Teacher Burnout

ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ ΑΝΟΙΚΤΟ ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ
ΣΧΟΛΗ ΑΝΘΡΩΠΙΣΤΙΚΩΝ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ
ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΕΙΔΙΚΕΥΣΗ ΚΑΘΗΓΗΤΩΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗΣ

ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ
ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΔΙΠΛΩΜΑΤΙΚΗ ΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ
FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHERS OF ENGLISH

APPOINTED IN GREEK STATE SCHOOLS: TOWARDS
ELIMINATING THE IMMINENCE OF TEACHER
BURNOUT
ΜΑΡΙΑ ΛΑΛΟΥ
ΓΕΡΑΛΗ- ΡΟΥΣΣΟΥ ΕΛΕΝΗ
ΠΑΤΡΑ ΜΑΙΟΣ, 2008

INTRODUCTION
As with many human service occupations, teaching in the modern world is associated
with significant levels of burnout. It is true that the incidence of teacher burnout has
received major attention over the last twenty years. Though researchers strive to
understand its nature and sources, media images of teachers present an overworked,
poorly paid, dissatisfied body of professionals whose morale can easily be raised
simply by pay increases (Evans, 1998). But the consequences of teacher burnout
extend beyond dissatisfaction or tension, as burnout appears to be a main factor in
teachers’ decision to leave the profession in many countries. Thus, measuring the
levels of burnout in the Greek educational context is necessary in case we wish to
employ preventive and restorative strategies to tackle the phenomenon early.
In order to investigate the levels of professional burnout in the context of state
schoolteachers, the present study aimed to identify the specific factors that exacerbate
teacher burnout. Also, of particular importance was the examination of distinct
aspects of these teachers’ job such as the sources of stress, their levels of self- efficacy
and the degree of satisfaction they experience in their jobs.
This paper is divided into two parts. Following the introduction, the first part
includes two chapters and provides a brief overview of the pertinent literature and the
theoretical background of teacher burnout and stress. More specifically,
In Chapter 1, a review of the syndrome of burnout in relation to its origins as a
term, the factors that lead individuals to experience it, as well as its consequences is
provided. Next, a synthesis of educational research on the particular individual,
organizational and leadership factors that do not permit teachers sustain commitment
in their job is presented; a special reference is also made to both the process through
which teachers experience burnout and to its consequences.
MariaLalou-34020-aggde-May2008 2
In Chapter 2, educational literature regarding the origins of teacher stress as well
as its correlation to burnout is reviewed. Moreover, we identify the sources and
symptoms of teacher stress as well as the way the first stress signs start developing in
teachers; in this process, the relationship between stress and job satisfaction and the
sources that cause teachers to feel stressed out in relation to feelings of low job
satisfaction in their work environment has also emerged and it is, thus, presented in
this chapter.
The second, practical part reports on questions of methodology and the overall
results of the study. More specifically,
In Chapter 3, the methodology of this study is considered in detail in order to gain
insight into its planning and implementation. In particular, the chapter includes
information on the Greek educational context for EFL teachers, an analysis of the
objectives of the study along with the type of research employed, and an elaborate
section on the types of measurements employed in order to investigate levels of
burnout in the sample. A special reference is also made to the type of data analysis
employed, the procedure followed towards collecting responses and the possible
limitations the particular study faced.
In Chapter 4, the findings are analyzed and attention is called to the consequences
of the present analysis for future research; additionally, the implications of the
particular results with regard to suggestions for future administrative interventions in
order to prevent burnout are discussed.
PART I
Chapter 1 Burnout: An Occupational Hazard for Teachers
Introduction
Burnout emerged as a social problem around the 70s, a time that saw a crisis of
overextended, disillusioned human service workers. As a phenomenon, burnout is
important as it captures realities of people’s experiences at work. Though it has been
portrayed as a taboo topic for more than twenty years, it is nowadays admitted that all
professionals might actually be affected at some point in their lives.
According to Schamer and Jackson (1996 as cited in Adams, Heath- Camp &
Camp, 1999), burnout affects teachers more than any other public service profession;
moreover, the teachers’ job is both demanding and challenging as, to quote Croom,
(2003) “it draws upon their physical, emotional and intellectual resources” (p. 1). The
objective of this first chapter, therefore, will be to broaden our understanding of the
determinants of burnout as a general and teacher specific concept.
1. 1 The Origins of the Phenomenon
As a concept, burnout was initially used by Freudenberger (1974 as cited in Byrne,
1999) to characterize physically and psychologically depleted health care workers
who were in a state of exhaustion due to both intense work and to neglect for their
own needs. Freudenberger also introduced the term to explain the individuals’
inability to function effectively in their job as a consequence of prolonged and
extensive job related stress.
Maslach and Jackson (1981 as cited in Byrne, 1999) expanded this original
conceptualization by focusing on the work environmental conditions likely to affect
individuals. In particular, they attempted to research the way role related stress could
lead a person to experience mental fatigue, treat clients in a mechanical way, and
experience feelings of diminished ability at work.
Based on years of exploratory research, Maslach and Jackson (1981 as cited in
Maslach, 1993) defined burnout as a multidimensional construct that embraces three
component structures: (i) emotional exhaustion, which refers to feelings of being
emotionally drained by one’s contact with people; (ii) depersonalization, which
characterizes burned out individuals’ callous response towards people; and (iii)
reduced accomplishment, which signifies the decline in one’s feelings of competence
and achievement in their jobs. Later, these structures were operationalized through the
construct of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, a methodological and statistical tool first
piloted on the staff of day care centers and then extended to other professions
(Hallsten, 1993).
1. 2 Factors Leading to Burnout
Maslach (1982 as cited in Boyd and Pasley, 1989) suggested three categories of
factors as potential contributors to employee burnout: (i) involvement with people, (ii)
one’s personal characteristics, and (iii) the job setting or organizational climate. The
first category pertains to relations with one’s coworkers, supervisors, and even social
support on the job, which may influence the extent to which individuals experience
burnout.
People’s personal characteristics such as their age, gender, and family status are
variables included in the second category; this also encompasses personality factors
like one’s commitment to values, locus of control, hardiness and personal health. The
variables involved in the third category relate to characteristics of one’s job setting
like workload, time and position in work, as well as agency policies.
1. 3 The Consequences of Burnout
For Maslach, Schaufelli & Leiter (2001) the outcomes of burnout relate to issues of
job performance and health; regarding one’s job performance, burnout has been
associated to forms of withdrawal such as absenteeism, intention to leave, and
turnover; in cases where individuals decide to stay in the job, the outcomes include
low productivity or effectiveness that may, in turn, lead to reduced job satisfaction or
commitment to the organization.
In terms of mental health, burnout is linked to issues like: neuroticism; drop in
one’s self esteem; anxiety and depression as well as sleeplessness, tension and
headaches. Spanoil and Caputo (1979 as cited in Cunningham, 1983) also support this
distinction between organizational and personal outcomes, while Burke and
Greenglass (2001 as cited in Maslach, Schaufelli & Leiter, 2001) also stressed that the
syndrome has a negative spill over to home life.
1. 4 Teacher Specific Burnout
The issue of teacher burnout is a catchphrase in educational literature; several studies
have identified teachers’ high susceptibility to burnout conditions (Friesen, Prokop &
Sarros, 1988; Bibou- Nakou, Stogiannidou & Kiosseoglou, 1999; Fore, Martin &
Bender, 2002; Fives, Hamman & Olivarez, 2006; Kokkinos, 2006). For Luckner and
Hanks (2003), in particular, it is teachers who, more than any other human service
workers, are likely to fall victims of the burnout syndrome as their job requires much
which seldom gives back; often teachers face complex and frustrating challenges
which, unless tackled early, may lead to devastating results.
Initially investigated among American teachers, burnout was found to result in
reduced teacher- pupil rapport and pupil motivation, diminished teacher warmth and
satisfaction, and decreased teaching effectiveness (Millicent & Sewell, 1999).
Additionally, studies in Europe, Asia, and Canada have shown its relation to:
teachers’ premature retirement (Bauer et al., 2006), absence from work (Cunningham,
1983), and negative influence on students’ lives (Heck, 1988 as cited in Dorman,
2003). An early diagnose of potential burnout sources and symptoms may, therefore,
provide for a “well prepared, caring, qualified teacher, which is a most important
influence in a student’s education” (Luckner and Hanks, 2003, p. 1).
1. 5 Factors Contributing to Teacher Burnout
Vandenberghe and Huberman (1999) state that, as shown by studies in both North
America and Europe, conflicting expectations, increased work pressure, impractical
innovations like the introduction of the National Curriculum, unsupportive school
environments and unmotivated pupils are the main factors to affect the teaching force
and lead to absenteeism, low commitment, prolonged illness, undue stress and
eventually burnout.
Esteve (1989) refers to two groups of causative factors; the primary ones directly
influence teachers and include: (i) materials and working conditions; (ii) an increase
in pupils’ violent behaviour, especially in secondary schools; and (iii) exhaustion
arising from demands placed on teachers such as staff meetings, informing parents,
organizing extra- curricular activities and managing multilevel classes.
The secondary factors relate to the teachers’ working environment and affect the
situation teaching takes place as they include: (i) role changes that may lead to
contradictions with colleagues and representatives of the institution; and (ii) their
image deterioration due to both the system’s deficiencies and the media attack.
Farber (1984 as cited in Friedman, 1999) added some work related factors like:
involuntary transfers, isolation from other adults, bureaucratic incompetence and lack
of promotion opportunities. For Luckner and Hanks (2003), the causes of burnout lie
on the fact that the teachers’ traditional role has changed and social integration places
another burden on them as they are expected to compensate for shifts in both society
and the family and come up to new challenges like multiracial and multicultural
communities.
Finally, Fore, Martin and Bender (2002) also suggested the lack of proper staff
development training. A most popular distinction between factors is the one among
personal, organizational, and the most recently researched leadership factors, explored
below.
1. 5. 1 Individual Factors Influencing Teacher Burnout
Early attempts to explore the phenomenon have focused on teachers’ individual
characteristics as possible predictor variables. These, in particular, include: (i)
demographic characteristics, (ii) personality variables, and (iii) work- related
attitudes.
Research on the significance of background variables on teacher burnout has
focused on the following: gender, whereby investigations have shown
depersonalization to be higher for male elementary and high school teachers (Bibou-
Nakou, Stogiannidou & Kiosseoglou, 1999); age, whereby young teachers were
shown to experience more emotional exhaustion than older ones (Byrne, 1999);
teaching experience, with reports showing that teachers with more than twenty years
of experience exhibited higher stress levels than their younger colleagues (Byrne,
1999); marital status, with Pierce and Molloy (1990 as cited in Byrne, 1999)
concluding that married teachers experienced lower depersonalization levels than
their childless counterparts; grade of level, with high school teachers found to be more
susceptible than elementary ones (Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984 as cited in Byrne,
1999); and, lastly, the type of students taught, with special education teachers found to
be more vulnerable to burnout than regular ones (Fore, Martin & Bender, 2002).
As regards personality variables, Byrne (1999) identified two factors as most
likely to influence teacher burnout: the first is the teachers’ self esteem and the second
is the locus of control1. For Byrne (1999), both are important in a person’s ability to
withstand job stressors.
Huberman (1989), on the other hand, identified routine feelings of being trapped
in teaching, difficulties in private life, and even ideological reasons such as views on
reform as the main individual variables that cause the phenomenon. Another
personality trait that can act as a potential burnout predictor variable is self- efficacy2
(Bandura, 1997 as cited in Fives, Hamman & Olivarez, 2006). Studies have shown
low self-efficacy teachers to be emotionally weak and exhibit poor organizational
skills and low ego strength (Dorman, 2003).
1
Rotter (1966 as cited in Byrne, 1999) distinguished between internal and external control individuals.
Those who view events as consequences of their own actions believe in internal control; those, on the
other hand, who believe events are beyond their control or due to luck or fate, believe in external
control. According to Cedoline (1982 as cited in Byrne, 1999), teachers who manifest external locus of
control are more likely to suffer burnout.
2
The term self -efficacy was initially used by Bandura (1997 as cited in Friedman, 2003) to account
for a person’s beliefs in their ability to organize and execute courses of action and it is reported as
significant in a person’s attempt to achieve their goals. In particular, Bandura found that when teachers
report high levels of efficacy they believe that even unmotivated students can learn, they experience
better health, high achievement and better social integration skills.
Additionally, Type A behaviour3, which consists of a hostile, aggressive style,
has been found to correlate with high levels of burnout (Burke and Greenglass, 1995);
researchers have also suggested that individual coping initiatives4 are important in
influencing levels of burnout (Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1988 as cited in Burke
and Greenglass, 1995).
In relation to attitudes to their jobs, Hofer (1986 as cited in Rudow, 1999) places
burnout after teachers’ disappointment due to unfulfilled expectations regarding
discipline issues, pupils’ gratitude or competences, and their motivation to learn.
Overall, studies focusing on individual teachers’ characteristics have shown that it is
dedicated and committed teachers that are prone to burnout (Friesen, Prokop &
Sarros, 1988; Dinham & Scott, 2000).
1. 5. 2 Organizational Factors Influencing Teacher Burnout
Apart from the significance of background variables in explaining teacher burnout,
researchers have identified occupational, organizational and job characteristics as
potential predictor variables (Byrne, 1999; Maslach, 1999). Byrne (1999) summarized
the organizational factors likely to affect teacher burnout: these include issues like (i)
role conflict arising from conflicting sets of pressures; (ii) role ambiguity which refers
to lack of clarity regarding their obligations; (iii) work load, which teachers have cited
as a major job stressor and includes issues of paperwork, oversized classes with
heterogeneous academically students, imposed time constraints and courses outside
their skill; (iv) poor classroom climate, especially the one associated with discipline,
3
For cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman (1974 as cited in Burke & Greenglass, 1995) Type A
behaviour is a type of behaviour associated with hostile, aggressive style which, according to their
studies, is established as a risk factor for coronary diseases.
4
For Golembiewski and Munzenrider (1988 as cited in Burke & Greenglass, 1995), coping
mechanisms relate to behaviours and cognitions people use to resolve stressful situations.
as well as attitudinal and abusiveness issues; (v) lack of involvement and low decision
making power and (vi) the lack of support from peers and superiors.
Regarding work setting characteristics, features of the job itself like the quality of
supervision, the reality shock, and constraints in teachers’ organizational environment
were identified as possible burnout predictor variables (Maslach, 1982 as cited in
Burke and Greenglass, 1995). Friedman (2003) also saw burnout as the discrepancy
between the teachers’ expectations as impeccable professionals and the actual results
in their performance.
As concerns occupational characteristics, Farber (1999), identified
inconsequentiality between the work teachers’ offer and the lack of reward, resources,
and recognition they get upon which the essence of the phenomenon lies. In a review
of eighteen studies on the factors that cause teacher burnout Leithwood, Menzies,
Jantzi and Leithwood (1999) claim that some of the organizational and individual
factors discussed above may actually be influenced by another category, namely the
leadership factors.
1. 5. 3 Leadership Factors Relating to Teacher Burnout
For Leithwood et al. (1999), specific leadership practices can explain the variation in
teacher burnout. These relate to the leaders’ vision in identifying opportunities for
development; providing for both intellectual stimulation and individualized support;
accepting group goals and assisting towards achieving them; modeling consistent
behaviour that does not include favoritism, harassment, or control; building
productive school culture that encourages staff collaboration and sharing of values to
enhance students’ improvement; fostering expectations on high performance as well
as on productive school culture; and, finally, enhancing decision making opportunities
and reducing authoritarian leadership.
1. 6 How Burnout Develops in Teachers
The above-mentioned factors may not affect teachers at the same level or
simultaneously. Huberman (1989) argues that almost everyone experiences moments
of doubt on whether they should remain in the teaching profession, especially after a
period of effort and investment.
Veninga and Spradley (1981 as cited in Hamann and Gordon, 2000) identified the
burnout cycle as a five-step pattern. At the first level, called the honeymoon stage, a
gradual loss of satisfaction, energy and enthusiasm commences. The researchers claim
that most teachers experience this level at least once a year and that it can be treated if
diagnosed early.
Signs of inefficiency, dissatisfaction, fatigue and sleeplessness characterize the
second, still treatable level. It is at the third level whereby withdrawal and attitude
change commence as chronic exhaustion reverts into anger, depression, and physical
illness. At the fourth level, known as the crisis stage, the problems obsess teachers
while anger and illness exacerbates; finally, at the last level called the hit- on- the-
wall, professional incompetence along with physical and psychological dysfunction
dominate.
According to Farber (1984 as cited in Adams et al., 1999), burnout is an
important reason for leaving; this, nonetheless, is the ultimate stage and may never be
reached by the majority of teachers who, though suffering from the daily hassles of
teaching, remain in the occupation and withstand devastating consequences with
harmful effects for both themselves and their pupils.
1. 7 The Consequences of Teacher Burnout
Generally speaking, as Kelchtermans and Strittmatter (1999) suggest, burnout has
practical consequences on the teachers’ performance, commitment, and satisfaction,
on pupils’ learning, and, unavoidably, on burdening school as a workplace. Clark
(1984 as cited in Travers and Cooper, 1998) adds that the syndrome results in
detracting teaching quality, showing less praise to students and less tolerance of their
ideas.
Cunningham (1983) categorized symptoms according to factors. The
organizational ones include aspects like absenteeism, decline in performance and poor
interpersonal relations with both students and coworkers. The personal ones relate to
teachers’ low commitment and involvement in the job, low tolerance to class
disruptions and less sympathy towards students. Overall, Cunningham (1983) claims,
burned out teachers are dogmatic, resistant to changes and more reliant on structure
and routine.
For Seiderman (1978 as cited in Goelman and Guo, 1998) lateness, absenteeism
due to illness, and decrease in energy level are the primary signs of burnout and are
the aftermath of teachers’ continuous complaints about working conditions, salaries,
students’ behaviour, and lack of parental involvement; if these factors continue ailing
teachers and are followed by irritability, conflict, and low staff morale, teachers
eventually reach the last stage which is resignation. With regard to teachers appointed
in Greek state schools, however, it would be an exaggeration to assume that they
would abandon their jobs as it is a fact that their positions are permanent and they
would rarely give it up for another job.
Farber and Miller (1981 as cited in Byrne, 1999) found that burned out teachers
are less sympathetic to students, show less tolerance for class disruption, and less
commitment and dedication to class preparation; Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978 as
cited in Millicent and Sewell, 1999) include diminished job satisfaction, reduced
teacher and pupil rapport, decreased pupil motivation and teacher effectiveness in
meeting educational goals in the burnout consequences. Initially, these symptoms lead
to neurotic and psychosomatic illnesses and later on to absenteeism and early
retirement.
Finally, for Shirom (2003 as cited in Cinamon, Rich & Westman, 2007), burnout
is a reaction to stress that generates negative work outcomes such as absenteeism,
turnover, low commitment, and reduced psychological and physical well-being.
Chapter 2 Stress in Teaching
Introduction
Stress is a major work problem in nine out of ten places (Brown & Ralph, 1998).
Throughout the history of literature, it has been suggested that teachers experience
greater levels of stress compared to other professions (Coates & Thoresen, 1976;
Brown & Nagel, 2004); studies in the United Kingdom have found that about one-
third of teachers surveyed reported their job as stressful or extremely stressful (Brown
& Ralph, 1998). Stress, nonetheless, is not a British phenomenon; studies in the
United States (Dunham, 1983 as cited in Travers & Cooper, 1996) and Australia
(Tunnecliffe, 1986 as cited in Travers & Cooper, 1998) revealed that teaching is the
number one stress job. The aim of this chapter, therefore, will be to explore the
origins of stress and its correlation to burnout and job satisfaction as well as to
examine the sources and symptoms relating to teacher stress.
2. 1 The Origins of Stress
As a term, stress became widely used in the social sciences in the 50s after Selye’s
(1956 as cited in Pines, 1993) pioneering work that defined it as a nonspecific result
of demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somatic. For Selye (1980 as cited in
Travers & Cooper, 1998), stress is not automatically negative rather it is distinguished
between eustress, which motivates individuals and fosters growth and change, and
distress, which can be damaging.
The first references to teacher stress began to appear in the mid 70s; Chris
Kyriacou (2001) was a pioneer in examining teacher stress stimulated by his personal
experiences as a teacher in the United Kingdom. Being employed in a disadvantaged
community, Kyriacou and his colleagues received a salary enhancement allowance to
prevent them from turnover. This enhancement, called the stress allowance, intrigued
Kyriacou to research stress among schoolteachers. Based on research of that time
Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978a as cited in Kyriacou, 2001) adopted a most widely used
definition which viewed stress as a negative emotional experience triggered by the
teacher’s perception that their work constitutes a threat to their well being or self-
esteem.
2. 2 Stress and Burnout
Like burnout, stress is a complicated issue involving sources and symptoms quite
similar to the ones mentioned in the previous chapter; for many researchers, in
particular, burnout is seen as a response to chronic stress (Cunningham, 1983;
Kyriacou, 1989; Capel, 1989; Dorman, 2003; Kokkinos, 2005).
According to research conducted by Farber (1984 as cited in Milicent and Sewel,
1999), job related stress plays an important role in the etiology of burnout, as
prolonged stress is associated with the erosion of one’s social, psychological, and
technical resources and results in burnout. Smylie (1989) also cites that, initially,
work related stress leads to varying levels of psychological tension and frustration and
then, in its excessive form, to job burnout.
As concerns its symptoms, Gill (1979 as cited in Doohan, 1982) identified the
similar signs of stress and burnout which include loss of interest, enthusiasm and
concern; energy decrease; sleep and appetite disturbances; mood changes; feelings of
guilt and worthlessness; somatic disorders; uncharacteristic behaviour; and difficulty
in concentrating.
2. 3 Sources Leading to Teacher Stress
An early study by Coates and Thorsen (1976 as cited in Millicent & Sewell, 1999)
found that sources of teacher stress include time demands; clerical duties and
difficulties with pupils; motivating and controlling students; large classes; financial
constraints; and lack of educational supplies. Later studies generally confirmed the
importance of role workload, difficulties with students and staff relations in
explaining stress in teachers (Humpreys, 1996; Millicent & Sewell, 1999).
Antoniou, Polychroni and Vlachakis (2006) have recently categorized the major
sources of teachers’ occupational stress into (i) factors directly linked to the teaching
profession; (ii) administrative factors related to school organization and
administration; and, (iii) teachers’ individual differences in coping with stress.
Regarding the first category, Kyriacou (2001) identified a number of conditions
as the main sources of teacher stress. These include teaching students who lack
motivation; maintaining discipline in the classroom; tackling general time pressures
and workload demands; being exposed to a large amount of change; being evaluated
by others; having difficult or challenging relationships with colleagues,
administration, or management; and being exposed to generally poor working
conditions. Travers and Cooper (1996) added the lack of promotional prospects as an
important source in explaining teacher stress. Based on further findings, Kyriacou
(1989) had also supported the importance of certain other factors like covering absent
colleagues, striving to maintain standards, the fear of being unpopular, as well as
school changes like the introduction of new curricula.
In relation to administrative factors, Pettegrew and Wolf (1982 as cited in Adams
et al., 2005) identified nine categories of system related stressors as possible causes of
teacher stress: role conflict and ambiguity over teachers’ obligations, status,
objectives, and accountability; management style and non participation in decision
making; the lack of peer support that often breeds feelings of isolation to teachers;
overload combined with the lack of resources to adequately perform their roles; the
lack of supervisory support; task stress due to reports, paperwork, and out school
activities. Cox, Boot and Cox (1989) also discussed the impact of the organization
and management on teacher stress and identified the following sources: the physical
working environment, the school community relations, opportunities conducive to
training and career development, the organization of the school regarding the
teachers’ role or its size, and, finally, the nature of the work which involves issues of
methodology, resources and workload.
As concerns teachers’ characteristics, Borg & Riding’s studies (1991 as cited in
Brown & Nagel, 2004) have shown the relation of stress levels to age and gender with
teachers with greater number of years experience reporting higher stress levels.
Additionally, Borg & Riding (1991 as cited in Montgomery & Rupp, 2005) have
identified that female teachers tend to report higher stress than their male
counterparts. The literature also provides support that an individual's personality
characteristics influence the degree to which teachers respond to stressful events. One
such trait is Type-A personality which, for Guglielmi and Tatrow (1998 as cited in
Montgomery & Rupp, 2005), affects teachers’ ability to establish supportive social
networks and respond to stress.
For Kyriacou (1989), “stress in the eye of the beholder” (p. 28); in this sense,
teachers with a personality disposition to see pressures and demands under their
control are less likely to experience stress or any of its devastating outcomes.
Moreover, apart from personality traits or the environment, coping mechanisms5,
which are activated when individuals try to reduce the personal threat and mediate the
stress-response syndrome, may influence the degree to which stressful situations
affect teacher's emotional and cognitive well-being ((Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978a as
cited in Montgomery & Rupp, 2005).
2. 4 How Stress Develops in Teachers
For Kyriacou (1989), every teacher has a unique stress profile and any job aspect
might actually cause it; in this sense, the sources of stress experienced by a particular
teacher will be unique to him or her and will depend on the interaction between his or
her personality, values, skills, and circumstances. Also, its consequences may affect
teachers at different times and levels.
Regarding the process involved from the time teachers’ start neglecting the early
stress symptoms up until they reach distress and disequilibrium, Veninga and
Spradley (1981 as cited in Nias, 1999) suggest a five-stage model. At the eustress
stage teachers experience feelings of being well supported and challenged; at the fuel
shortage stage job dissatisfaction and inefficiency show up followed by fatigue, sleep
disturbance and escape activities like excessive eating or drinking. At the third stage
symptoms like headaches, digestive disorders and anxiety develop; these symptoms
become acute at the fourth crisis stage and are accompanied by pessimism, self-doubt,
5
Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are the main mechanisms employed by individuals
(Admiraal, Korthagen, & Wubbels, 2000 as cited in Montgomery & Rupp, 2005) to manage or alter the
problem that is causing the distress or to regulate the emotional response to the problem. The former
consists of confrontational and problem-solving strategies such as defining the problem, generating
solutions, weighing the cost and benefits of alternatives, selecting one of them, and taking action.
Emotion-focused coping behaviour consists of positive reappraisal and comparisons as well as
defensive strategies such as avoidance, minimisation, and distancing.
and sense of being trapped. By the time teachers reach the hitting the wall stage,
external help to provide for recovery is demanded.
2. 5 The Consequences of Stress
Kyriacou (1987 as cited in Millicent & Sewell, 1999) claimed that the main negative
effects resulting from particular job aspects are anxiety and frustration. Cooper and
Payne (1988 as cited in Travers and Cooper, 1998) summarized the manifestations of
stress into three categories: the physiological ones relate to features of energy and
fatigue; also, in this category, Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978 as cited in Hintont and
Rotheiler, 1998) identified heart problems, headaches, blood pressure, and indigestion
while Dunham (1980 as cited in Hintont and Rotheiler, 1998), who conducted surveys
on secondary teachers in Europe and West Germany, indicated symptoms like
insomnia, back pain, ulcer, and skin rash.
The second category of behavioural manifestations relates to issues of
absenteeism, resignation, and early retirement; these devastating effects may, for
Farber (1984 as cited in Geving, 2007), lead to a crisis in education if we consider the
economic cost of sick leaves, the disruption of the academic year, the teachers’
personal suffering, and the consequences on students’ competence. The third category
refers to the emotional manifestations of stress such as the teachers’ low self-esteem,
along with the signs of dissatisfaction, and anxiety. These manifestations, as Quick
and Quick (1984 as cited in Brown and Ralph, 1998) claim, also affect the teachers’
performance and judgment.
2. 5. 1 Stress and Low Satisfaction6 in Teachers
One of the significant manifestations of stress experience at work is low job
satisfaction. For Oberlander (1990), satisfaction is an important work aspect as it
maintains productivity; dissatisfaction, on the other hand, influences stress levels. The
relationship between teacher stress and job satisfaction has been studied rather
extensively. In the 60s, early studies on teachers’ concerns and anxieties focused on
sources of job dissatisfaction (Kyriacou, 2001); years later, in a detailed analysis of
the issues relating to job dissatisfaction, Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978 as cited in
Travers and Cooper, 1998) identified the following job stressors: poor career
structure, misbehaving pupils, inadequate salaries as well as schools’ disciplinary
policies, noisy pupils, difficult classes, the effort to maintain standards, and work
overload. Following Herzberg’s7 (1959 as cited in Fraser et al. 1998) theoretical
distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic factors likely to influence satisfaction,
Dinham and Scott (1998) surveyed 2000 teachers in New Zealand, England and
Australia to find that the intrinsic factors likely to enhance teachers’ job satisfaction
included students’ achievement, teachers’ feelings of self worth, collegial support,
positive relations and the opportunity to help students modify their behaviour. The
extrinsic ones likely to cause dissatisfaction in teachers were issues like low support
and promotion opportunities, media negative images of teachers, workload, increased
expectations, as well as educational changes.
6
Satisfaction is for Luthans (1998 as cited in Tella et al. 2007) an emotional response to a job situation
inferred by the extent to which outcomes meet an individual’s expectations as well as by one’s attitudes
to the job itself, to promotion opportunities, to supervisors, and colleagues.
7
Herzberg identified two sets of factors likely to influence one’s job satisfaction; the extrinsic
ones, termed contextual hygiene factors, include policies and administration, supervision, interpersonal
relations, work conditions and salaries; the intrinsic ones include achievement, recognition, challenges
and independence.
PART II
Chapter 3 Methodology
Introduction
The educational literature abounds in examples of research on teacher stress and
burnout with most findings concluding that teaching is a very stressful occupation
(Woods, 1999) and the number one profession to suffer burnout (Rudow, 1999). As
concerns Greece, research into factors that cause teacher stress and burnout has grown
steadily over the last two decades and has been well documented (Antoniou et al.,
2000; Kantas & Vasilaki, 1997).
Research on EFL teachers, however, is scarce. Such absence is what drove the
researcher to investigate levels of burnout among teachers of English employed in
Greek state schools. In the sections that follow the methodology adopted in order to
examine the extent to which these teachers might suffer from burnout is presented.
3. 1 The Context of the Study
Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Greece is considered to be a popular
destination for high school graduates as it offers job and financial security, immediate
employment after completing one’s studies, flexible timetables and long vacations.
Employment in public schools, in particular, has been most sought after by graduates
especially since the 90s when the profession saw the opening of many positions in
both primary and secondary state schools.
The teaching reality, nonetheless, is sometimes far from idyllic for teachers. As
indicated in many personal accounts, teachers face several challenges that signify the
discrepancy between the above-mentioned advantages and the actual working
conditions. More specifically, most often teachers of English have to commute daily
to two or more schools to complete the obligatory 24 hours weekly schedule8; also, as
concerns colleagues in secondary education, it is a fact that they often have to teach
other subjects such as History or Geography as well.
Additionally, private language schools are held in higher esteem for their
contribution in promoting foreign language learning than state schools; as a result,
society tends to diminish state schoolteachers’ contribution in foreign language
learning. Also, the educational system in Greece is highly centralised with the
Ministry of Education determining the syllabus and materials used. Especially
teachers in primary education have to cope with obsolete books that render learning
and teaching unattractive and call for teachers’ numerous adaptations of the materials.
All the above factors pertain to issues teachers in other contexts have ranked as
possible contributors to burnout; consequently, it seemed necessary to examine
whether such experiences are in any way linked to Greek EFL teachers’ feelings of
burnout.
3. 2 The Objectives of the Study
The specific purpose of the present study was to examine whether different factors
likely to contribute to increased stress and burnout in teachers of English employed in
primary and secondary Greek State schools do exist. More specifically, the main
objectives were:
8
This weekly timetable applies to teachers employed in primary education and is reduced to 21 hours
after colleagues have completed 10 years of teaching experience.
a) To investigate the extent to which teachers of English experience stress and
burnout related symptoms and consequences;
b) To determine whether the biographical characteristics of the respondents relate
to any of the symptoms and consequences included in the study;
c) To determine the possible correlation between school characteristics and
participants’ feelings and emotions generated at these settings;
d) To explain possible variations of the findings in relation to the teachers’ job
characteristics;
e) To suggest ways of preventing or treating symptoms based on the findings and
the educational literature.
3. 3 The Type of Research
To achieve the objectives of the study, an anonymous, self- report questionnaire was
developed based, primarily, on the English version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory
for educators (Croom, 2003). The main reason for adopting this type of research is
that questionnaire surveys are ideal for studying attitudes among large samples; they
can also be used as systematic assessment techniques as they render possible the
comparison of responses with those of other groups (Maslach, 1993).
Another reason for choosing such type of research was that questionnaires are
relatively economical as they can be distributed to distant locations and save the
burden of commuting for conducting other types of research such as interviews (Opie,
2004). It was also assumed that they would be ideal for first time researchers as they
are quick to complete and easy to analyse (Rattray & Jones, 2007). Finally,
questionnaires would allow the development of causative relationships between
variables such as the teachers’ demographic characteristics.
3. 4 Hypothetical Questions on the Research
The study raised several issues to be examined and tested eight main hypotheses as
follows:
i. Stress and burnout are two complex issues ailing teachers worldwide;
ii. Teachers of English in Greece may exhibit the same levels of stress and
burnout as teachers in other contexts ;
iii. Teachers’ demographic characteristics such as their age, gender, family status
are possible predictor variables of stress and burnout;
iv. Teachers’ personality characteristics such as self- efficacy and self esteem
may be related to the way teachers respond to stress and burnout;
v. Low satisfaction influences the degree at which teachers experience different
levels of stress and burnout;
vi. Mental health issues such as anxiety and nervousness as well as physiological
symptoms to stress and burnout may function as predictor variables of
teachers who run the risk of experiencing those syndromes.
3. 5 Instrumentation and Measures
The most widely used instrument in researching burnout is the Maslach Burnout
Inventory, a statistical tool designed by Maslach and Jackson (1981 as cited in
Schaufeli, Enzman & Girault, 1993) to measure the three empirically acknowledged
dimensions of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced
accomplishment. Though being one of the most reliable and well validated
instruments, it was felt that, since the boundaries of the phenomenon may extend to
other concepts such as teachers’ levels of satisfaction and self- efficacy, it might be
preferable to build an inventory that would convey a clearer picture of the way we
approached the concept of burnout in the theoretical part.
The decision to employ an adapted instrument was based on the premise that it
would be beneficial to detect every area in the teaching profession that might cause
concern. Another point taken into account was that I was not interested in labeling
individuals as burned- out; my basic aim was to shed some light on the issue of
teacher burnout by exploring the specific individual, organizational, and leadership
factors likely to predict whether teachers of English employed in Greek state schools
are presumably at risk for developing burnout. Another premise this research was
built on was that it would be beneficial to find which conditions in teachers’ work
might need improvement or alteration in order to diminish the possibility of burnout.
Based on educational literature summarized in the first section of this paper,
burnout seemed to correlate to a number of symptoms and consequences and to
measures associated with teacher stress, levels of job satisfaction as well as on
feelings of professional self- efficacy. As a result, the questionnaire designed
consisted of 42 items referring to all these measures and was divided into three parts
following the distinction used in the Maslach Burnout Inventory; in particular, the
first part attempted to assess teachers’ levels of exhaustion, the second their feelings
of depersonalization, and the third their sense of accomplishment (see Appendix I,
Part A).
The validity of the adapted instrument was warranted by the fact that the data
included in the questionnaire had been also claimed valid in other researchers’ tools
(Wellington, 2000 as cited in Opie, 2004); as concerns the need to achieve a degree of
reliability for the questionnaire, the tool had been subjected to a “test- retest”
procedure (Opie, 2004) whereby respondents living in close proximity were asked to
retake the questionnaire about three weeks after it was first delivered. The results of
this second distribution were similar to the first one and, as a result, the tool was
judged to be reliable.
Generally speaking, Likert type response scales are considered most appropriate
in measuring the respondents’ levels of agreement or disagreement with the items and
the intensity at which they experience each factor (Rattray & Jones, 2007). As a
result, each item in the first and second parts was accompanied by a five point scale
ranging from one (never) to five (almost always); similar five point scales were used
in the third part though ranging from one (completely disagree) to five (completely
agree). The neutral point was considered important in developing the scales, as we did
not want to bias the respondents’ answers (Rattray & Jones, 2007) (see Appendix I,
Part A).
To prevent boredom and ensure that respondents would be more engaged from
the beginning, we chose to present demographic data at the end (see Appendix I, part
B). A wide range of variables was assessed using items that, as identified in literature,
are considered causal determinations of teacher stress and burnout. These included job
related variables such as the number of years in the current position and in teaching in
general and the type of school the respondents are appointed at (Capel, 1989);
demographic variables such as the teachers’ gender, age, marital status and the
number of children at home (Fives, Hamman & Olivarez, 2007); organizational
variables such as the number of different classes or subjects taught per week (Capel,
1989); and personal variables such as the teachers’ educational level and level of
training (Rudow, 1999).
Mental and Physical Health was assessed using a checklist of symptoms related
to stress and burnout (see Appendix I, Part B). As concerns symptoms related to
health (Maslach, Schaufelli & Leiter, 2001), respondents were asked to indicate
whether they have experienced five different symptoms. Regarding organizational
symptoms (Cunningham, 1983), respondents were also asked to indicate the number
of days they were absent from work due to such problems.
Finally, though difficult to analyse and interpret, two open- ended questions were
included in the questionnaire so as to allow for in- depth responses (Rattray & Jones,
2007) (see Appendix I, Part A). Such items yielded qualitative data and were
considered important in the construction of the questionnaire, as they allow for free,
no preconceived responses that may reflect the respondents’ spontaneity (Opie, 2004).
3. 5. 1 Teacher Burnout
Several instruments have measured burnout in teachers; the best-validated ones are
the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Educators (Iwanicki & Schwab, 1981 as cited in
Croom, 2003) and the Teacher Burnout Scale (Friedman, 1999) both of which have
been used in generating items for our instrument. The former consists of 22 items;
nine items are used to examine emotional exhaustion in teaching, five items pertain to
teachers’ feelings of depersonalization and eight to reduced accomplishment. The
latter is a shortened version of the former and consists of five items on exhaustion,
five on depersonalization and four on accomplishment.
Regarding the Maslach Burnout Inventory, questions 5, 6, 17, 23, 33, and 34 were
used as originally found in bibliography (Croom, 2003). The rest of the items of this
instrument were omitted for two reasons: first, to ensure that teachers would find the
adapted instrument more engaging, as the adapted instrument included more items
relating to symptoms and consequences, and second to avoid confusing respondents
who might have difficulty discerning between meaning of items included in the
original instrument; this is especially true for items 1, 2, and 3 of the original
instrument (see Appendix II) which, in the researcher’s view, express overlapping
notions and might be regarded by participants as identical in meaning. As concerns
Friedman’s (1999) Burnout Scale, we selected items 25 and 28 which indicate
feelings of reduced accomplishment and item 20 which denote feelings of
depersonalization accordingly.
To cover a broader range of factors likely to exacerbate burnout we selected items
from a number of relevant studies. More specifically, items 19, 21, and 29 were
adapted from Huberman’s (1989) study on factors that exacerbated teacher burnout in
Switzerland. Items 7 and 18 were also adapted from Huberman’s (1989) research and
pertain to some of the most classical symptoms of burnout. So as to illustrate the work
conditions that lead teachers to burnout we also included items 22 and 26, which for
Capel (1987 as cited in Rudow, 1999) have been regularly analyzed in literature as
two organizational variables likely to explain burnout variables. Finally, items 1, 2, 3,
32, and 38 were selected from a Leithwood et al. (1999) study on 555 teachers and
account for the teachers’ capacity beliefs and the way these beliefs explain variations
of burnout.
3. 5. 2 Teacher Stress
Stress factors likely to influence burnout were adapted from two instruments: the
Teacher Stress Inventory (Fimian, 1987) and the Emotional Behavioral Disorder
Teacher Stressors Questionnaire (Center & Steventon, 2001). The items pertaining to
the former instrument are: items 9 and 10, which, according to findings are likely to
predict emotional exhaustion (Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988) and items 41 and 42
that are factors relating to professional distress caused by feelings of low competence
and significance in one’s work (Rafferty, Friend & Landsbergis, 2001). The latter
instrument was developed to measure teacher susceptibility to occupational stressors.
It consisted of thirty-one items from which we selected item 36, as students’ diverse
abilities are variables likely to reduce teachers’ feelings of accomplishment
(Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999).
Sources of job pressures identified by Travers and Cooper (1996) as antecedents
of burnout in a study of teachers in the United Kingdom were also included in the
adapted version; these comprised of items relating to discipline problems- item 15,
availability of resources- item 27, stress resulting from constant changes in
educational policies item- 8, and support from colleagues, administrators and parents-
items 4, 13, 14, 35. So as to account for the personality variables that relate to stress
we included item 21, which for Nias (1993 as cited in Woods, 1999) refers to
teachers’ level of commitment and is an essential part of their identity.
3. 5. 3 Job Satisfaction
Based on the assumption that the Burnout Measure (Schaufeli, Enzman & Girault,
1993) found scores correlation with satisfaction from teachers’ job and life, we
included several items pertaining to job satisfaction. Certain items were adapted from
the Minessota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et. al., 1967 as cited in Oberlander,
1990); this 21-item instrument measures employees’ intrinsic and extrinsic levels of
job satisfaction in relation to aspects of employment such as advancement
opportunities, salary, and job responsibilities. Items 11, 31, and 40 measured aspects
of the extent to which teachers are satisfied by such features of their job. Item 37 was
selected from Luckner and Hanks’ (2003) questionnaire on job satisfaction of teachers
who work with students who are hard of hearing. This item was included on the
premise that in almost every class nowadays there are students of various ethnic
backgrounds who have a different mother tongue and experience Greek as a second
language; such students have to learn yet another language, English, which for them is
a foreign one. It seemed probable, thus, that this reality may influence the way our
respondents experience burnout.
3. 5. 4 Teacher Self Efficacy
Teacher efficacy items were adapted from the teachers’ efficacy scale (Friedman,
2003) and referred to classroom discipline control – item 30, classroom consideration
such as showing care for students – item 24, and organizational inclusion in decision-
making issues – item 12.
3. 6 Piloting the questionnaire
The pilot study involved colleagues in the researcher’s immediate working
environment. The instrument was piloted on a smaller sample of intended respondents
and the participants were asked to answer questions regarding the time necessary for
completing the questionnaire, the clarity and wording of the instructions and the
questions, the layout of the questionnaire, as well as the content and layout of the
cover letter (Opie, 2004).
The main aim of piloting the questionnaire was to identify points that need clarity
or may not be appropriate. The results of the pilot study were fruitful as we were able
to see that no items required further explanation and that everyone person included in
the piloting phase answered all questions.
3. 7 Procedure
Overall, eighty five questionnaires including a cover letter were distributed from mid
October to late November giving a response rate of 74 %; of them, about thirty were
sent by email to colleagues of the researcher residing in parts of Greece such as Crete,
Thrace, Central and Western Macedonia, and Thessaly and the rest were distributed in
person in various schools within the prefecture of Larissa.
Participants were assured that the data would be kept confidential and used for
research purposes only. Participants responded anonymously and were asked to mail
the surveys back before Christmas holidays at the latest; this restriction was based on
the assumption that, as concluded from longitudinal studies found in educational
literature (Fives, Hamman & Olivarez, 2007), data gathered after Christmas usually
yield different results and show lower levels of burnout owing to the fact that teachers
are privileged to a fifteen day holiday and have the opportunity to take their minds of
work troubles for a quite long amount of time. Respondents were asked to indicate the
frequency at which they experience the feelings included at the questionnaire by
selecting from five response choices.
3. 8 Data Analysis
Considering the fact that this was a small scale, time limited research undertaken
within the researcher’s own M. Ed. practice, it seemed perfectly appropriate to
analyse data through descriptive statistics, which may not allow for examining
relationships between different variables (Opie, 2004) or for generalizing the results
to the whole population of EFL teachers in Greece, but which are sufficient for
detecting the existence or not of possible contributors to teacher burnout.
The questionnaires yielded quantitative data, which were then converted into
percentages and displayed in the form of charts (see Appendix III); it should be noted
here that the particular findings are in no way representative of the situation or
generalisable to teachers of English found in other contexts.
3. 9 Limitations of the research
Since the questionnaire was not empirically based, it might therefore not be taken as a
valid indicator of the participants’ levels of burnout. Also, owing to the fact that the
researcher based the construction of the particular instrument on similar measures
found in bibliography and not on the original burnout inventory, the subscales may
have been poorly grouped; as a result, it might be difficult to generalize the findings
and relate each item to the three aspects of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization
and reduced accomplishment discussed in the educational literature.
Also, apart from the two open-ended questions, the instrument is comprised of
closed questions, which may restrict the depth of questionnaire response and diminish
the quality of data collected (Rattray & Jones, 2007). More specifically, the analysis
generated cannot provide explanations as to why teachers feel that way and do not
allow us to draw conclusions on a wider population of teachers. Consequently,
depending on the outcomes, we might need to further our research to explain for the
findings.
Chapter 4 Analysis and Interpretation of the Findings
Introduction
This chapter displays the actual findings of the questionnaire along with their
interpretation in relation to the theories presented in the first part of the paper;
generally speaking, the teachers who participated in the study were found to present
low average levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and high levels of
personal accomplishment.
4. 1 The Participants’ Demographic Variables
Overall, complete questionnaires were received from sixty-four teachers appointed in
Greek state schools. The mean age of our sample was 37 years, ranging from 24 to 58
years old; about 29 % was between 24 and 30 years old, 44 % was between 31 and 40
years old while the rest were above 40 years old. Teachers were predominantly female
(95, 3 %). Regarding the variables of marital status and children, nearly 63 % were
married, 32 % were single, and 5 % divorced; about 67 % of our sample had children.
Approximately 52 % of them were placed in elementary schools and the rest in
secondary ones; of them, 20 % were appointed in junior high schools, another 20 % in
senior high schools, and only 8 % in vocational schools. In terms of educational level,
apart from the obligatory university degree required in obtaining a position in state
schools, 14 % of the participants had completed postgraduate studies and 50 % of
them had completed the compulsory in-service training seminars called PEK. The
largest group of respondents (53 %) taught in urban areas; teachers appointed in
suburban areas made up the minority of the respondents (17 %) while approximately
30 % comprised those working in rural areas. The mean duration of service amounted
to 11 years, ranging from 1 to 31. 20 % were doing service longer than 15 years,
reflecting the above 35 average ages. The mean duration of service in the teachers’
current position was 5. 65. The mean number of reported weekly work in different
classes was 6. Finally, 18 % of the respondents employed in secondary schools
indicated they also teach History to complete the obligatory weekly timetable.
4. 1. 1 Mental and Physical Health Problems
As regards mental issues, 54 % of the respondents indicated they experience anxiety
in job, reflecting the below 40 average ages. Also, another 30 % noted they
experience nervousness. Concerning physically related problems, only headaches
seemed to ail teachers the most, with 42 % of them indicating it as a frequent
problem; two thirds of the respondents who checked this item reflected the between
30 to 40 average ages. Finally, stomachaches and sleeplessness did not yield
important results.
In relation to the number of days teachers were absent from work due to the
above-mentioned problems, the mean number of days was 1. 5; this number reflects
the below 30 ages.
4. 2 Levels of Emotional Exhaustion in the Sample
Emotional exhaustion was investigated through a set of fifteen questions. Tables one
to fifteen in Appendix III display the results of the questionnaire regarding this
dimension of teacher burnout. Overall, the teachers’ responses showed that the
participants in the particular sample reported neither high nor low levels of emotional
exhaustion. In this section, we are going to comment on the most important findings.
Especially as concerns items 5 and 6, which were taken from the original
Maslach Burnout Inventory for Educators (Croom, 2003), only a 16 % of the
participants reported that they quite often feel fatigue before a work day while no
respondent indicated the highest scale of almost always (see Appendix III, Table 5);
extremely low were the scores for the sixth question as well, with only a 10 %
indicating that they feel stressed from having to work with people all day (see
Appendix III, Table 6). The rest of the items associated to feelings of emotional
exhaustion gave the following results:
For Friedman (1995 as cited in Hastings & Bham, 2003), receiving respect is
considered important in buffering feelings of emotional exhaustion. The results of the
first and third question gave contradictory results with regard to the amount of respect
these teachers receive from society. In particular, as regards the first question, 33 % of
them suggested that they often feel respected (see Appendix III, Table 1) while
another 42 % indicated the neutral point (sometimes). Results on the third item,
however, (see Appendix III, Table 3) were indicative of the reduced status the
teaching of English in state schools receives from society. More specifically, an
alarming 24 % suggested that they rarely feel appreciated, while similar was the
percentage (24 %) for the participants who indicated the quite often response; the
majority of the teachers (42 %), though, suggested the neutral point. Such findings are
in consistency with the conditions described in the previous chapter regarding the
teaching context for teachers of English in Greek state schools (see 3. 1).
With regard to the second question, educational literature suggests that teachers
exhibit signs of emotional exhaustion when they feel they cannot give to students
anymore (Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999). 49 % of our respondents, however,
indicated that they often feel their job is of value to students, whereas another 25 %
indicated that they always feel this way (see Appendix III, Table 2).
Moreover, as concerns public opinion and support from parents (Question 4),
which are two important contributors likely to exacerbate teachers’ feelings of
exhaustion (Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988), it is worth pointing out that the majority
of respondents (39 %) indicated the neutral point; also, a significant 27 % said they
rarely feel parental support is available to them when needed (see Appendix III, Table
4).
While leaving their jobs is one of the classical symptoms of teachers who suffer
burnout (Friedman, 2003), findings on the seventh question did not support this
symptom; in particular, 58 % of the respondents noted that they would never quit their
jobs while another 24 % had rarely thought about a similar reaction as a form of
resistance to stress (see Appendix III, Table 7).
For Friedman (2003), changes in educational policies (Question 8) are likely to
predict teachers’ feelings of emotional exhaustion; in consistency with the overall
findings that did not verify emotional exhaustion for our sample, the majority of
teachers (38 %) indicated they rarely perceive changes as alarming. Another 24 %
said they sometimes feel likewise, while only 24 % of them noted they often feel
hypertension due to such changes (see Appendix III, Table 8).
It seems that findings in relation to overload (Question 9), which in other contexts
was important in predicting emotional exhaustion (Vandenberghe & Huberman,
1999), did not render it an important ailing factor for our teachers. Just a 25 % of
them indicated that it is sometimes a demand on them while only a small percentage
of 10 % said it always ails them (see Appendix III, Table 9).
As concerns time pressure (Question 10), lack of time for planning lessons is
likely to predict emotional exhaustion (Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988); results on the
item where contradictory, though. While 33 % of the teachers noted that time shortage
is often a source of stress to them, there was another 30 % who indicated that time
pressures is rarely a cause for concern (see Appendix III, Table 10). This may partly
be explained by the fact that teachers employed in primary education face less
demanding tasks owing to the fact that children at this stage are more or less at the
same level of foreign language learning. Things are different for colleagues employed
in secondary education, nonetheless, as they often have to adapt material or create
their own in order to cater for students of different levels.
Findings on the eleventh question verified the fact that teachers of English enjoy
limited promotion opportunities; this is especially true for those appointed in primary
schools as they are not able to occupy administrative positions. More specifically, 43
% of the respondents said they are never satisfied with the promotion chances offered
to them and another 25 % indicated the rarely scale (see Appendix III, Table 11).
As a variable, inclusion in decision making (Question 12), is related to the
teachers’ organizational efficacy and is likely to predict emotional exhaustion
(Friedman, 2003); in consistency with other contexts where participation in decision
making was important in reducing the imminence of burnout, the majority of
participants (41 %) indicated that they often feel important when it comes to decision
making; another 32 % gave the sometimes response (see Appendix III, Table 12).
Generally speaking, rapport with administrators is a factor likely to predict
emotional exhaustion (Friedman, 2003). The attitude of the majority of the teachers is
quite positive regarding the amount of support they get from the head teachers
(Question 14). 25 % of the participants noted they could always count on their help;
another 29 % said such help is only often available to them (see Appendix III, Table
14).
Contradictory, though, were the results concerning their perceptions on the
amount of support they get from school advisors (Question 13). Keeping in mind that
in each prefecture there is usually only one school advisor for the English language,
though, it came as no surprise that the majority of teachers (41 %) noted they rarely
feel this support is adequate whereas another 21 % said they could never count on the
advisor’s help (see Appendix III, Table 13).
Finally, as controlling students is an important variable in predicting feelings of
exhaustion (Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988), findings on the fifteenth question were
indicative of the teachers’ high competence levels; more specifically, 25 % of the
respondents indicated they always feel ready to face class problems and another 29 %
of them said they often feel this way (see Appendix III, Table 15).
4. 3 Levels of Depersonalization in the Sample
Feelings of depersonalization and emotional detachment from pupils were
investigated through a set of eight questions. The results of these items are presented
in tables sixteen to twenty three in Appendix III. Overall, the teachers’ responses
revealed contradictory results as far as their feelings towards their students are
concerned. More specifically:
The extent to which teachers feel sympathetic or cynical towards their students
may predict depersonalization in their feelings (Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988). As
regards item 16, 46 %, of the participants said they always show consideration for
their students’ problems and another 41 % noted they often feel this way (see
Appendix III, Table 16). Similar were also the findings of item 18 that refers to the
teachers’ proximity to their students: 50 % of them indicated they are never distant to
students and 30 % said they rarely felt this way (see Appendix III, Table 18).
Item 17, which is directly taken from the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Croom,
2003) also, gave contradictory results. In particular, while a 29 % indicated that they
rarely feel like this job has hardened them emotionally, another 29 % said they
sometimes feel that way (see Appendix III, Table 17).
As regards the nineteenth item, tensions in class are an important contributor to
teacher burnout (Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999). 43 % of the participants in
question indicated they sometimes feel this way and another 24 % noted they often
feel irritability; yet, there was another 21 % who said they rarely feel this way (see
Appendix III, Table 19).
Educational literature suggests that teachers’ perceptions on the kind of students
they want (Question 20) may predict feelings of depersonalization in teachers
(Friedman, 2003); the majority of participants (43 %) said they sometimes think they
would rather have better students, while another 27 % noted they rarely think likewise
(see Appendix III, Table 20).
Conflict between teachers’ work and family life is likely to explain variations in
teacher depersonalization levels (Cinamon, Rich & Westman, 2007). It seems,
nonetheless, that the teachers participating in our sample would never allow for such
interference as an important 42 % who answered the twenty- first question noted that
they rarely let their private life affect their way of treating their students; also, another
25 % said they never felt that way (see Appendix III, Table 21).
Role ambiguity, which refers to the individuals’ inability to clarify amongst work
related obligations, is important in explaining variations in levels of depersonalization
(Rudow, 1999); findings on the twenty- second item revealed contradictory results:
while the majority of participants (39 %) noted they sometimes feel such kind of
ambiguity, a 21 % indicated they often feel this way; yet, there was another 24 % that
said they rarely face it (see Appendix III, Table 22).
Finally, item 23, yet another one taken from the Maslach Burnout Inventory
(Croom, 2003), gave no results indicative of exacerbated levels of depersonalization
in the participants. More specifically, an important 57 % noted they never feel their
students consider them accountable for their own problems while another 33 % said
they rarely feel that way (see Appendix III, Table 23).
4. 4 Levels of Reduced Accomplishment in the Sample
This subscale included the majority of items as eighteen questions were used to
measure the teachers’ levels of competence and sense of efficacy towards their job.
The results of these items are presented in tables twenty- four to forty- eight in
Appendix III. Overall, findings showed that the respondents in the particular sample
reported mediocre levels of reduced accomplishment.
Generally speaking, teachers were found to report relatively high levels of self
efficacy; more specifically, as regards item 24, the majority of participants (47 %)
said they do not feel their students hold them accountable for their lack of motivation
while only 27 % of them indicated the neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 24).
Concerning item 30, 59 % of the respondents noted they feel competent when it
comes to resolving discipline problems in class whereas only a 25 % indicated the
neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 30).
Items 25, 26 and 28 relate to the way the teachers’ attitudes towards their jobs
and the actual working conditions they experience might influence their levels of
burnout (Friedman, 2003). From the results, it seems that while teachers feel certain
about their choice of teaching as a job, the realities they face do not satisfy them. In
particular, findings on item 25 showed that the vast majority of teachers (42 %) would
definitely choose the same job again if they had to (see Appendix III, Table 25). Also,
as regards item 28, teachers feel quite competent concerning their performance levels
as 30 % of them completely disagreed with the statement that their levels might be
declining and a significant 47 % indicated that they generally disagree (see Appendix
III, Table 28).
Results on item 26, on the other hand, showed that 29 % of the respondents agree
that the teaching reality is in conflict with the expectations they had when entering the
job while another 38 % indicated the neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 26). As
concerns item 29 and in consistency with these attitudes, findings showed that, while
24 % of the respondents disagree with the notion that they might feel trapped in
teaching, there was another 21 % of them who said they agree and a significant 37 %
who indicated the neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 29).
The results on item 27, which concerned the teachers’ perceptions on the
availability of means and resources, were contradictory, as well. 25 % of the
respondents indicated they rarely feel the means and resources are adequate and a
similar percentage (25 %) noted the neutral point; there was, nonetheless, a significant
21 % who completely agreed with the notion that resources are adequate in their
teaching contexts and yet another 19 % who said they are quite content (see Appendix
III, Table 27).
The respondents’ levels of satisfaction were extremely high as regards the fact
that they work with children. 45 % of them completely agreed with the statement and
another 41 % generally agreed (see Appendix III, Table 31). Satisfaction with
salaries, though, gave different results; more specifically, 41 % of the participants
noted they are completely dissatisfied with their earnings while another 30 % said
they are generally dissatisfied (see Appendix III, Table 40).
Findings revealed that teachers feel quite confident and competent regarding their
teaching and the way this influences their students. More specifically, 41 % of them
indicated that they completely agree with the statement that they offer useful things to
their pupils and another 51 % noted they generally agree (see Appendix III, Table 32).
As concerns items 33 and 34, though, that pertain directly to the Maslach Burnout
Inventory (Croom, 2003), results where contradictory once again. While 30 %
completely agreed and 49 % generally agreed with the statement that creating a
comfortable atmosphere with their students is easy for them (see Appendix III, Table
33), 48 % of the participants indicated the neutral point when asked if their teaching
can generally influence their students lives while only 25 % agreed with the statement
(see Appendix III, Table 34).
Lack of collegial support is a variable likely to predict reduced accomplishment
in teachers (Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988). As regards our sample, only 23 % of the
participants said they completely agree with the availability of collegial support when
needed. The majority of them (29 %) noted they disagree with the statement while
another 26 % indicated the neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 35).
It seems that mixed level classes, which are a reality in the Greek teaching
context, may put extra pressure on teachers of English; in particular, 22 % of the
teachers in the sample stated they completely agree with the fact that such diversity in
learning levels might pressurize them; also, another 26 % said they generally agree
with the statement while the majority of respondents (41 %) indicated the neutral
point (see Appendix III, Table 36).
Another issue that seems to put extra burden on teachers is the fact that Greek
classrooms nowadays host a significant number of students from other countries. In
particular, 29 % of the teachers indicated they completely agree with this statement
and another 21 % said they generally agree. There was another 34 %, though, who
noted the neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 37).
Generally speaking, teachers feel their aspirations are still the same as when they
started working. In particular, 29 % completely agreed and another 21 % generally
agreed with the statement; it was the vast majority (38%), however, who indicated the
neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 38).
Levels of commitment were generally high in our respondents. 50 % of them
indicated they completely agree with the notion that their commitment has not been
affected and another 31 % generally agreed with the statement (see Appendix III,
Table 39).
Finally, teachers’ answers regarding their chances of professional development
were contradictory, too. Whereas the majority of them (42 %) generally agreed and
another 17 % completely agreed with the statement that teaching allows them to grow
personally (see Appendix III, Table 41), there was a significant 37 % who generally
disagreed with the statement that this job offers them training opportunities; in the
same question, another 19 % completely disagreed with the statement while 27 %
indicated the neutral point (see Appendix III, Table 42).
4. 5 Findings Pertaining to the Open- ended Questions
Contrary to our expectations that responses to these questions would elicit the
teachers’ attitudes and allow for no preconceived replies (see Appendix I, Part A),
findings of the qualitative analysis revealed the following:
i. Owing to the fact that these questions were placed immediately after the pre-
coded questionnaire items, the responses were not spontaneous;
ii. There were some participants who resisted answering these questions;
iii. Except for a few respondents, the majority of them indicated disciplining
students and coping with students with learning disabilities as the most
stressful aspects of their job;
iv. The participants who used their own ideas indicated tests, marking, having to
cover long distances to commute to work and even large classes as the most
stressful aspects;
The second open question, which asked participants to indicate what makes them
feel it is worth teaching despite the difficulties, gave more spontaneous results. More
specifically, the vast majority of respondents noted that the reward and the love they
get from students is the aspect that motivates them most; others indicated that it is the
personal contact with the children and the good relationships they have with them and
even the fact that they feel they can touch their lives through teaching that sustain
them.
4. 6 Discussion of the Findings
Unlike most studies on teacher burnout, this one was different because the items
included in the questionnaire used information taken from more than one instrument.
More specifically, our study was embedded in burnout, stress, job satisfaction, and
self efficacy theories; in our case the teachers’ levels of burnout were measured
through items found in questionnaires pertaining to all these theories in order to detect
any factors potentially related to burnout.
It was our first aim to examine whether the items directly linked to burnout or its
symptoms verified our second hypothesis that teachers of English in Greece suffer
from the same level of burnout and stress as teachers in other contexts. Generally
speaking, there were no alarming data regarding findings on burnout items; more
specifically, the factors likely to partially verify this hypothesis were:
i. The fact that our respondents do not feel that their expectations upon entering
the job are fulfilled by the teaching reality they face;
ii. The fact that some of them often feel like being trapped in teaching;
iii. The fact that role obligations are sometimes not clearly defined to them;
iv. The fact that often teachers feel irritated by discipline issues; this may also
partially explain their response that they sometimes wish they had better
students than the ones they have now;
v. The fact that they receive low respect and society recognition as far as their
work is concerned;
vi. And, the fact that a significant number of them believe that they sometimes
feel like this job has hardened them emotionally.
Regarding the factors likely to put extra pressure on teachers, the factors likely to
stress them were:
i. The fact that they get support neither from the school advisor nor from their
students’ parents or even colleagues;
ii. The fact that some of them feel that work overload, time pressures to plan
lessons and students with learning disabilities put extra burden on them;
iii. The fact that the means and resources to do their job are not satisfactory;
iv. And the fact that the vast majority of them consider the training opportunities
offered through their job as generally inadequate.
Our second aim was to detect whether the teachers’ demographic characteristics
could function as predictor variables of either stress or burnout. The statistical
analysis of the questions, nonetheless, revealed that no particular connection could be
drawn between such characteristics and these factors.
As regards our third aim, which was to detect the respondents’ levels of self-
efficacy and self-esteem in relation to burnout, it was generally found that the
participants feel quite confident when it comes to participating in decision-making
and exerting discipline control. Additionally, it was found that these teachers do not
feel they are to blame for their students’ lack of motivation.
Our fourth aim was to identify whether factors pertaining to teachers’ satisfaction
levels might exacerbate burnout or stress. On the whole, it was shown that while
teachers are very satisfied with working with children, they were not content with the
fact that they have to cope with mixed level classes whereby students may come from
different ethnic backgrounds. Also, teachers exhibited very high levels of
dissatisfaction with regard to the low salaries and the limited promotion chances
offered.
Concerning our fifth aim, that is identifying the mental and physical health issues
likely to influence the way teachers experience stress and burnout symptoms, it was
shown that: despite their different personal characteristics, almost half of the
respondents suffered from either anxiety or nervousness; also, as regards their
physical health a considerable number of the participants exhibited frequent
headaches.
The high rate responses to all these factors may not allow us to actually predict
whether the participants in question are likely to suffer burnout. Also, as shown from
the data received from the two open ended questions, teachers of English in Greece
are generally motivated by the fact that they get ample love, reward and appreciation
from the students themselves. Thus, considering all the above facts, we should now
attempt to make some suggestions concerning the way we can prevent stress and
burnout levels from developing in teachers of English in the Greek teaching context.
4. 7 Implications of the Findings
Based on the above findings, there are clear implications concerning how
administrators may address the issues of stress and burnout in Greek EFL teachers. A
number of options are presented below:
 More support and interaction from parents, colleagues, administrators and the
school advisors alike is required to assist in preventing stress and burnout for
these teachers.
 Professional development workshops could be recommended in order to offer
teachers help on stress management and cater for training opportunities. Also,
mentor programs for helping these teachers retain their levels of commitment
and sustain their expectations with regard to their job so as to increase the
satisfaction they get from teaching are recommended.
 Providing assistance with educational policies, paperwork and lesson
planning and having a clearly defined role description is a recommendation
for helping these teachers feel relieved from stress and burnout symptoms.
 Proper placement of students with learning disabilities or streaming according
to levels can assist in preventing stress and burnout.
 On ministry level, more resources and means to conduct their job and general
salary raise are important in increasing their satisfaction with the working
conditions.
4. 8 Suggestions for Further Research
As is the trend in burnout research, the present study focused on the negative pole of
Greek EFL teachers’ work and the factors likely to threaten their well-being. Since
our assumptions were not completely verified, however, and as the respondents’
generally exhibited strong levels of commitment and efficacy and relatively low ones
of stress and burnout, we feel that it is time to extend our interest to the positive pole
of teachers’ well being.
According to Schaufelli, Salanova, Gonzalez- Roma and Bakker (2002), burnout
is now rephrased as the erosion of someone’s engagement with the job; the emerging
trend of this development is to focus on human strengths and optimal functioning and
towards a “positive psychology”, in general (Selignman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 as
cited in Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 73). More specifically, instead of measuring
participants’ levels of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced
accomplishment, Schaufeli et al. (2002) suggest a different perspective to burnout that
will measure the participants’ engagement and, in particular, their levels of
dedication, vigor and absorption to their jobs.
In consistency with these suggestions, we also feel that it is high time we turned
our interest to Greek EFL teachers’ sense of significance, pride and challenge; their
levels of energy and resilience to invest effort in their work; and the intrinsic
enjoyment they find in their jobs.
CONCLUSION
The present study focused on the teachers’ perceptions of the factors that might cause
them to feel burned out. In order to collect data on these perceptions we first
attempted to summarize educational literature regarding the concept of burnout on a
general and teacher specific level. We investigated the particular factors that might
cause individuals to feel burned out, we elaborated on its consequences and we
discussed the way burnout develops in teachers.
Subsequently, we reviewed educational literature regarding the concept of stress
and the way this is related to burnout. We discussed its sources and symptoms and we
referred to the process teachers undergo from the first time they experience stress
symptoms up to the time they reach burnout. We also presented a review of the extent
to which stress is linked to reduced teacher job satisfaction. We then analyzed the
procedures and measures we employed in order to gather data on the teachers’
perceptions regarding the factors that might cause them to feel burned out. The results
of this study suggested that Greek EFL teachers are in general fulfilled with their job
and experience high levels of accomplishment, satisfaction and self-efficacy.
Hopefully, such positive feelings lead them to experience moderate levels of
emotional exhaustion. Attention should be paid, though, to the feelings of
depersonalization they experience regarding their relationships with administration
and the amount of recognition and respect they get for their job; moreover, of special
interest are the findings on the physical and mental health problems that ail them due
to mostly undisciplined pupils as well as on the low satisfaction they get regarding in-
service training opportunities. These perceptions could be valuable for school
administrators who are interested in forming suggestions on the basis of teacher
development principles in educational settings and were further analyzed towards the
end of the paper.
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APPENDIX I
HELLENIC OPEN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES
Master’s in Education for Teachers of

English to Speakers of Other Languages
COVER LETTER
Dear Colleagues,
Researching the factors that motivate teachers of English in State Schools is of utmost
importance especially if we consider the fact that certain working conditions may
affect teachers’ feelings of self- efficacy as well as their satisfaction and motivation
levels.
The following questionnaire was designed as part of my dissertation for the M. Ed.
Program in the Hellenic Open University. Your participation will, hopefully,
contribute towards better understanding issues of concern teachers of English can
raise regarding their attitudes towards their jobs, relationships to others, expectations
and feelings in relation to their working environments.
With regard to its completion, I would like to point out that: There are no right or
wrong answers; it is your personal opinion that I am interested in. The answers are
strictly confidential and no information regarding your identity is required. The data
collected will be analyzed and used for purely research purposes.
It is very important that you answer all questions.
Responding to the questionnaire means you confirm your participation in the research.
If you have any queries, do not hesitate to conduct me.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.
Maria Lalou
Krania Elassonas
40001- Larisa
Tel. 6972 616993
ma_ la_gr@yahoo.com
Part A:
The following questions concern your attitudes towards your job and the extent
to which you feel drained by it.
For each one, circle the corresponding answer to state the frequency at which
you experience them.
1= never
2= rarely
3= sometimes
4= quite often
5= almost always
1 I feel I’m respected for my work 1 2 3 4 5
2 I feel my job is valuable as a service to others 1 2 3 4 5
3 I feel my work is appreciated by society 1 2 3 4 5

I feel I can count on my students parents’ support to tackle
4 problems in class 1 2 3 4 5
In the morning, when I think I have to face another day at
5 work, I feel fatigue 1 2 3 4 5
6 I feel stressed from having to work with people all day 1 2 3 4 5

When I experience moments of crisis I consider leaving my
7 job 1 2 3 4 5
I feel hypertension by having to face changes in educational
8 policies 1 2 3 4 5
9 I feel overload by having to take work at home 1 2 3 4 5
10 I feel I don’t have enough time for planning lessons 1 2 3 4 5
I’m satisfied with the promotion chances offered through my
11 job 1 2 3 4 5
12 I have a voice in decision making at my school 1 2 3 4 5

I feel I can count on the regional school advisor’s professional
13 support 1 2 3 4 5
14 I feel I can discuss problems over with the head teacher 1 2 3 4 5

I can spend the same time and effort in solving class problems
15 as when I first entered the job 1 2 3 4 5
The following questions concern your feelings towards the people you work with.
1= never
2= rarely
3= sometimes
4= quite often
5= almost always
16 I’m sympathetic to my students’ problems 1 2 3 4 5
17 I feel this job has hardened me emotionally 1 2 3 4 5
18 I’m distant to my students 1 2 3 4 5
19 I get easily irritated when I face discipline problems in class 1 2 3 4 5
20 I would rather have better students than those I have now 1 2 3 4 5

Difficulties in my private life affect the way I treat my
21 students 1 2 3 4 5
I feel my role regarding my obligations as a teacher is
22 ambiguous 1 2 3 4 5
23 I feel my students blame me for their problems 1 2 3 4 5
The following questions concern the degree of motivation and satisfaction you
experience with your work.
1= completely disagree
2= disagree
3= neither agree nor disagree
4= agree
5= completely agree
24 I blame myself for my students’ lack of motivation 1 2 3 4 5
25 I feel I might not choose the same job again 1 2 3 4 5

I feel my expectations when entering the job are in conflict
26 with the teaching reality I face 1 2 3 4 5
I feel the means and resources required to do my job properly
27 are adequate 1 2 3 4 5
28 I feel my teaching performance levels are declining 1 2 3 4 5
29 I experience routine feelings of being trapped in teaching 1 2 3 4 5
30 I can resolve discipline problems arising in class 1 2 3 4 5
31 I’m satisfied with working with children 1 2 3 4 5
32 I feel I can offer my students useful things through teaching 1 2 3 4 5
33 I can create a cosy atmosphere with my students 1 2 3 4 5
34 I feel I can influence my students’ lives through my teaching 1 2 3 4 5

I feel I can count on my colleagues when I need support with
35 class problems 1 2 3 4 5
I feel under pressure by having to cope with different students
36 with learning disabilities 1 2 3 4 5
I feel under pressure by having to cope with students from
37 different ethnic backgrounds 1 2 3 4 5
I feel I have the same aspirations as when I first entered the
38 job 1 2 3 4 5
I feel I have the same level of commitment to promote my
39 students’ learning as when I first entered the job 1 2 3 4 5
40 I’m satisfied with the salary offered 1 2 3 4 5
41 My job gives me the opportunity to grow personally 1 2 3 4 5
42 I get many training opportunities through my job 1 2 3 4 5
43. Considering everything, which aspect(s) of your job would you rate as most
stressful?..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
44. Which aspect(s) make(s) you feel it is worth teaching, no matter the
difficulties?......................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
Part B:
The following questions are part of the demographic data required for a
thorough understanding of the personal factors that might cause teachers feel
stressed.
1. SEX: Female
Male
2. AGE: ……… (Years old)
3. MARITAL STATUS:
Single Married Divorced Widower
Number of Children:....
4. Type of School you are appointed at:
Primary
Junior High School
Senior High School
Vocational High School
Other: ……………………..
5. Area School is situated at:
Urban
Suburban
Rural
6. Number of schools you are teaching at this year: ……
7. Years of Teaching (in general): ………..

8. Years of Teaching in present position: ………..
9. Number of different classes per week: ……….

10. Number of different subjects you are teaching this year: …..
Specify: ……………
11. Educational Level:

University degree
Post Graduate studies in: ……………..
Other: …………………………
12. Training:
PEK seminars
Other: ………………………….
13. Health problems you’ve experienced since the beginning of the school year:
Headaches
Stomach disorders
Sleeplessness
Anxiety
Nervousness
14. Number of days you were absent from work last year due to such problems:
……………
APPENDIX II
The Maslach Burnout Inventory- Educators Survey (as cited in Croom,
A. Items on Emotional Exhaustion in Teaching
1. I feel burned out from my work

2. I feel emotionally drained form my work
3. I feel that I’m at the end of my rope
4. I feel used up at the end of the workday
5. I feel I’m working too hard on my job
6. I feel frustrated by my job
7. Working with people all day is a strain for me
8. I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another
day on the job
B. Items on Depersonalization on Work
1. I feel students blame me for their problems

2. I’ve become callous towards people since I took this job
3. I worry that this job is hardening me emotionally
4. I don’t really care what happens to some students
5. I feel that I treat some students as if they were impersonal
objects
C. Items on Personal Accomplishment at Work
6. I feel exhilarated after working closely with my students

7. I feel very energetic
8. In my work, I deal with emotional problems very calmly
9. I can easily understand how my students feel about things
10. I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job
11. I deal very effectively with the problems of my students
12. I feel I’m positively influencing other people’s lives through
my job
13. I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my students
APPENDIX III
FINDINGS ON ITEMS REFERRING TO EMOTIONAL EXHAUSTION IN
TEACHING
1 I feel I'm respected for my work
8% 3%
14%
never
33% rarely
sometimes
quite often
always
42%
2 I feel my job is valuable as a service to others
2% 3%
25%
21%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
49%
3 I feel my work is appreciated by society
2% 8%
24%
24% never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
42%
4 I feel I can count on my students' parents support to tackle
problems in class
3% 17%
14%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
27% almost always
39%
5 In the morning, when I think I have to face another day at

work, I feel fatigue
16% 0% 16%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
29% almost always
39%
6 I feel stressed from having to work with people all day
10% 3%
33%
17% never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
37%
7 When I experience moments of crisis, I consider leaving my
job
6% 2%
10%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
24% 58%
almost always
8 I feel hypertesion by having to face changes in educational

policies
2% 12%
24%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
38% almost always
24%
9 I feel overload by having to take work at home
10% 19%
17% never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
29%
25%
10 I feel I don't have enough time for planning lessons
5% 11%
33% never
rarely
sometimes
30% quite often
almost always
21%
11 I'm satisfied with the promotion chances offered through

my job
8% 3%
21% 43% never

rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
25%
12 I have a voice in decision making at my school
3% 11%
13%
never
41% rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
32%
13 I feel I can count on the regional school advisor's
professional support
11% 21%
13%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
14% almost always
41%
14 I feel I can discuss problems over with the headteacher
3%
25% 14%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
29% almost always
29%
15 I can spend the same effort in solving class problems as

when I first entered the job
8%
25% 11%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
32%
24%
FINDINGS ON ITEMS REFERRING TO DEPERSONALIZATION AT WORK
16 I'm sympathetic to my students' problems

0%
0%
13%
never
46%
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
41%
17 I feel this job has hardened me emotionally
10% 19%
13%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
29%
29%
18 I'm distant to my students
3% 3%
14%
never
50% rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
30%
19 I get easily irritated when I face discipline problems in class
10% 2%
21%
24% never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
43%
20 I would rather have better students than those I have now
17% 0% 15%
never
rarely
sometimes
quite often
27%
almost always
41%
21 Difficulties in my private life affect the way I treat my

students
16% 0%
25%
never
17% rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
42%
22 I feel my role regarding my obligations as a teacher is
ambiguous
5% 11%
21%
never
24%
rarely
sometimes
quite often
almost always
39%
23 I feel my students blame me for their problems
0%
10% 0%
never
rarely
sometimes
33% quite often
57% almost always
FINDINGS ON ITEMS REFERRING TO REDUCED ACCOMPLISHMENT AT
WORK
24 I blame myself for my students' lack of motivation
14% 2% 10%
completely disagree
disagree
neither agree nor disagree
agree
27%
47% completely agree
25 I feel I might not choose the same job again
10% 2%
16% completely disagree

42%
disagree
agree
completely agree
30%
26 I feel my expectations when entering the job are in conflict

with the teaching reality I face
3% 11%
19%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
29% 38% completely agree
27 I feel the means and resources required to do my job
properly are adequate
21% 10%
completely disagree
25%
disagree
agree
25%
28 I feel my teaching performance levels are declining
6% 0%
17% 30%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
completely agree
47%
29 I experience routine feelings of being trapped in teaching
2% 16%
21%
completely disagree
disagree
24% agree
completely agree
37%
30 I can resolve discipline problems arising in class
8% 0% 8%
completely disagree
25%
disagree
agree
completely agree
59%
31 I'm satisfied with working with children

0%
3%
11%
completely disagree
45%
disagree
agree
32 I feel I can offer my students useful things through teaching

2%
0%
6%
completely disagree
41%
disagree
agree
33 I can create a cozy atmosphere with my students
0%
0%
21%
30%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
completely agree
49%
34 I feel I can influence my students' lives through my

teaching
17% 2% 8%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
25%
35 I feel I can count on my colleagues when I need support

with class problems
11%
23%
completely disagree
disagree
29% agree
11%
completely agree
26%
36 I feel under pressure by having to cope with different
students with learning disabilities
2% 6%
22%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
24%
37 I feel under presuure by having to cope with students from

different ethnic backgrounds
2% 14%
29%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
21%
38 I feel I have the same aspirations as when I first entered the

job
2% 14%
29%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
21%
39 I feel I have the same level of commitment as when I first
entered the job
0%
3%
16%
completely disagree
50% disagree
agree
completely agree
31%
40 I'm satisfied with the salary offered
5% 2%
22% completely disagree
41%
disagree
agree
completely agree
30%
41 My job gives me the opportunity to grow personally
17% 6%
16%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
40%
42 I get many training opportunities through my job
3% 19%
14%
completely disagree
disagree
agree
37%
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
To teach is to touch someone’s life forever
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- I wish to express my indebt ness to my supervisor Dr Eleni Gheralis- Roussos
who kindly accepted to guide and support me through this demanding task.
Her valuable feedback and insightful advice proved useful for the completion
of this paper.
- My particular gratitude to my friends and colleagues Persephone Stiga and
Maria Kotsiomytis for the support and guidance they offered me especially
during the first year of my studies in the HOU.
- My special thanks to my sister Katherine Lalou for her valuable help in
analysing and processing the data collected through the questionnaires and my
friend Panayiota Dragatoyiannis for assisting me in word- processing parts of
the paper.
- My sincere thanks to all the colleagues who willingly filled in the
questionnaires.
ii
NOTE ON ABBREVIATIONS
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
iii
ABSTRACT
The intent of this paper is to describe the burnout problem of sixty- three teachers of
English employed in Greek State schools within the context of today’s classrooms. To
explore the factors likely to cause disparity between teachers’ expectations and the
reality of the educational institutions they work in, a review of the empirical literature
on the factors leading to teacher burnout and stress is presented. To determine those
teachers’ perceptions on the level of burnout experienced, we used a questionnaire
adapted from several instruments such as the Maslach Burnout Inventory for
Educators, the Teacher Burnout Scale, the Teacher Stress Inventory, the Emotional
Behavioral Disorder, the Teacher Stressors Questionnaire, and the Minessota
Satisfaction Questionnaire. The participants responded to scales that assessed the
three facets of burnout, namely emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced
accomplishment. It was found that these teachers experience low to moderate levels
of emotional exhaustion, low levels of depersonalization in relation to students and
quite high levels of depersonalization in relation to administration and colleagues, and
a high degree of personal accomplishment in their work. The teachers’ personal
characteristics, the characteristics of the schools they are employed at, and the years
of teaching experience do not seem to influence their responses on each of the three
subscales of the questionnaire nor do the years of teaching in the same position, the
number of different classes or subjects they have to teach every week or their
educational and training level. Finally, suggestions for preventing teacher burnout
were presented.
iv
ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ
Στόχος της εργασίας αυτής είναι να διερευνήσουμε το πρόβλημα της επαγγελματικής
εξουθένωσης, μέσα στο πλαίσιο της σημερινής σχολικής πραγματικότητας, 63
εκπαιδευτικών Αγγλικής Γλώσσας που εργάζονται σε Ελληνικά δημόσια σχολεία. Για
να εξετάσουμε τους παράγοντες που διαφοροποιούν τις προσδοκίες των
εκπαιδευτικών σε σχέση με την πραγματικότητα αυτή, παρουσιάζουμε μια
ανασκόπηση της βιβλιογραφίας σχετικά με τους παράγοντες που προκαλούν
επαγγελματική εξουθένωση και στρες στους εκπαιδευτικούς. Θέλοντας να
καθορίσουμε τις αντιλήψεις των εκπαιδευτικών σχετικά με τα επίπεδα
επαγγελματικής εξουθένωσης που πιθανόν αυτοί να βιώνουν, χρησιμοποιήσαμε ένα
ερωτηματολόγιο προσαρμοσμένο από διάφορα όργανα μέτρησης όπως είναι: ο
Κατάλογος του Συνδρόμου της Επαγγελματικής Εξουθένωσης και η Κλίμακα
Μέτρησης της Επαγγελματικής Εξουθένωσης των Εκπαιδευτικών, ο Κατάλογος του
Στρες και το Ερωτηματολόγιο των Πηγών Επαγγελματικού Στρες των
Εκπαιδευτικών, το Ερωτηματολόγιο Συναισθηματικής και Συμπεριφορικής
Διαταραχής, και το Ερωτηματολόγιο Μέτρησης της Επαγγελματικής Ικανοποίησης.
Όσοι συμπλήρωσαν το ερωτηματολόγιο έδωσαν απαντήσεις σε κλίμακες που
αποτιμούσαν τις 3 διαστάσεις της επαγγελματικής εξουθένωσης, δηλαδή την
συναισθηματική εξάντληση, την αποπροσωποίηση και την προσωπική εκπλήρωση.
Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι οι εκπαιδευτικοί που συμμετείχαν βιώνουν χαμηλά έως
μέτρια ποσοστά συναισθηματικής εξάντλησης, χαμηλά ποσοστά αποπροσωποίησης
σε συνάρτηση με τους μαθητές τους και αρκετά υψηλά ποσοστά αποπροσωποίησης
σε συνάρτηση με τους συναδέλφους τους και τους θεσμικούς παράγοντες, και τέλος
υψηλά ποσοστά προσωπικής εκπλήρωσης στη δουλειά τους. Τόσο τα ατομικά
v
χαρακτηριστικά όσο και τα χαρακτηριστικά των σχολείων που εργάζονται οι
εκπαιδευτικοί, καθώς και η προϋπηρεσία τους δε φαίνεται να επηρεάζουν τις
απαντήσεις τους σε καμία από τις 3 διαστάσεις του ερωτηματολογίου. Επίσης οι
απαντήσεις τους δε φαίνεται να επηρεάστηκαν από άλλα δημογραφικά στοιχεία όπως
τα χρόνια εργασίας τους στα συγκεκριμένα σχολεία, τις διαφορετικές τάξεις ή τα
διαφορετικά μαθήματα που κάνουν κάθε εβδομάδα για τη συμπλήρωση του ωραρίου
τους, ούτε και από το μορφωτικό επίπεδο ή το επίπεδο επιμόρφωσης τους. Τέλος,
παρουσιάστηκαν προτάσεις σχετικά με την πρόληψη του συνδρόμου της
επαγγελματικής εξουθένωσης των εκπαιδευτικών.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
To teach is to touch someone’s life forever ....................................................................i

NOTE ON ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................... iii
EFL: English as a Foreign Language ABSTRACTiii
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................iv
ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ ...................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................vii
vii

Teacher Burnout

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ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟ ΑΝΟΙΚΤΟ ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ

ΣΧΟΛΗ ΑΝΘΡΩΠΙΣΤΙΚΩΝ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ

ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΕΙΔΙΚΕΥΣΗ ΚΑΘΗΓΗΤΩΝ ΑΓΓΛΙΚΗΣ

ΜΕΤΑΠΤΥΧΙΑΚΗ ΔΙΠΛΩΜΑΤΙΚΗ ΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ

FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHERS OF ENGLISH

ΓΕΡΑΛΗ- ΡΟΥΣΣΟΥ ΕΛΕΝΗ

ΠΑΤΡΑ ΜΑΙΟΣ, 2008

extend beyond dissatisfaction or tension, as burnout appears to be a main factor in

levels of burnout in the Greek educational context is necessary in case we wish to

employ preventive and restorative strategies to tackle the phenomenon early.

In order to investigate the levels of professional burnout in the context of state

teacher burnout. Also, of particular importance was the examination of distinct

and the degree of satisfaction they experience in their jobs.

theoretical background of teacher burnout and stress. More specifically,

In Chapter 1, a review of the syndrome of burnout in relation to its origins as a

provided. Next, a synthesis of educational research on the particular individual,

which teachers experience burnout and to its consequences.

as its correlation to burnout is reviewed. Moreover, we identify the sources and

results of the study. More specifically,

In Chapter 3, the methodology of this study is considered in detail in order to gain

section on the types of measurements employed in order to investigate levels of

limitations the particular study faced.

particular results with regard to suggestions for future administrative interventions in

order to prevent burnout are discussed.

Chapter 1 Burnout: An Occupational Hazard for Teachers

overextended, disillusioned human service workers. As a phenomenon, burnout is

important as it captures realities of people’s experiences at work. Though it has been

professionals might actually be affected at some point in their lives.

determinants of burnout as a general and teacher specific concept.

1. 1 The Origins of the Phenomenon

As a concept, burnout was initially used by Freudenberger (1974 as cited in Byrne,

1999) to characterize physically and psychologically depleted health care workers

inability to function effectively in their job as a consequence of prolonged and

extensive job related stress.

conceptualization by focusing on the work environmental conditions likely to affect

experience feelings of diminished ability at work.

Based on years of exploratory research, Maslach and Jackson (1981 as cited in

Maslach, 1993) defined burnout as a multidimensional construct that embraces three

component structures: (i) emotional exhaustion, which refers to feelings of being

emotionally drained by one’s contact with people; (ii) depersonalization, which

reduced accomplishment, which signifies the decline in one’s feelings of competence

1. 2 Factors Leading to Burnout

like workload, time and position in work, as well as agency policies.

1. 3 The Consequences of Burnout

associated to forms of withdrawal such as absenteeism, intention to leave, and

commitment to the organization.

In terms of mental health, burnout is linked to issues like: neuroticism; drop in

distinction between organizational and personal outcomes, while Burke and

syndrome has a negative spill over to home life.

1. 4 Teacher Specific Burnout

The issue of teacher burnout is a catchphrase in educational literature; several studies

which, unless tackled early, may lead to devastating results.

Initially investigated among American teachers, burnout was found to result in

satisfaction, and decreased teaching effectiveness (Millicent & Sewell, 1999).

influence in a student’s education” (Luckner and Hanks, 2003, p. 1).

1. 5 Factors Contributing to Teacher Burnout

America and Europe, conflicting expectations, increased work pressure, impractical

innovations like the introduction of the National Curriculum, unsupportive school

in pupils’ violent behaviour, especially in secondary schools; and (iii) exhaustion

organizing extra- curricular activities and managing multilevel classes.

1. 5. 1 Individual Factors Influencing Teacher Burnout

Early attempts to explore the phenomenon have focused on teachers’ individual

characteristics as possible predictor variables. These, in particular, include: (i)