CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Prepared by: Ms. Maria Cecil P.

Torres The circulatory System is a network that carries blood throughout the body. All animals except the simplest kinds have some type of circulatory system. In some invertebrates, the circulatory system consists of a simple network of tubes and hollow spaces. Other invertebrates have pump like structures that send blood through a system of blood vessels. In human beings and other vertebrates the circulatory system consists primarily of a pumping organ called the heart and a network of blood vessels. From the moment it begins beating until the moment it stops, the human heart works tirelessly. In an average lifetime, the heart beats more than two and a half billion times, without ever pausing to rest. Like a pumping machine, the heart provides the power needed for life. The circulatory system can be considered as composed of two parts: the systemic circulation, which serves the body as a whole except for the lungs, and the pulmonary circulation, which carries the blood to and from the lungs. Other types of circulations are fetal and cerebral. Functions of the Circulatory System a) Supplies the cells of the body with the food and oxygen they need to survive. b) It carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells. c) It also helps regulate the temperature of the body and carries substances that protect the body from disease. d) The system also transports chemical substances called hormones, which help regulate the activities of various parts of the body. Of the vessels, the arteries carry blood away from the heart; the main arterial vessel, the aorta, branches into smaller arteries, which in turn branch repeatedly into still smaller vessels and reach all parts of the body. Within the body tissues, the vessels are microscopic capillaries through which gas and nutrient exchange occurs. Blood leaving the tissue capillaries enters converging vessels, the veins, to return to the heart and lungs. The human heart is a four-chambered organ with a dividing wall, or septum that separates it into a right heart for pumping blood from the returning veins into the lungs and a left heart for pumping blood from the lungs to the body via the aorta. An auxiliary system, the lymphatic system, is composed of vessels that collect lymph from body tissues. Carried to converging vessels of increasing size, the lymph enters the thoracic duct and is emptied into a large vein near the heart.

A. Systemic Circulation In the systemic circulation, which serves the body except for the lungs, oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the heart from two pairs of pulmonary veins, a pair from each lung. It enters the left atrium, which contracts when filled, sending blood into the left ventricle (a large percentage of blood also enters the ventricle passively, without atrial contraction). The bicuspid, or mitral, valve controls blood flow into the ventricle. Contraction of the powerful ventricle forces the blood under great pressure into the aortic arch and on into the aorta. The coronary arteries stem from the aortic root and nourish the heart muscle itself. Three major arteries originate from the aortic arch, supplying blood to the head, neck, and arms. The other major arteries originating from the aorta are the renal arteries, which supply the kidneys; the celiac axis and superior and inferior mesenteric arteries, which supply the intestines, spleen, and liver; and the iliac arteries, which branch out to the lower trunk and become the femoral and popliteal arteries of the thighs and legs, respectively. The arterial walls are partially composed of fibromuscular tissue, which help to regulate blood pressure and flow. In addition, a system of shunts allows blood to bypass the capillary beds and helps to regulate body temperature. At the far end of the network, the capillaries converge to form venules, which in turn form veins. The inferior vena cava returns blood to the heart from the legs and trunk; it is supplied by the iliac veins from the legs, the hepatic veins from the liver, and the renal veins from the kidneys. The subclavian veins, draining the arms, and the jugular veins, draining the head and neck, join to form the superior vena cava. The two vena cavae, together with the coronary veins, return blood low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide to the right atrium of the heart. B. Pulmonary Circulation

The pulmonary circulation carries the blood to and from the lungs. In the heart, the blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle; the tricuspid valve prevents backflow from ventricles to atria. The right ventricle contracts to force blood into the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. In the lungs oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide eliminated, and the oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins, thus completing the circuit. In pulmonary circulation, the arteries carry oxygen-poor blood, and the veins bear oxygen-rich blood. C. Fetal Circulation Exists only in the fetus and contains special structures that allow the developing fetus to exchange materials with its mother. D. Cerebral Circulation This is the flow of blood to the brain. It is sometimes called cerebral arterial circle or Circle of the Willis. Things to Remember: 1. Arteries are tubes that carry blood away from the heart 2. Veins are tubes that return blood to the heart 3. Capillaries connect arteries and veins. They are tiny tubes that exchange food, oxygen and wastes between blood and body cells 4. Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood between the heart and lungs 5. Coronary circulation is the movement of blood from within the heart chambers to the heart tissues themselves 6. Systemic circulation is the movement of blood between the heart and the rest of the body These are a few things you should know about the heart: 1) Your heart is an organ made of cardiac muscle. 2) Your heart has four cavities called chambers 3) The two upper chambers are called the right and left atria 4. The two lower chambers are the right and left ventricles 5) Blood flows into the heart through the atrium and then out through the ventricle

Valves of the Heart 1. Tricuspid valve is located between the atrium and ventricle of the right side of the heart. When this valve is open, blood passes from the right atrium into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents the reverse of blood flow back into the atrium by closing during ventricular contraction. The tricuspid valve is made up of three leaves or cusps. 2. Pulmonary valve with the tricuspid valve closed, the only exit for blood is via the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk splits into the left and right pulmonary arteries, which connect to the left and right lungs, respectively. The entrance to the pulmonary trunk is guarded by the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary valve is made up of three leaves that open when the right ventricle contracts and close when this chamber relaxes, allowing blood to flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries but not the reverse.

3.

Bicuspid valve or mitral valve is composed of two leaves. It regulates the flow of blood from the left atrium to the left ventricle. Like the tricuspid valve, it closes during ventricular contraction. 4. Aortic valve consists of three leaves found at the entrance to the aorta. It allows blood out of the left ventricle as it contracts, and blocks the pathway of blood from the aorta back into the left ventricle when the chamber relaxes. The Blood Vessels 1. Arteries and arterioles Arteries are the vessels that carry blood from the heart to the tissues. Large, elastic arteries leave the heart and divide into medium sized, muscular arteries that branch out into the various regions of the body. These medium-sized arteries then divide into small arteries, which in turn divide into still smaller arteries called arterioles.

2. Capillaries Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that connect from the arterioles to the venules. They are found near almost every cell in the body. The primary function of capillaries is to permit the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and tissue cells. Their very thin wall is suited to this purpose. Depending on their requirements for oxygen and other nutrients, different tissues receive different number of capillaries. Tissues like muscle use a lot of oxygen, thus are linked up to an extensive network of capillaries. Capillaries are quite abundant in the human body. 3. Venules and veins When several capillaries unite, they form small veins called venules. Venules collect blood from capillaries and drain it into veins. Veins create pathways, roughly parallel to those used by the arteries, which carry blood back to the heart. Veins have thinner walls that are less muscular and contain less elastic tissue. The Blood The physical characteristics of blood include a temperature of about 38degrees Celsius, a pH range of 7.35 to 7.45 (slightly alkaline) and a 0.86 to 0.90 % concentration of salt (NaCl). Blood constitutes about 8% of the body weight. The blood volume of an average sized male is 5 to 6 liters while female has 4-5 liters. The blood is a complex liquid that performs a number of critical functions. 1. It regulates normal body temperature through the hat-absorbing and coolant properties of its water content, the water content of cells and pH though buffers. 2. It protects against blood loss though the clotting mechanism, toxins, and foreign microbes. 3. It transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body; carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs, nutrients from the digestive organs to the cells, waste products from the eells to the kidneys, lungs, and sweat glands, hormones from the endocrine glands to the cells, enzymes to various cells. Components of Blood Blood is composed of two portions: formed elements (cells and cell-like structure) and plasma (liquid containing dissolved substances) The formed elements composed about 45 percent of the volume of blood; plasma constitutes about 55 %. Formed a) b) c) Elements Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Leucocytes (white blood cells) Thrombocytes (platelets)

Hemostasis of Blood Hemostasis refers to the stoppage of bleeding when blood vessels are wounded, damaged or ruptured. Three basic mechanisms that operate to prevent blood loss:

a)

vascular spasm is a contraction of the smooth muscle in the blood vessel to prevent blood loss. When a blood vessel is damaged, the smooth muscle in its walls contracts immediately. Such a vascular spasm reduces blood loss for up to 30 minutes, during which time the other hemostetic mechanisms can go into operation. The spasm is probably caused by damage to the vessel wall and from reflexes initiated by pain receptors. platelet plug formation platelet plug formation is an aggregation of thrombocytes at a damaged blood vessel to prevent blood loss. When platelets come into contact with parts of a damaged blood vessel, such as collagen or endothelium, their characteristics change drastically. They begin to enlarge and their shapes become even more irregular. They also become sticky and begin to adhere to the collagen fibers. Their production of ADP and enzymes causes the formation of substances that activate more platelets, causing them to stick to the original platelets. The plug is very effective in preventing blood loss in a small vessel. Although the platelets plug is initially loose, it becomes quite tight when reinforced by fibrin threads formed during coagulation.

b)

c)

blood coagulation by which a blood clot is formed. Normally, blood maintains its liquid state as long as it remains in the vessels. If it is drawn from the body, however, it thickens, and forms a gel. Eventually. The gel separates from the liquid. The straw-colored liquid called serum, is simply plasma minus its clotting proteins. The gel is called a clot and consists of a network of insoluble fibers in which the cellular components of blood are trapped. If the blood clots too easily, the result can be thrombosis clotting in an unbroken blood vessel. If the blood takes too long to clot, a hemorrhage can result. Clotting involves various chemicals known as coagulation factors. Clotting is a complex process in which coagulation factors activate each other. That is, the first coagulation factor activates the record, the second activates the third, and so on. Three basic stages of blood clotting: Stage 1: formation of prothrombin activator Stage 2: conversion of prothrombin (a plasma thrombin, by prothrombin activator) Stage 3: conversion of fibrinogen (another plasma protein formed by the liver) into insoluble fibrin by thrombin. Fibrin forms the threads clot. (Cigarette smoke contains at least two substances that interfere with fibrin formation)

Grouping of blood In early 1900s, Dr. Karl Landsteiner, an Austraian-American scientist, discovered that there are four different types of blood. He called the four types A, B, AB, and O. He found that each type has a chemical identification tag called an antigen on its red blood cells. Type A blood has A antigens, Type B has B antigens, Type AB has both A and B antigens on each blood cell. Type O has no A or B antigens. Each type also has specific antibodies in the plasma. Antibodies are proteins that destroy or neutralize foreign substances, such as pathogens, in the body. The antibodies prevent certain different blood types from mixing. Type A blood has antibodies against type B. If type blood A is mixed with type blood B, type A red blood cells react to type B blood as if it were a foreign substance. The antibodies in type A respond by clumping the type B blood. Type B blood has antibodies against type A. Type AB has no antibodies, so it can receive blood from A, B and AB. Type O has both A and B antibodies. Grouping of Blood Can Receive Can donate to O,A A,AB O,B B,AB All AB O All

Type A B AB O

Blood type is inherited, One can not change his blood type. The Rh factor is another inherited substance in blood. If present, the person has Rh-positive (Rh+) blood. If it is not present, the person is said to be Rh-negative (Rh-). The Rh- person receiving blood from Rh+ will produce antibodies against the Rh- factor. A problem also occurs with an Rh- mother and Rh+ baby. When the baby is about to be formed, antibodies from the mother can cross the placenta and destroy the babys red blood cells. If this happens, the baby can receive a blood transfusion before or right after birth. Rh or Rhesus factor was first discovered in the rhesus monkey in 1940. About 85% to 90% of the people has this antigens, meaning that they are Rh+. The Body's Filtering System The organs most intimately related to the substances carried by the blood are the kidneys, which filter out nitrogenous wastes and regulate concentration of salts; the spleen, which removes worn red blood cells, or lymphocytes; and the liver, which contributes clotting factors to the blood, helps to control blood sugar levels, also removes old red blood cells and, receiving all the veins from the intestines and stomach, detoxifies the blood before it returns to the vena cava. Disorder of the Circulatory System Disorders of the circulatory system generally result in diminished flow of blood and diminished oxygen exchange to the tissues. Blood supply is also impeded in such conditions as arteriosclerosis and high blood pressure (see hypertension); low blood pressure resulting from injury (shock) is manifested by inadequate blood flow. Acute impairment of blood flow to the heart muscle itself with resulting damage to the heart, known as a heart attack or myocardial infarction, or to the brain (stroke) are most dangerous. Structural defects of the heart affecting blood distribution may be congenital or caused by many diseases, e.g., rheumatic fever, coronary artery disease. Anemia insufficient erythrocytes or hemoglobin. These conditions lead to fatigue and intolerance to cold, both of which are related to lack of oxygen needed for energy and heat production, and to paleness, which is low hemoglobin content. Nutritional anemia arise from an inadequate diet that provides insufficient production of erythrocytes because of lack of vitamin B12 resulting from an inability of the body to produce intrinsic factor. Hemorrhagic anemia an excessive loss of erythrocytes caused by large wounds, stomach ulcers, and heavy menstrual bleeding. If bleeding is extraordinary heavy, the anemia is acute. Excessive blood loss can be fatal. Polycythemia refers to an abnormal increase in the number of red blood cells. Leukemia refers to a malignant disease of blood-forming tissues characterized by uncontrolled production and accumulation of immature leucocytes and many of the cells fail to reach maturity.