind quadruples as the velocity doubles (the square of the velocity), so the wind force is nine times greater on the close-hauled course than on the run in this case. Couple this with the increased heeling moment of the closehauled course, and the boat may very well be overpowered. So you should have the forethought to shorten the sail during the run. The third point we made about the apparent-wind diagrams was that when the true wind is well aft, a small change in the true-wind direction makes a large change in apparent-wind direction. (Compare Figures 2 and 3 with Figures 4 and 5.) In our example, a 30-degree change in the true-wind direction made a 38-degree change in apparent wind. In comparing Figure 4 with Figure 5, we find that a 16-degree change in the true wind makes a 28-degree change in apparent wind. This, among other things, is what makes steering dead downwind so difficult. A small swing by the lee actually results in an exaggerated swing of the apparent wind by the lee. This can cause oscillation as the apparent wind swings madly back and forth from one side of

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the boat to the other on relatively minor changes in heading. At worst, it can force an inexperienced helmsman into a flying jibe.

Figures 4 and 5: A small change in the true wind direction makes a large change in apparent wind direction.

The fourth point was that when a boat is reaching or beating, the apparent wind is of greater velocity than the true wind. You are, in effect, "making your own wind." In iceboating this is an important part of the resulting high speeds. Some iceboats, for instance, can reach speeds five to six times the speed of the wind and can attain speeds of 120 knots in 24 knots of wind. The faster the boat goes, the higher the wind velocity it creates. Only because of the lack of friction can these high speeds be attained. A normal sailboat is limited in speed by hull resistance, skin friction, and wave-making drag, so it cannot take full advantage of the increased apparent-wind velocity. A planning sailboat is more apt to get up on a high-speed plane while on a reach rather than a run just because of this apparent-wind increase. Even so, the faster a boat is to windward, the more close-winded (able to head close to the wind) it must be. In the first set of wind diagrams, everything remains constant except the direction of the true wind, which moves farther aft in each subsequent diagram. Now let us change the boat speed and the wind velocity, keeping the true-wind direction at 45 degrees off the bow.
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Notice in Figure 6 that the wind speed was initially 10 knots and the boat speed four knots. The dotted extension of the true wind line indicates a four-knot increase or puff. So we see a basic axiom: "In a puff, the apparent wind comes aft." To be correct, this necessitates a constant speed on the boat's part. Generally, however, by the time the boat picks up speed the puff has passed, so the axiom holds true. We already know that we point higher in order to reduce heeling when hit by an overpowering gust. This axiom shows another reason to do the same thing. As the gust hits, the apparent wind goes aft causing more heeling and less drive and changing the angle of incidencethe angle the apparent Figure 6: Study this diagram wind makes with the sailsso that the sails are and you'll begin to see that now improperly trimmed unless you head up or in a puff, the apparent wind ease the sheets or traveller. This change in comes aft. apparent-wind direction is important to remember even on light days. When you have a three-knot breeze, the wind velocity in a puff is apt to be more than double the regular breeze. When it is blowing 15 knots, gusts may get to only 20 or 22 knots, or about a third higher. Thus, the change in apparent-wind direction aft is often greater on light days than on heavy ones. The dot-dash lines in the diagram show the resulting change in apparent wind when the wind dies suddenly. With the boat speed remaining constant and the wind velocity lowering to six knots, the apparent wind goes forward. This is one of the reasons that small catamarans rarely carry spinnakers. If they do carry a spinnaker, it is a flat, asymmetrical sail much like a reaching genoa. The hulls have very little resistance to the water, and the cats sail downwind almost as fast as the wind, making it very difficult to keep a spinnaker drawing. If the wind dies for a moment, the spinnaker collapses and it is very difficult to get it filled until the boat slows down. Therefore, small cats, much like iceboats, tack downwind by jibing. By sailing from reach to reach, they pick up greater speed and make up the extra distance sailed.

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Reading Flow and Making Adjustments How to Get the Most Out of Your Headsail: Optimal sailing performance requires adjusting headsail sheet angles so that the jib, genoa or staysail forms an effective airfoil. Even minor maladjustment of the lead block or tension on sheet, halyard, leech or foot cords can cause a dramatic reduction in performance. Yet it is common for us to sail on boats that have inadequate means of monitoring sheet lead settings or without means to make the proper headsail adjustments. Reading the flow Before you can adjust the sheet lead, you must be able to read airflow over the sail. Every headsail should have pairs of telltales port and starboard just inboard about 8 to 12 inches off the luff. There should be one pair near the head, another up from the tack that is visible from the helm, and a third pair near the middle of the luff. Large sails may use a fourth or fifth pair. In addition it's helpful to have three or four single telltales located along the leech of the sail. Telltales can be bought ready-made (Davis no. 950 Air-Flow Tells -- seven pairs for $5). But our favourites are quarter-inch-wide strips of black or bright-colored threequarter-ounce spinnaker cloth attached with one-inch squares of sticky-back Dacron. We have found that black actually shows up best, even at night. Most sailmakers have scrap supplies. Your sailmaker might convince you to install telltale windows along the luff of your sail so you can read the airflow on the leeward side as well.
Reading telltales When all telltales on the leech and luff stream aft smoothly in the wind the sail is an efficient airfoil. If the luff telltales all flow in the wind but the leech telltales flutter, the sheet lead is too far inboard or the leech cord is overly tight. Sometimes when reaching in heavy air, the leech telltales will flutter in the puffs if the main is eased. This usually indicates that it's time to reef the main. If the windward luff telltales all flutter while the leeward telltales flow, the lead is correct but the sheet is eased too far and the sail needs to come in more. If all the leeward luff telltales flutter but the windward telltales all flow smoothly, the sheet lead is probably correct but the sail is trimmed in too tightly. Slowly let out some sheet and re-check the telltales. If the luff telltales near the top of the sail flutter while the ones near the tack stream correctly, the lead is too far aft. If the luff telltales near the tack flutter before the ones near the head of the sail, the lead is too far forward. The leech telltales will generally curl inboard in this case.

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Adjusting the lead The most common method of adjusting sheet angle is with a lead block sliding on a track bolted to the deck. Some boats use trunnion snap shackle blocks on a perforated toerail. Many racing boats have two or more sets of tracks so the athwartships angle can be adjusted as well as the fore-andaft sheet angle. Headsail sheets can produce very high loads making it difficult to slide a track block. For this reason sliders with tackles hauling the lead blocks fore and aft have become Typical single and double sheet lead popular on larger boats.

cars on spring stop An older method of changing the sheet lead moves the sail track sliders.

rather than a lead block. A tackle between the headsail tack and the deck fitting allows raising the entire sail up the headstay. Raising a sail has the same effect as moving a sheet lead forward; lowering a sail moves the lead aft. This method is still viable for boats with hank-on sails. Another method of obtaining a full range of sheet angle to the headsail is the running sheet. Here two blocks are fixed to the deck, one at the farthest forward sheet lead position and one at the farthest aft. The sheet itself passes through the aft deck block to the clew of the sail. A second adjustment line passes through the forward deck block and terminates on a block "running" on the sheet. The bitter ends of both sheet and runner are in the cockpit. When the runner is fully released, the sheet is led as far aft as possible. When the runner is two-blocked, the lead is as far forward as possible.

A towed-car system: The blue line is the sheet, while the yellow/green line hauls the car forward and the red line hauls it aft.

For sailboats having only a single fixed point for the sheet lead block, or where a track is not long enough to fit all the sails, the solution is a Barber hauler (named after its inventor Merrit Barber). This is a A running-sheet short line with a hook or snatch system: The red line block on one end to deflect the is the sheet while the sheet, much like the running sheet yellow/green runner system described above. We carry adjusts the lead one with a single block having a forward and aft. This big cruiser has the cam cleat built in and a snap ultimate in headsail shackle head that can be attached onto a stout handrail, sheet-lead systems, with chainplate or stanchion base. By deflecting the sheet inboard track, outboard inward, outward or forward, we can achieve a perfect track with 4 to 1 towed headsail shape.
car and perforated toerail to attach a Barber hauler.

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DOCKING & ANCHORING

A keelboat is often required to enter a dock or marina under power, with the sails down. However, do not take down the sails until the motor is running. Conversely, when leaving, do not turn off the motor until the sails are hoisted. If anchored outside a designated anchorage sailboats are required to display a single 360 degree white light on the top of their mast. During the day and outside a designated anchorage, sailboats are required to display a black ball shape. Docking: Larger sailboats are harder to dock than smaller ones. In fact, docking a large boat can be harder than sailing one. Large boats have inertia and they do not stop easily. Your controls are as follows: Forward (transmission set in forward) with the ability to have the bow move to the starboard, port, and go straight. Slow forward (transmission set in reverse) with the stern moving towards port (right-handed prop) or starboard (left-handed prop). Notice, nothing was said about going in reverse. Reverse practically does not exist when docking a large boat. You only slow down and in the process you will experience prop-walk which will swing the stern (back) of your boat in one direction or the other, depending upon the rotation of the propeller. Prop-Walk: The propeller not only moves water forward and aft (backward) but also to the side. The side motion of the water will swing the boat's stern in one direction or the other depending upon the rotation of the propeller. Prop-Walk is much more pronounced in reverse than forward directions.

In a right-handed prop, the propeller will rotate clockwise when the transmission is in forward and the boat will turn to port more efficiently than starboard. In reverse, the stern will swing to port. In a left-handed prop, the propeller will rotate counter clockwise when the transmission is in forward and the boat will turn to starboard more efficiently than port. In reverse, the stern will swing to starboard.

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How to pick a slip: Always try to find a slip that has a good approach or a wide channel behind it so a tight and accurate turn is NOT required to place the sailboat in the slip. If your boat has a right-handed prop (most do) the ideal slip is one that the docking platform is on the port side of your boat and when leaving the slip you will back out and swing your boat to port to enter the channel behind the slip. If there is a wind blowing (or current flowing) across the beam, you may want a slip which has the docking platform downwind or down current to the side of your boat. This will allow the current or wind to push your boat to the platform, as opposed to the boat in the adjoining slip. (The choice of a leeward or windward docking platform is dependent upon the responsiveness of your boat, the strength of the wind and current, the presence of other boats, and the width of the slip.) It should also be noted, that pulling away from a downwind platform can be difficult. Pulling into a slip with a forward wind is preferable to pulling into a slip with an aft wind. A boat can be controlled with the wind and current pushing the boat backward, with forward throttle and a small amount of reverse; but a boat is difficult to control with the wind and current pushing the boat forward. If you are going to stay at a marina, ask the harbourmaster for a diagram of their docks. Beware, these diagrams are sometimes not to scale and distort distances. However, you can often obtain an aerial photograph of the docking facility online, which will help you judge the ease of docking in individual slips. Sailor's Tip: Always remember that in reverse, boats having a right-handed prop (one of the most common types of props) will swing the stern towards port making it easier to dock or go to port on the port side. A boat is not a car. Remember that when steering a boat you turn the wheel depending on the direction the boat is going NOT the setting of the transmission. There is a lag time between placing the transmission in forward and when the boat actually moves forward. Thus, when backing out of a slip, place the transmission in reverse and move into the channel (1). Turn the wheel or tiller to move your boat into the canal. Before you reach the midline position of the channel, place the transmission in forward (2). The boat will slow. When the boat starts to move forward, turn the wheel or tiller and navigate the channel (3). Do not turn the wheel or tiller until the movement of the boat changes direction. (see picture below)

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The most important thing to remember when docking are as follows: Call ahead for help at the dock. Reserve an oversized slip with a favourable approach and exit. Go slow, 1 knot. Never gun the engine to try to avoid a collision. A sudden high power throttle in reverse will not slow a large sailboat significantly but will swing the stern of your boat due to prop-walk. Observe both current and wind direction. Have a crew member with a fender upfront to soften possible collisions. Be sure to have fenders on the side of the boat you are going to dock on and the docklines ready (tied to cleats and passed UNDER, not over, the lifelines.) Know where the king-spoke is. This is the spoke on the ship's wheel that when placed at 12:00, the rudder is straight. Always mark this spoke with tape or place a wooden knob over the spoke, see right figure. Pulling away from a crowded docking platform can be difficult. The use of spring lines can swing the stern (or bow) away from the dock. One may want to us an aft spring line extending from the bow to the docking platform. The angle of an aft spring line's resistance will help to pull the stern away from the docking platform. Initially, turn the wheel away from the docking platform (tiller towards the docking platform) to hold the boat against the dock. To pull away from the dock, turn the wheel towards the docking platform (tiller away from the docking platform) and give a small amount of forward power. This will swing the stern of the boat out into the channel. Then put the boat in reverse and leave the docking platform.

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If you approach a docking platform which has a crosswind, you need to

approach at a greater angle and with increased speed. Once you place your boat parallel to the docking platform it will be blown away if not secured. A trick to use in this situation is to approach the docking platform at a 60 degree angle. Throw a line from the midship cleat (if you boat does not have a midship cleat use a chain plate) and secure the line to a cleat on the dock. Now turn the wheel away from the docking platform (tiller towards the docking platform) and give a small amount of forward power. This will swing the boat towards the docking platform, which you can then secure with docklines.

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ANCHORING
The rode is the line and/or chain which goes to an anchor. It is often composed of both chain and rope. The chain is attached to the anchor and it helps the anchor to lie flat on the bottom. This has three benefits: The chain lies flat on the bottom and increases the horizontal pull on the anchor. This will increase the anchor's purchase. The chain will not chafe as it lies on and is pulled across the bottom. The chain acts as a shock absorber as the boat intermittently pulls on the rode, lifting the chain off the bottom. One must be sure that the anchor has a good purchase on the water's bottom or it will drag and the boat will drift. You can check the purchase by observing the tension on the rode and any change in position of the boat as the boat is placed in reverse. While at anchor, intermittently check the tension on the rode as the boat's bow raises and lowers with the waves. Also take several compass fixes and/or GPS positions to aid in determining if the boat is drifting and pulling the anchor. A common predisposing factor of a dragging anchor is not letting out enough rode. As a general guide, let out at least seven times the rode as the depth of the water plus the boat's freeboard (distance from the water surface to the deck). This ratio is called the anchoring scope. The scope may be decreased to 5:1 if an all chain rode is used. Scope may have to be increased in high wind or wave conditions. Be sure to check the depth of the water where you anchor in relationship to the tide or you may inadvertently become grounded. If a single anchor is placed, your boat will swing around the anchor as the direction of wind changes. This is especially true on the coast where one encounters land and sea breezes. The water must be deep enough for anchorage along the entire arch of this swing. If less swing is desired, set two anchors at 180 degrees from each other. You must also check the tide tables to make sure the water will be deep enough at low tide along the entire radius of swing, and that your scope will be sufficient at high tide. For example, if you anchor with a 7:1 scope at low tide in six feet of water and a six foot tide comes in, your scope will be reduced to 3.5:1.

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In a crowded anchorage, always anchor in a similar fashion as the boat next to you or the two boats may drift into each other. For example: If your boat is fixed in place with two anchors and the other boat has a single anchor, the other boat may be blown into your boat. In addition, look at the other boats in the anchorage and take note of the type and the angle of their rodes to the water. This will help you judge the amount of rode let out and give an idea of the swing radius of the other boats. Remember if a boat has an all chain rode, it may have a 5:1 or less scope and have a smaller swinging radius than a boat with a combination chain and rope line. Boats that are anchored next to each other that have a different swing radius are also at greater risk to drift into each other if the current or wind changes. Sailor's Tip: Place fathom or foot markers on the rode to help judge how much line has been let out. A good anchorage has the following characteristics: Protected from wind and waves & swells. Enough depth at low tide along the full swing of the rode. Enough space along the full swing of the rode. Good bottom which will hold an anchor.

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TYPES OF ANCHORS:
Danforth - Holds well in soft surfaces, but may

not hold on hard surfaces.

Bruce - For both hard and soft surfaces.

Plow - A burying anchor for hard surfaces. Notice the ring on the anchor's

crown for attachment of a retrieval line (trip line) which is floated up to a buoy (below).

Sailor's Tip: One may place a second line (trip line) to the head of the anchor. There is usually a metal loop to allow for the placement. Bring the line up to the surface and attach to a flotation device. Using this line the anchor can be pulled out by its head and will be easy to remove. The length of the trip line is equal to the water depth at high tide plus 5 to 10 feet.

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 A boat on a port tack shall give way to

one on a starboard tack.

If on the same tack, a windward boat shall give way to a leeward boat when on the same tack. A boat that is overtaking shall give way to a boat ahead, regardless to the type of vessels or tack. A boat coming about (tacking) or jibing shall give way to a boat on a steady heading. Thus, if your vessel is the stand-on vessel you are required not to turn or alter course. If the stand-on vessel does alter course it must be to avoid a collision. If your vessel is the give-way vessel you must turn away from the stand-on vessel to avoid a collision. Sailing vessels are the give-way-vessel under the following conditions: A sailboat is overtaking any other kind of vessel. When another boat is confined by a narrow channel, is confined by draft, is not under command, has reduced manoeuvrability such as if engaged in towing (not powerboats with water skiers with good manoeuvrability) or is a fishing vessel engaged in commercial fishing. A sailing vessel is the give-way vessel when approaching human propelled (personal) watercraft such as a canoe or kayak. However, jet skis are considered the same as a motorized vessel and are the give-way vessel unless the sailboat is overtaking them.

CREW OVERBOARD (COW)

NEVER FORGET: One hand for the boat and one hand for yourself!!! One of the most dangerous situations which can be encountered is when a crew falls into the water. The danger is not only from drowning but from hypothermia. With a PFD, a man overboard can stay afloat for hours, but it may only be minutes before life- threatening hypothermia sets in. Several important concepts are curial in man overboard rescues. The first step in rescuing a crew overboard is preparation. You should have a well thought out AND PRACTICED plan of approaching a man overboard and a method of hauling the individual on board. If hypothermia sets in, the rescued individual may not be able to assist in getting himself into the boat. The rescue plan should be practiced at least once a day. Common methods of approach are the Quick Stop and Quick Turn rescues.

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 COB CREW OVERBOARD (MOB MAN OVERBOARD) The first steps in any crew-overboard situations are as follows: 1) Yell "CREW OVERBOARD" (COB) to alert your crew. 2) Throw flotation devices to the COB and create a debris field. 3) Appoint one or more spotters to point at and never take their eyes off the COB. 4) Have a plan on getting the MOB on board, (use of the spinnaker halyard etc.). Factors on how the COB is approached will vary greatly depending upon the pointof-sail, size of the boat, the strength of the wind and the skill of the skipper. Thus, know your boat and frequently practice COB rescues. In a small keelboat and lowwind situation, it takes less skill to approach a COB on a close reach. However, with higher winds and larger keelboats an approach in irons may be needed to effectively stop the boat. In this instance, the skipper must know the glide distance of the boat because if he undershoots the COB he may have to start the approach over. There are two basic types of rescue: The life sling approach and approaching the COB directly on a close reach or in irons. If approaching on a close reach, it is usually best to have the COB on the leeward side of your boat. Rescue Methods which position the boat to approach the COB on a close reach or in irons (directly into the wind). A close reach is a desirable approach to a COB because, in many sailboats, it allows for both stopping the sailboat by luffing the sails and powering forward by trimming the sails. If one approaches the MOB on a run or broad reach, the sailboat cannot be stopped. In addition, a sailboat cannot be easily stopped on a beam reach since the boom cannot be let out a full 90 deg because of the slight aft placement of the shrouds. Sailing into irons to approach a COB may also be desirable if the sailboat cannot be stopped on a close reach approach. This can happen with larger sailboats or heavy winds where the boat will continue to go forward without the force of the sails (i.e. some sailboats will travel forward with bare poles in a high wind situation.)

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 QUICK TURN TECHNIQUE (FIGURE 8 RECOVERY):

Advantages of this technique include: 1. Can be performed from any point of sail. 2. A jibe is not required. Disadvantages of the technique include: 1. Must sail away from the COB. 2. Harder to keep site of the COB. Steps in this technique: 1. Immediately sail on a beam reach heading away from the COB for a maximum of four boat lengths. 2. Head up (Sail into the wind). 3. Perform a Coming about or tacking maneuver. 4. Head down (bear away or sail away from the wind) to a deep broad reach. 5. Cross your beam reach wake line until you are downwind from the COB. As soon as the COB is aft of your beam head up to a close reach. Note: Many sailors will sail on a beam reach with the apparent wind 90 degrees off the bow. It should be remembered that the true wind is aft of the apparent wind. The stronger the true wind the more aft the apparent wind is.
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Thus, if the boat is turned directly around and sailed in the opposite direction the boat will be in a shallow broad reach point of sail. Thus, you need to use the wind as a guide of when to turn toward the COB and you may have to turn sooner than you think. ) 6. Now you can luff your sails and slowly approach the COB. If you need more power, pull in the mainsail to midline. QUICK STOP TECHNIQUE: This technique is easiest to perform when sailing on a close reach or close hauled. In this point of sail the boom is also close to midline making a jibe in high winds safer. (Some sailboats will not easily Jibe in high winds.)

Advantages of this technique include: 1. Fast technique when performed properly. 2. The sailboat does not venture far from the COB. 3. Easiest to keep site of the COB. Thus, this technique may be the best to use if only one crew member is left onboard who must try to maneuver the boat and spot the COB at the same time. Disadvantages of the technique include: 1. Must perform a jibe which is a harder maneuver to perform especially in high winds (common COB conditions) and when one is short on a crew member. 2. Cannot be performed when one is on a run.
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Steps in this technique: 1. Sail away from the COB in a close reach. 2. Perform a coming about maneuver (tacking) with the jib backed (do not release the jib's working sheet) to perform a tight turn. 3. Keep the COB abeam (directly off the boat's beam) at all times, until the final approach. 4. Sail downwind of the COB. 5. Perform a jib. The backed jib is in the correct position for the jibe and thus only the mainsail has to be centered and then let out. 6. Let the jib go (release the sheets) and allow to luff freely. 7. Approach the COB on a close reach. RECOVERY ON A RUN:

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The steps are as follows: 1. Sail away from the COB for 3 boat lengths. 2. Turn upwind in the direction opposite of the boom. Thus, if you are on a port tack with your boom to starboard, turn the boat to port. 3. Head up (turn into the wind). 4. Come about (tack) the boat by steering the bow through the wind. 5. Depending upon the number of your crew and the distance from the COB, you may want to release the sheets on the jib and let it luff, sailing with the mainsail alone. This will slow the boat and make it easier sail. 6. Approach the COB on a close reach. Trim (pull towards center) the mainsail to increase speed, let the mainsail luff to slow the boat. At this point the jib should be let go and allowed to luff freely. LIFE SLING TYPE OF RECOVERY: This method requires that you have a conscious cooperative COB which can grab a life sling. The steps of this method are as follows: 1. Stop the boat. 2. Throw out the life sling. 3. Sail in circles around the COB until the life sling approaches the person. The jib is allowed to back to tighten the circles.

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COLD & WARM FRONTS, CLOUDS & SAFE SEMI-CIRCLES. Land and Sea Breezes Land and sea breezes are caused by the difference in temperature between the land and the sea. Land cools and heats quicker than water. Thus, during the day the land is warmer than the water and during the night the land is cooler. Since cooler air is heavier than warm, the colder air will flow toward and displace the warm air. Thus, during the night and early morning as the land cools, a breeze will be felt travelling from land out to sea (land breeze) and during the afternoon, as the land warms, a breeze will be felt travelling from the sea to the land (sea breeze). Sea breezes are stronger than land breezes and may obtain strength of 10 to 15 knots. The changing of the direction of the wind by 360 degrees in a 24 hour period will often cause a boat at anchor to swing around its entire anchor radius. Note: Winds are described as where they blow from. Currents are described as where they flow to. Thus, a northerly wind blows from the north. A northerly current flows toward the north. Headers and lifting winds, Veering and Backing winds. A header is a wind shift towards the bow. Your sails may start to luff requiring the helmsman to head down or the crew to trim in the sails (sheeted in). A lifting wind is a wind which shifts toward the stern of your boat and allows the boat to be "lifted" and able to head up. A veering wind is a wind which shifts in a clockwise direction. A backing wind is a wind which shifts in a counter clockwise direction. Cold & Warm Fronts Cold air is denser than warm air and when pushed by weather systems, forces a wedge under the warm air ahead of it. The denser air exerted higher pressure in the atmosphere reflected in a rising reading on a barometer. The reverse is true of warm air following a cold air mass. In each case the change in barometer indicate an instability which can cause bad weather conditions: high winds, reduced visibility in fog or rain, and lightening storms. A falling barometer often means the approach of a weather front or deteriorating weather, as a rising barometer forecasts good weather. The faster the barometer changes the more dramatic the weather. Cold Front: Cold air rapidly pushes beneath warm air. This front can move fast, up to 25-30 knots, and weather deteriorates with rain, strong winds and thunderstorms. Warm Front: Warm air slowly pushes over cold air. This front moves slowly, 10 to 15 knots, and the weather slowly changes to showers. However, this front can also bring strong winds and thunderstorms. Stationary Front: When warm and cold airs of equal pressure are next to each other, no movement will take place. Stationary fronts usually produce weather similar to a warm front but milder.
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Clouds Cirrus Clouds: Cirrus clouds or "Mare's tails" are thin wisps of high altitude clouds. When followed by cirrostratus (high gauzy sheets) deteriorating weather may be approaching in 24 to 48 hours.

The picture to the right shows a few cirrus and cirrostratus clouds.

Cumulus Clouds: These are cauliflower like puffs of clouds. If they become taller they may produce thunderheads (cumulonimbus clouds). If they stay the same height, fair weather can be predicted.

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Cumulonimbus clouds or thunderheads have anvil tops and produce high winds and storms. The direction of the storm's travel is denoted by the anvil.

Thunderheads:

Storm Front: Rapidly moving black clouds mean the approaching of a storm. The approach can be rapid with strong winds. Sails should be rapidly reefed.

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SAFE SEMI-CIRCLES

Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS): The common names for TRS are hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons. In the Northern Hemisphere, they spin counter clockwise. In the southern hemisphere, they spin clockwise. They require a Corielis Force (from the earths rotation) which prevents them from forming within 5 degrees of the equator and they require a water temperature of at least 80 degrees. In the Northern Hemisphere, a hurricanes' direction of travel over water is northwest or west. Once a land mass is hit, they may be deflected in a northeast direction. The wind velocity is between 60 and over 150 knots, but most are around 90 knots. The average size is 150 to 200 miles but some may reach a diameter of over 1000 miles. They may move at a speed of up to 12 knots and most sailboats cannot out run them and many boats will not survive an encounter with them. Because the hurricane spins and travels at the same time, it creates different wind conditions north and south of the storm's track. In the Northern Hemisphere, the more navigable area of the storm is south of the track (the opposite is true for the Southern Hemisphere). In this region, the forward westerly motion of the storm decreases the easterly motion of the spin and, thus, lessens the winds. The opposite is true for the north side of the track where the westerly motion of the storm will augment the winds produce by the storm's spin. The most dangerous area of the storm is in the northwest quadrant, which is called the "Danger Quadrant". You should avoid this area at all costs. If you are caught northwest of the storm, you have two choices; try to sail out the storms way by sailing south to get into the more navigable semi-circle or trying to sail away from it close-hauled on a starboard tack. Which you choose depends upon the speed of the boat and the speed of approach of the storm. In strong winds a ketch arrangement, the total sail area can be gradually moderated through a variety of combinations without drastically reducing speed; or the sail area can be reduced dramatically by reefing or dropping the smaller mainsail or dispensing with the mizzen sail. Upwind, a sloop is normally the rig of choice; the smaller mainsail on a ketch of an equivalent size can spill turbulent, dirty air on the mizzen, making the sail inefficient and consequently stalling boat speed. Off-wind, however, the ketch has numerous advantages with its capability of carrying genoa, mainsail, mizzen staysail and mizzen for reaching in good conditions, or just jib and mizzen in stronger weather. In running conditions that may be too hard to carry a spinnaker, a sloop rigs genoa is often blocked by the larger mainsail, while a ketchs mainsail and mizzen can work together without the aft sail disturbing the mainsail. On a yawl going to windward, the mizzenmast and sail generally actually produce more drag than they do drive. This is because the mizzen is sailing in really turbulent air and has to be over trimmed to keep from luffing which can effectively act as an airbrake. This is slightly less of the case on a ketch where the size of the mizzen is large enough to provide a larger percentage of the drive.
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Ketch and Yawl rigs work best with heavier boats with less efficient underbodies such as full keels and deeply Veed hull forms. These hull forms often need a lot more drive and the hull is the limiting factor in how fast or how close-winded the boat will be. The yawl or ketch rig's lack of windward ability is less of a liability when placed on a hull that similarly lacks windward ability. Also, the ability of a ketch or yawl to carry more sail with less heeling moment also makes it a natural for a heavier hull form which often has comparatively little stability when compared to the amount of drive required to make a heavy boat move.

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ALL ABOUT LINES (ROPES) & KNOTS Material: Lines (ropes) are commonly made out of three types of material: Nylon, Dacron and Kevlar. Nylon is stronger than Dacron. It also stretches which is advantageous when it is used for anchor or docklines. Dacron and Kevlar are low stretch they are often used for halyards, since the line will not have to be adjusted with increasing wind loads. Lines may be braided or a three strand (laid) line. Nylon laid (stranded) lines have the maximum stretch. Stretch at a Load of 50% Breaking Strength 30% 15% 10% 10% 5%

Type of Line Stranded Nylon Braided Nylon Stranded Dacron Braided Dacron Kevlar & Spectra

Strength: The breaking strain is the force needed to break a line (rope). The working strain is the greatest amount of force that can be placed on a line without damaging the line. Nylon has a working strain of about 10% of its breaking strain; Dacron has a working strain of about 20% its breaking strain. Lines also come in a three strand weave or braided. The braided weaves are approximately twice as strong.

BASIC KNOTS Knowledge of lines (ropes), cables and chains is mandatory for a skipper of any vessel. Knots on the average will reduce the strength of a line by about 50%; a splice reduces the strength by around 10%. Lines of different materials, weaves and diameters will have different characteristics and strengths.

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 Fisherman's Bend: This knot is commonly used to secure a rode to an anchor or a line to a post. It is a modified two-half-hitch and is also called an "Anchor Knot".

Double Sheet Bend: This knot is used to tie together two lines of the same or different size.

Bowline on a Bight: This knot is used to make a pair of fixed loops in the middle or at the end of a line. This is a strong knot and can be used in overboard rescue, towing and in a pinch, even to make a bowswain's chair to be used to ascend the mast.

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 Carrick Bend: This knot is also called a "Sailor's Knot" and can be used for tying two heavy lines (i.e. towing hawsers and cables) together.

Taut Line Hitch: This knot is used to attach a line to a pole.

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 Rolling Hitch (or

Magnus Hitch): In the right hand picture, the knot on the top is defined by Ashley and most US knotting books as a rolling Hitch. The knot on the bottom is defined by some British knotting books as a rolling hitch but is a variant of what Ashley calls a "Awning Knot with a Half Hitch" or a "Midshipman Knot". The bottom knot is similar to a taut line hitch except that a taut line hitch is doubled back on itself and tied to the standing part of the line. A rolling hitch is often used to attach a line to a sheet which is entrapped on a winch from an over-ride. A second line is attached to the entrapped sheet using a rolling hitch. Tension is then placed on the second line which relieves the tension on the over-ride. The over-ride can then be undone and the sheet released. Square Knot: Used to tie two lines together (first picture below)

Sheet Bend: This knot is used to tie two lines of equal or different sizes together (second picture above right)

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 Bowline: This knot is used to tie a line to a post. (below on the left)

Bowline: This knot is used to tie a line around one's waist. (above right picture)

Clove Hitch : This knot is used to tie a line to a post.(left picture below)

Round Turn & Two Half Hitches: This knot is used to ties a line to a pole. (above right)

Figure Eight: This knot is used as a stopper knot. (below left)

Cleat Hitch: Secure a line to a Deck Cleat. (above right)

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UNDERSTANDING CORDAGE These days sailors, benefiting from the advances in chemistry and rope-making technology over the past 10 years, can choose from a bewildering array of lines. The right choice of cordage for each application on board any boat involves numerous factors. The main concerns are: strength, stretch, longevity, cost, ease and strength of knotting and splicing, ability to work on winches and windlasses, and kindness to the hands. But to keep your choosing manageable, these considerations can be reduced to a discussion of the two main factors that influence the use of line: the construction method and the materials used to build the line. Construction There are three main methods of machining individual threads into strands (called yarns) and thence into rope (or what most sailors refer to as line). Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Here's a quick digest of what you'll need to know to assess your needs and better understand the choices available.

Three-strand twist is an old favourite. It is inexpensive to produce but allows the greatest possible amount of stretch. In some materials, three-strand line is capable of elongating nearly half again its relaxed length before breaking. Splicing three-strand is easy and quick. These attributes make it ideal for use as anchoring, docking, and mooring lines where stretch is kind to deck hardware. Three-strand line can become stiff with age, rendering it difficult to knot and coil properly. Single-braided line, sometimes called plait, waxes and wanes in popularity. It has less stretch than three-strand and is more expensive to produce. Single braids have a supple feel and remain easy to coil and store. They are kinder to the hands and work better in self-tailing winches than three-strand line. However, single braid lines are difficult to splice well. Double braids have the least amount of stretch and make up the bulk of all running rigging used aboard contemporary sailboats. A braided core is covered with a braided sheath, either of the same or a different material. The core, or inner part, can effectively be made of a blend of materials to take advantage of differing properties. It can be woven at low angles, and even laid up as parallel fibbers to reduce stretch. Double braids offer the choice of a smooth or fuzzy cover. Most are easy on sailors' hands and provide excellent grip in self-tailing winches and clutches. Double braid is more expensive to build and takes some practice to splice correctly. The cover can be woven with a multitude of colours for easy identification.

Materials The fibres are of equal importance in choosing a line to suit a job on board. All fibres on the market these days are synthetic with trademarked names from chemical companies. And each fibber has special characteristics that make it well-suited to particular tasks.

Nylon has high strength and very high stretch, making it an obvious choice for docking, anchoring and mooring lines. There are various grades and coatings for nylon with widely different reactions to water, UV, chemicals, and aging. Premium-grade, continuous-length fibre cordage is more expensive, but has a
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much longer life span. Since nylon loses strength when it's wet, largerdiameter line should be used than most strength charts indicate. Nylon line does not stand up well to chafe and must be protected from sharp objects. Nylon can also shrink with age, becoming stiff and unmanageable. Polyester, most often in the form of Dacron, makes up the bulk of all running rigging for good reason. Dacron is a very moderate fibre: It is fairly strong, has little stretch, is reasonably abrasion-resistant, not terribly expensive, has good UV and chemical resistance, and is easy to dye in multiple colours. Kevlar and aramid fibres are stronger than steel by weight and have almost no stretch. However, they do not bend well and require oversize sheaves. As a core material in double braids, they tend to cut through a polyester cover. Aramid lines are extremely difficult to splice and remain quite pricey. Olefin, polypropylene, and other olefinic fibres are extremely light for their strength and stretchin fact they float and do not absorb water. Sensitive to UV, double-braided lines with olefinic covers must not be left in the sun. In addition, they are heat sensitive and melt if run rapidly over a winch. Spectra, Vectran Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP), Technora and several other fibres are very strong and have low stretch. Each has its own advantages but all are relatively expensive. They are quite often blended together, sometimes with polyester or an aramid in the cores of double braid.

Getting Lined Up Where and how you use a certain kind of line is very important in that line's longevity and in its functionality. For anchoring, mooring and docklines, threestrand nylon has the greatest stretch, nylon plait has moderate stretch, and nylon doublebraid line has the least stretch. Here are some other on board applications and what kind of line works best:

Lazyjacks and preventersAny nylon line or three-strand Dacron can be used. HalyardsThree-strand Dacron has some stretch, but adds style to classic boats. Double-braid Dacron is often the choice on a cruiser or club racer. Spectra/olefin double braid is used on covered daysailers and small racers. Parallel-core, double-braid Dacron or high-tech blends are used on larger racing boats. Sheets and control linesPlaited or double-braided Dacron is used on cruisers. Double-braided Dacron or high-tech blends is often the choice on club racers. Spectra/olefin double braids are good for light-air sheets. Hightech blends are used for flat-out racers. Runner tails and whipsDouble-braid Dacron or high-tech blend is suitable for cruisers. Special high-tech blends are the choice for on racers.

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YACHTING- TERMS & NAMES

Abeam: 90 degrees off the side of the boat. Ahead: In front of the boat. Aloft: Above the boat and rigging. Bear Away: To head away or off from the wind. Bearing: The direction to an object. Dock: The body of water between two piers. Ease: To let out the sails. Give-Way Vessel: The boat which changes course because it does not have the right of way. Harden Up: Change the boat's course toward the wind Head Down: Change the boat's course away from the wind. Head Up: Change the boat's course toward the wind. Heel: The degree of sideways tilt. Helm: (1) The tiller or wheel of the boat. (2) The tendency of the boat to head windward or leeward. Leeward: Away from the wind. Luffing: (1) The flapping of the whole sail, flogging (2) The forming of a "bubble" in the front part (near the luff) of a sail. Pier: A platform that is supported by piles and sticks out from the shore. Safety Line & Harness: A line, approximately 6 feet long, which attaches a crew's safety harness to the boat. Shoal: Shallow water. Spar: Any pole or mast to secure rigging or sails to.
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Stand-On-Vessel: The boat which does not change course and has the right of way. Tack: (1) The front lower corner of the sail. (2) A direction of sail i.e. a starboard tack. (3) Coming About. Trim: To pull the sails in towards the wind. Windward: Towards the wind.

Parts of the Hull and the boat in general Aft: Towards the Stern. Aloft: Towards the top of the mast. Beam: The boat's greatest width. Bilge: The part of the hull below the cabin's floor, the lowest part of the boat. Binnacle: A post to which the wheel is attached. Block: A device used to change a line's direction.

Boom: The horizontal spar which extends aft (backwards) from the mast to which the foot of the mainsail abuts. Bow Pulpit: A safety rail or guardrail around the bow of the boat which is usually used to aid a crew in mooring or anchoring. Bow: Front of the boat.

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Chain Plate: A metal plate to which a shroud is attached.

Cleat: A metal or plastic device used to secure a line. There are many types of cleats.

Deck: Top of the boat which covers the hull. Draft: (1) The greatest depth the boat, from the waterline to the end of the keel (2) The position of the greatest depth of the bend of a sail. Fenders: A rubber-like bumper hung on the side of the boat to prevent scratches and dents.

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Gooseneck: The fitting that connects the boom to the mast. It works like a swivel allowing the boom to move up and down and swing from side to side. Keel: A fin like structure extending from the bottom of the hull which aids in stabilization and resists lateral movement of the boat under the force of the wind. Lifelines: Lines attached to the stanchions to help prevent the crew from going overboard. (Never depend upon lifelines to secure you to the boat. Never attach a safety line to a lifeline.) Mast: The main and highest spar in the centre of the boat to which the jib and mainsail are attached.

Mizzen (Jigger): The smaller aft mast on a yawl or ketch Port: The boat's left side. The sailor LEFT his bottle of PORT wine behind. Rudder: A spade-like object at the back of the boat that steers the boat by deflection of the water. Stanchion: Spars or vertical posts around the perimeter of the deck to which lifelines are attached. Starboard: The boat's right side when facing forward. Stern: Back of the boat Tiller: A spar or lever attached to the rudder for steering. If you turn the tiller to port the boat will go to starboard.

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Toe Rail: An elevated rail which runs around the perimeter of the deck. A toe rail has a number of holes to secure lines and aids in keeping the crew on the boat by preventing ones foot from sliding off the deck.

Wheel: A steering wheel to turn the boat. If you turn the wheel to port the boat will go to port.

Winch A mechanical device used to increase pulling power on a line.

Rigging - Lines, Cables and Spars Running Rigging: Lines which control and adjust the sails. ** Halyard: A line used to raise a sail. ** Sheet: The chief line which is used to adjust a sail against the force of the wind. The mainsail has one sheet. The jib has two, a working (leeward) sheet and a lazy (windward) sheet. ** Boom Vang: A line which places downward tension on the boom, preventing the boom form lifting which causes the top part of the sail to twist. ** Downhaul: Line used to tighten or tension the luff (forward edge) of the sail. ** Outhaul: Places backward tension on the clew of the mainsail tightening the foot bottom edge. When tightened it will flatten the lower one-third of the mainsail. ** Reefing Line: A line used to shorten the sail. Boom Topping Lift: A line that Holds the end of the boom up and prevents it from falling into the cockpit when the main sail is lowered.
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Standing Rigging: Supports the mast and includes the Backstay, Headstay, Shrouds. ** Shroud: Lines or cables which give lateral stability to the mast and prevent it from moving sideways. ** Spreaders: Horizontal spars which spread the shrouds from the mast. ** Headstay: A line or cable which supports the mast from the bow of the boat, preventing the top of the mast moving forward. If the line does not reach the top of the mast then it is also called a forestay. ** Backstay: A line or cable which supports the mast from the stern of the boat. ** Boom Topping Lift: A line which extends from the boom to the mast. Supports the boom when the mainsail is taken down. Turnbuckle: Device for adjusting tension on shrouds and stays.

Sails, Its Parts And Types Battens: Plastic or wooden slats inserted in the leech of the mainsail to help stabilize the roach. Batten Pockets: Pockets sewn into the trailing edge of the sail to hold the battens Clew: Bottom aft (back) corner of the sail. (The clew is by the crew) Cringle: A grommet or metal reinforcement ring in a sail though which a line is usually attached. Cunningham: The cringle (grommet) on the luff of the sai used to achieve luff tension for draft contro (sail shaping). Foot: Bottom edge of the sail.

Head: Top corner of the Sail, where the halyard connects. Jib: The sail between the headstay and the mast. Also called the headsail. There are several sizes of Jibs. --A Genoa Jib: ( Number 1 Jib ) overlaps the mainsail and is used to provide maximum power in light winds. --A Working Jib: ( Number 2 Jib ) is a smaller jib which fills the space between the mast and headstay. It is used in stronger winds. --A Storm Jib: is a small jib ( even smaller than a Number 4 Jib ) used in heavy weather and gales.

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Leech: The aft or back edge of the sail Luff: (1) The forward edge of the sail. (2) The flapping of a sail when it is not trimmed properly. Mainsail: The sail aft of the mast which is attached to the mast and the boom. Reef Points: The row of points where the reef ties (gaskets) are attached to the sail. These are used for shortening sail (trimming) in strong winds. Roach: The part of the sail which extends aft from a line running from the sail's head to the clew. Spinnaker: A large balloon sail attached to the mast at the front of the boat. It is used when sailing directly downwind (running with the wind). Tack: (1) The front lower corner of the sail. (2) A direction of sail i.e. a starboard tack. (3) Coming About.

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Mizzenmast

Mainsail

Mainmast

Jib,Headsail,Furling

Stern

Boom Bow

Hull

Keel

Rudder

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TABLE OF CONTENTS THE BASICS OF SAILING...................................................................................................................... 1 SAIL TRIM AND SHAPE ..................................................................................................................... 3 BASIC SAILING CONDITIONS........................................................................................................... 4 SAIL SHAPE WHEN SAILING ON A REACH .................................................................................... 7 TRIMMING THE SAILS ON A CLOSE REACH ................................................................................ 11 SAILING A KETCH ............................................................................................................................... 13 THE DYNAMICS IN DEALING WITH HEAVY WINDS ..................................................................... 15 DEPOWERING THE SAILS .............................................................................................................. 17 SAILING ON HEAVY WEATHER ......................................................................................................... 18 WHEN CAUGHT IN A HIGH WIND SITUATION .............................................................................. 21 Successful tactics when caught in heavy weather have included: ................................................... 22 ACTIVE & PASSIVE TACTICS ......................................................................................................... 22 Active Tactics .................................................................................................................................... 22 Passive Tactics: Being Hove to in a long gale is the most boring way of being terrified. ................. 24 Various Opinions and Experiences about Dealing with Heavy Weather .............................................. 30 SAILBOAT BALANCE ........................................................................................................................... 39 JUDGING THE STRENGTH OF THE WIND & THE BEAUFORT SCALE ....................................... 40 SAIL REEFING REVIEWED ................................................................................................................. 42 REEFINGTHE BASICS ................................................................................................................. 44 WIND ORIENTATION ....................................................................................................................... 49 Understanding Apparent Wind .......................................................................................................... 52 Reading Flow and Making Adjustments............................................................................................ 57 DOCKING & ANCHORING ................................................................................................................... 59 ANCHORING .................................................................................................................................... 63 TYPES OF ANCHORS: ................................................................................................................ 65 CREW OVERBOARD (COW) ............................................................................................................... 66 COB CREW OVERBOARD (MOB MAN OVERBOARD)............................................................... 67 QUICK TURN TECHNIQUE (FIGURE 8 RECOVERY): ................................................................ 68 RECOVERY ON A RUN: ............................................................................................................... 70 The steps are as follows: 1. Sail away from the COB for 3 boat lengths. ....................................... 71 COLD & WARM FRONTS, CLOUDS & SAFE SEMI-CIRCLES. ...................................................... 73 SAFE SEMI-CIRCLES ...................................................................................................................... 76 ALL ABOUT LINES (ROPES) & KNOTS .......................................................................................... 78 UNDERSTANDING CORDAGE........................................................................................................ 83 Getting Lined Up ............................................................................................................................... 84 YACHTING- TERMS & NAMES........................................................................................................ 85

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THE BASICS OF SAILING

2010

The Adventure Begins