Condenser and Circulating Water System

G. V. HARSHE
B.E. (Mech)

Dy. Director, NPTI (WR) NAGPUR

NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE

(Ministry of Power, Government of India) NAGPUR - 440 022, India

MARCH, 2004

INDEX
CHAPTER NO. CHAPTER 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 CHAPTER 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 CHAPTER 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 CHAPTER 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 TOPIC THE CONDENSER Introduction Principle of a Condenser Purpose of Condenser Functions of Condenser Classification of Condenser Theory and Arrangement of Condenser DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF CONDENSERS Introduction Construction of the Condenser Russian Design Condenser Condensers for KWU Machines CONDENSER PERFORMANCE Introduction Pressure Condition in the Condenser Effect of Varying the Back Pressure Effect of Air on Back Pressure Scale Formation Condenser Efficiency And Performance Case Study METHODS OF IMPROVING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE Introduction Condenser Cleaning On Load Cleaning Condenser Leaks PAGE NO. 01 01 01 02 03 04 08 10 10 12 17 20 27 27 27 28 29 30 31 33 39 39 40 41 42

CHAPTER 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM Introduction Types of C.W. System Design Aspects of Major Items Chlorination Circulating Water Pumps GLOSSARY REFERENCES

50 50 51 54 65 65 72 73

Chapter 1

THE CONDENSER
1.1 INTRODUCTION

The steam condenser plays a measure role in all modern thermal power stations. The main purpose of condenser is to condense the exhausted steam from low pressure turbine and convert it in to water i.e. condensate, so that it could be reused in Boiler as feedwater. The condensing equipment plays the role of cold source in the thermo-dynamic cycle of steam turbine installation. The decrease of temperature of cold source increase the thermal efficiency of cycle. The increase of economy of steam turbine installation is affected by two major factors. Firstly achieving with high thermal efficiency of the cycle itself and secondly by operational perfection of different components of the set. The former is affected by increase of initial parameter as well as decrease of back pressure of steam. The increase of initial parameter has been a fashion and pressure of 300 atmospheres and temperature upto 5650C have already been achieved in western countries but the main obstacle in this direction is suitable and cheap heat resistant steels. With decrease of back pressure, the temperature of exhaust steam is decreased which in turn decreases the quantity of heat given to the cold source and thereby increasing the thermal efficiency. The above goal is achieved by condensing the exhaust steam from the turbine in the condenser.

1.2
1.2.1

PRINCIPLE OF A CONDENSER
Volume of Steam

If water is put into a closed vessel and heated, a quantity of heat known as sensible heat is required to bring the water to boiling point and if further heat is added to convert the water into steam this is known as latent heat. The volume of the steam formed is far greater than that of the water and consequently the pressure in the vessel rises. thus the application of the latent heat has caused an increase in pressure. (See Figure 1.1 and 1.2). 1.2.2 Removal of Heat

Now reverse the process and remove some heat by cooling the vessel. During this cooling the latent heat is removed from the steam which is reduced to water (or condensed) with a consequent fall in pressure. (see figure 1.2) This removal of latent heat happens on a very large scale in a turbine condenser.

[1]

Fig. 1.1 : Heat increases pressure pressure 1.2.3 Condenser Pressure

Fig. 1.2 : Cooling decreases

The condenser is an airtight vessel where the steam exhausted from the turbine is cooled and condensed. The condensation is so complete that the pressure inside the condenser is reduced below that of the atmosphere and this condition is referred to as the vacuum in the condenser. To maintain this low pressure condition it is essential that any air or other incondensible gases, passing in to the condenser with the steam must be continuously removed and, in addition to condensing the steam, the condenser must separate, these gases from the steam for discharge by an ejector or air pump.

1.3
i)

PURPOSE OF CONDENSER
To create and maintain vacuum in the turbine :

By using a condenser it is possible to get higher output and increase thermal efficiency of the cycle. Due to condenser it is possible to expand the steam in turbine to negative pressure or vacuum so the work out-put of turbine increases. Also due to creation of vacuum in condenser steam flow from last stage of turbine to condenser is established. In fact it provides steady operation of turbine maintaining stable conditions at turbine back end. ii) Conservation of Pure feed water :

[2]

Very large quantities of steam pass through a turbine, it would of course, be not only very wasteful but impracticable to allow this vast amount of steam to be exhausted to atmosphere. By using condenser the exhaust steam is converted to water which is removed from the condenser for continuous use in the power station heat cycle. iii) Deaeration of Make-up water

Due to leakage and necessary blowing down of boilers some of the water used in the power station heat cycle is lost and must be replaced. This water, which is known as make-up water, is generally supplied from reserve feed water tanks and, being in contact with the air, contains dissolved oxygen. If this oxygen were not removed it would cause corrosion in boilers and pipework. The best way of releasing this oxygen is to bring the water to boiling point and for this purpose the condenser can be employed. The make-up water is introduced into the condenser where it is brought to boiling point and the dissolved oxygen released ready for removal together with any air and other gases which may be in the condenser.

1.4

FUNCTIONS OF CONDENSER
The primary function of the condenser are

i) ii) iii)

To provide the lowest economic heat rejection temperature for the steam cycle. To convert the exhaust steam to water for reuse in feed cycle. To collect the useful residual heat from the drains of the turbine feed heating plant and other auxiliaries.

The aim of the C.W. system is to maintain a supply of cooling medium to extract the necessary heat, in order that the condensing plant can meet its objectives. It achieves this by the use of effective screening equipments circulating water pumps, valves and cooling towers (where necessary). In addition to the condenser satisfying the primary function, its design must be capable of meeting the following objectives :

i)
ii)

To provide the turbine with the most economic back pressure consistent with the seasonal variations in C.W. temperature or the heat sink temperature of the C.W. system. To effectively prevent chemical contamination of the condensate either from C.W. leakage or from inadequate steam space gas removal and condensate dearation.

The aim of the design is to ensure that these objectives are met within the framework of the following practical consideration : i) ii) Economies of size, space, and pumping power. Ease of maintenance and construction.

[3]

1.5

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSER

Condenser is classified (1) Based on heat rejection (2) According to position or arrangement (3) According to cooling water flow. 1.5.1 Based on Heat rejection :

Steam can be condensed by using either the jet or surface type condenser. Jet Condenser The simplest method is to mix the steam with a spray of water in a closed vessel. The water will remove the heat from the steam by direct contact and the steam will condense. This method is used in the jet condenser which is illustrated n figure 1.3 In a power station the condensate is returned to the boiler and must be absolutely pure. If a jet condenser were used the cooling water, which is mixed with the condensate would have to be equally pure. Because very large quantities of cooling water are required, this type of condenser is not a practical proposition for power plant.

Fig. 1.3 Jet Condenser Surface Condenser Where water is available in large quantities it is usually very impure, for example, sea water and river water, but such impurities have little effect upon its
[4]

cooling properties. This suggests a condenser with two entirely separate water system, steam being condensed on the outside of surfaces which are kept cool by an abundant supply of water flowing on the inside. Such an arrangement is known as a surface condenser and the cooling surfaces consists of small diameter tubes as shown in figure 1.4. In this case the purity of the cooling water does not matter because apart from any leakages which may occur it is never in contact with the condensate.

Fig. 1.4 Surface Condenser 1.5.2 Based on Positions or Arrangement :

According to the position condenser are classified as : (1) Undenslung Axial or (2) Transverse condenser. (3) Integral condenser (4) Pannier or side mounted condenser. Underslung -Axial or Transverse Condenser : In this condensers are mounted below the L.P. Turbine. The condenser may be located axially w.r. to turbine shaft. In some machines condenses are mounted under the turbine at right angles to the turbine shafts (See fig. 1.5).

[5]

Fig. 1.5 Underslug -Axial or Transverse Condenser Integral Condenser : In this condensers are arranged around the L.P. Turbine cylinders as shown in fig. 1.6

Fig. 1.6 Integral condenser. Pannier Condenser : In this condenser are arranged at each side of the L.P. turbine cylinder, known as Pannier condenser (See the fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7 Pannier or side Mounted condenser.

[6]

1.5.3

Based on cooling water flow :

As per the cooling or circulating water flow condenser can be classified as (1) Single flow (Single pass) (2) Double flow (Double pass) (3) Three pass condenser. When the cooling water makes only one journey across, this is known as a single pass condenser (Fig. 1.8b). If the cooling water makes two journeys then it is known as a double pass condenser. (Figure 1.8b). In this case the water in the bottom half of the tubes will be flowing from front to back and in the top half from back to front. Fig. 1.8b shows a method of venting for a 2 pass condenser. A 3" air vent is fitted to each shell from the highest point on the return water box. The air is vented to the cooling water outlet main and prevents air bubbles in the second pass. The inlet pass is protected by drilling say 4 one inch holes in the inlet water box divisional wall between passes 'x'. More emphasis is given on single pass and double pass condenses in the next chapter. Similarly with a three pass condenser the water makes three journeys across. A single pass design which gives a long narrow condenser, suits the large modern turbines and can be mounted axially under the machine in line with the turbine shifts. The steam distribution is line with the turbine shafts. The steam distribution is not as good in a single pass as in two pass condenser.

Fig 1.8 Single and Double Pass Condenser.

[7]

1.6
1.6.1

THEORY AND ARRANGEMENT OF CONDENSERS

Exhaust Steam From Turbine

The exhaust steam from the last stage of the turbine has a higher temperature than the cooling water in the tubes. Hence, there will be a flow of heat from the steam to the water. The steam, when it flows from the turbine to the condenser is already at saturation temperature and, therefore, all the heat removed by the condenser is latent heat. 1.6.2 Heat Transfers Through Tubes

Heat transfer through the tubes is complicated by the fact that on the inside and outside surfaces there are various films which offer a resistance to the flow of heat. Consider part of a tube surface as shown in Figure 1.9 on the outside of this condensate film there may sometimes be a film of air and gas. These two films are continually swept off the tube by the rush of steam. The condensate film soon forms again but the air and gas film takes longer. On the inside of the tube there is a stationary film of cooling water that remains on the metal surface even though there is a flow through the tube. In addition the tube metal offers a very slight resistance to the flow of heat through it. The individual resistances of the various films and the tube metal combine to give one total resistance. The values of the various resistances can be calculated and it is found that the resistance of the tube metal is very small compared with the others. If it were possible to go from cooling water to steam. Measuring the temperatures at the boundaries of the various films. Figures similar to those shown in figure 1.10 would be obtained. This shows that to overcome resistance to heat flow, a difference in temperature is needed and the greater the resistance the greater must be the temperature difference.

Fig 1.9 : Films on condenser tube surface

[8]

Fig 1.10 Temperature Difference across condenser tube wall 1.6.3 Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)

The temperature difference between the exhaust steam and the cooling water is least at the top of the condenser where the cooling water leaves. Here the cooling water has its highest temperature. This particular temperature difference is very important and is given a special name. It is called the terminal temperature difference. The important point is that any increase in this terminal difference leads directly to increase in the saturation temperature of the exhaust steam and a higher back pressure.

[9]

Chapter 2

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF CONDENSERS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In most of the thermal power stations, surface condenser either single flow or double flow are used, hence this chapter deals with constructional details and other features of surface condensers. Surface condenser is the cold end in the thermodynamic cycle of a steam turbine installation. The main purpose of the condenser is : To create high vacuum, thus allowing maximum heat drop in the turbine and thereby improving the efficiency of the cycle. To re-use the pure condensate which is at higher temperature than the ambient temperature thus minimizing the cost of generating steam to required parameters. Mostly condensers can be divided into following two categories : Single Pass Condenser : When cooling water enters through front water box and comes out through the rear water box, there being no reversal of water flow, it is said to be single pass condenser. See Fig. 2.1.

a)

Fig. 2.1 Single Pass Condenser

[10]

Fig. 2.2 Double Pass Condenser b) Double Pass Condenser : In double pass condenser water enters through the front water box and flows through the half of the total tubes to rear water box and then through the other half of the tubes back to the other half of the front water box and then to the outlet pipe. See Fig. 2.2 of a 210 MW KWU type condenser.

The end views of above two types of condensers are shown in fig. 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.

Fig. 2.3 End view of Single Pass Condenser

[11]

Fig. 2.4 End View of Double Pass Condenser

The prime factors that need to be considered for developing a design of the condensers are : Quality of cooling water, type of C.W. system. Cooling water inlet temperature. Space available in turbine foundation.

2.2
2.2.1

CONSTRUCTION OF THE CONDENSER

General Arrangement :

In general appearance the surface condenser has not changed a great deal from earlier designs, but operating experience has led to may improvements, particularly with the tube arrangements. Fig. 2.5 shows a typical condenser indicates names of the various parts.

Fig. 2.5 A typical condenser 2.2.2 Condenser Shell

Shells are of welded steel construction and are ribbed externally and braced internally to ensure that they are rigid. Where turbines have two exhausts, separate shells may be connected to each and joined by a balance pipe. The condenser of a modern machine is so large that it could not be transported from the works as a single component. The main shell is fabricated of mild steel plate in sections which are joined together for final assembly at site by welding. It is possible to subdivide a single shell so that the water circuit is in two
[12]

parts. One half of the tubes can then be cleaned whilst the other half is in commission. 2.2.3 Tube Configuration :

Tube layout plays very important role in condenser performance. In a 210 MW Russian condenser it is basically finger type (See Fig. 2.6) which provides uniform steam distribution. This arrangement gives a lower pressure drop and at the same time provides an effective means of removing condensate from the collecting plates along the support plates, thus avoiding dripping of condensate on next row of tubes and as a result improving the heat transfer. The design provides a conveying steam passage and an efficient air removal system. To avoid under cooling a portion of steam constantly sweeps the condensate surface.

Fig. 2.6 Layout of tubes for 200/210 M.W. Condenser (Russion design) 2.2.4 Differential expansion between tubes and shell :

To cater for differential thermal expansion between shell and tubes a carbon steel bellow is provided in the shell. This reduces the stress on tube to tube sheet joint. Where the expansion bellow is not provided tube to tube sheet joint is to be thoroughly analyzed for the stresses which could develop during operation.
[13]

2.2.5

Tube to tube sheet joint : roller expansion (See of cooling water into steam purity and salt and efficiency of the

Usual method for making tube to tube sheet joint is Fig. 2.7). Quality of expansion determines the seepage steam space which has bearing on scaling of boiler tubes, deposits on turbine blades which effects the life of boiler plant.

Fig. 2.7 Tube expansion joint It is, therefore, necessary to ensure very high quality of expansion. The holes should have good finish and minimum ovality. The expansion should be carried out by torque controlled expanders. The expanders should be set to achieve approx. 7 to 10% wall thinning. Before carrying out expansion, retaining beams should be used for large condensers and predetermined sequence of expansion should be followed to prevent buckling of the tube sheet during expansion. The other methods of fastening the tubes to tube sheet are by providing ferrules and packers. This method is costlier in comparison to roller expansion and used for small condensers where tube replacement is considered frequent (like in marine services). 2.2.6 Size of tubes :

The tubes generally used for industrial condensers are 19 mm outer diameter. For large condensers tube size is 22 mm or 25.4 mm outer diameter. Sometimes 30 mm tubes have also been used. Bigger size of tubes involve less drilling work and therefore less manufacturing cost. However, condenser is compact if smaller size tubes are used.
[14]

2.2.7

Floating of condensers on springs :

The method of floating of condenser depends upon the allowable thrust which can be allowed on turbine foundation. If condenser is floated for its dry weight, the foundation is subjected to downward load because of operational weight of water. At the same time there is an upward thrust because of thermal expansion of condenser. In case condenser is floated for its working weight, it is subjected to upward thrust because of thermal expansion. Also upward thrust comes when condenser is dry. All these forces need careful analysis before the floating of condenser is decided. 2.2.8 Types of condenser supports :

Usually condenser is supported by one of the following two ways: i) Spring supports: Condenser is supported on springs which allow for movement of condenser during operating because of thermal expansion /vibration. There are two types of spring supports as shown in the fig. 2.8 i.e. Rod type and continuous type. Solid supports : The condenser supports are fixed with respect to vertical axis. Provisions are made in condenser supports to allow for differential thermal expansion in horizontal plane. For vertical movements a flexible joint is provided in the super-structure. This joint is usually of rubber having shape like a dog bone. A stainless steel expansion bellow is also used in place of rubber expansion joint.

ii)

Fig. 2.8 Condenser support - spring arrangement

[15]

2.2.9

Spacing of support plates and effect of tubes hole clearance :

The support plates in condenser are to be located to avoid vibration of tubes for all operating conditions including HP-LP bypass. HEI standard gives the method of calculation of the spacing between support plates. The amplitude of vibration depends upon the clearance between tubes and the hole. Large clearance also might change nodal points and frequency of vibration. With excessive amplitude of vibration the tubes strike against each other and subsequently fail besides creating noise. The clearance should therefore be minimum (approx 0.5mm on diameter) but adequate to assemble the tubes. 2.2.10 Self draining of tubes : To avoid pitting corrosion during long outage of condenser it is necessary to have the tubes which are self draining. Basically following two methods are available : i) Bowing the tubes :

The holes of support plates are staggered such that the tubes are slightly bowed with highest point at the centre. This is for circular shell which has roundish configuration. For rectangular shell packing has to be given of off set the support plates. See Fig. 2.9 for bowing of tubes in 210 MW Russian condenser.

Fig. 2.9 Bowing of tubes ii) Inclination of condenser :

The supports are in such a way that condenser as a whole rests in an inclined position nearly 0. Bowing of the tubes is simpler and also results in uniform loading of condenser supports.

[16]

Inclination of the condenser results in non-uniform loading of supports because of shift of centre of gravity. This could create an undesirable couple acting on turbine. The depth of water in hotwell is also not uniform. Besides it has little more problems during manufacturing, as maintaining 0 inclination of certain parts during fabrication is rather difficult. 2.2.11 Water Box Profile : The water boxes should be designed to ensure even distribution of cooling water and at the same time to keep the pressure drop to a minimum. To achieve this, diverging inlet sections have been provided in our design. A suitable depth of water boxes has been provided to enable even water distribution. 2.2.12 Design of Exhaust hood and Expansion below The exhaust hood design has ensured streamlined flow and even distribution of exhaust steam throughout the tube length, minimizing the entry loss to condenser. The location of expansion bellow on C W pipes and their layout should be care fully decided. Erroneous design of c w pipes and bellow orientation could lead to undesirable thrust on turbine effecting its stability and hence performance/availability. 2.2.13 Priming of cooling water side: Generally priming is done by having 25 mm gas pip bore at the top of rear water box. But a priming ejector provided on water box to evacuate water box and spaces at the inner bores of the tubes is a better proposition. This helps in charging the water box fully with water and results in uniform distribution of water within the tubes as air locks are eliminated.

2.3

RUSSIAN DESIGN CONDENSER

Constructional features : The condenser is of welded construction having two condensers each connected with the exhaust hood of the turbine (see fig 2.10 & 2.11 for longitudinal & end view of condenser). These two condensers have been interconnected by a bypass piping which permits cleaning and repair of one condenser at reduced load. Each condenser has been subdivided into upper and lower halves. The front water box shell, and rear water box constitute the lower half. Two end tube plates and six support plates are located inside the lower body of the condenser. The front water box has been divided into two parts to make the condenser two pass design. The covers of water boxes can be removed for facilitating repairs and replacement of tubes. Manholes have been provided for routine maintenance and visual inspection along with venting and draining arrangement for individual water box.
[17]

Condenser tubes are secured to the end tube plates by expanding and flaring of tube ends which provides very good sealing arrangement against penetration of circulating water into steam space.

Fig. 2.10 Longitudinal view of condenser

Fig. 2.11 End view of condenser

[18]

A steam dumping device is provided in both the condensers which helps in condensation of steam from turbine bypass system. It is also useful during the turbine start-up, load variation, etc. The condenser has been divided into a number of parts for ease of manufacture, transportation and erection. In order to allow for expansion along the height, the condenser is supported on springs specially designed to take its load. With this arrangement, the weight of the empty condenser is taken up by springs, while loads due to weight of circulating water and thrust of springs during expansion are borne by the turbine foundation. Important materials for condenser :

i)
ii) iii) iv)

Shell mild steel plates IS 226/2062. Water box & end covers mild steel IS 226/2062. Tube sheet-mild steel IS 226/2062 for soft water and naval brass for sea and brackish water. Support plates mild steel IS 226/2062.

In case of sea water or brackish water the water box has to be lined with neoprene rubber lining or fibre glass lining. Tube material :

i) ii)
iii)

Admirality brass BS 2871 Alloy CZ110 for soft water. Aluminium brass BS 2871 CZ111 for sea water and not so clean soft water from river, pond etc. Highly resistant to chloride attack. Cupro nickel alloys for polluted water. 90-10 or 70-30. Higher resistance to corrosion and pitting in operating and stagnant condition. Prone to corrosion (pitting) at lower cooling water velocity.

iv)

Stainless steel for highly corrosive and dirty water. Heat transfer coefficient is less. Prone to pitting in operation at lower C W velocity and in stagnant condition. Chloride level in water should be below 250 ppm Titanium Used when chloride level is higher than 250 ppm. Suitable for very corrosive, erosive and toxic water.

v)

Composition of various tube materials : 1. Admirality brass Copper Arsenic Tin Zinc Aluminium Brass Copper Arsenic Aluminium Zinc 70% 0.4% 1.25% rest 76% 0.4% 2% rest
[19]

2.

3.

Cupro-nickel alloys : 90 - 10 Nickel Iron Manganese Copper

10% 1% 1% Rest

70 - 30 Nickel Iron Manganese Copper

30% 3% 3% Rest

2.4

CONDENSERS FOR KWU MACHINES

The function of the condenser is to condense the steam exhausted from the L.P. cylinders and to produce and maintain as high a vacuum as possible in order to increase the heat drop which can be utilized in the turbine. Depending on local circulating water conditions, the vacuum is of the order of 0.03 to 0.121 ata. Design Features : This condenser is a box type surface condenser with a divided circulating water system. The steam space is of rectangular cross-section to achieve optimum utilization of the enclosed volume for the necessary condensing surface. The constructional features are shown in Fig. 2.1 to 2.4. However, a typical cross-sectional view of LPC and condenser joined together is shown in Fig. 2.12.

[20]

Fig. 2.12 Section through L.P. turbine condensing unit (KWU design) Tube Spacing : The principal factors to be taken into consideration when determining the tube spacing are low steam velocity between the condenser tubes, uniform distribution of the steam over the whole condensing surface and equal pressure at the top and bottom rows of tubes. A computerised design is used to optimize tube spacing, tube cross section and condensing surface of the condenser. The tube spacing is broken up to a large extent by the arrangement of the condenser tubes in bundle. Wide lanes from top to bottom are left between the tube bundles so that the steam can also reach the lower rows of tubes without incurring appreciable pressure loss. The steam then flows sideways from these lanes into the tube bundles. The downward-leading steam lanes are inclined to the vertical. In few of the lanes, condensate drain. Sheet running to half of the length of the steam space are fitted to prevent condensate from the upper tubes dripping on to the lower tubes and causing a film of condensate giving rise to sub-cooling. The collected condensate passes to the condenser hotwell, A typical inclined tube layout is shown in fig. 2.13.

[21]

Fig. 2.13 Condenser tube spacing (right half) The necessary sub-cooling of the steam/gas mixture for air extraction from the condenser is performed by two tube nests arranged at the centre arranged at the centre, Because of their function, these two tube nests are shielded from the steam flow except for an aperture at the bottom. Of late some improvements have been made and vertical type of lay-outs as shown in fig. 2.14 are being used in 500 MW condenser designs.

[22]

Fig. 2.14 Tube layout-vertical type for 500 MW condenser Condenser Support : The condenser is supported on springs which allows free movement of condenser during operation because of thermal expansion. Two spring elements below each end of the tube support plate are arranged to support the condenser uniformly through its length. Each spring element can have one, two or even three springs depending upon the loading of condenser. Please see Fig. 2.15 for a similar type of condenser mounting arrangement on springs. Tube to Tube Sheet : The tubes are the most heavily stressed element of the condenser. Consequently utmost care is taken in their fitting, method of support and fixing. The tubes are expanded into tube plates of steel or brass. There is no danger of leaks developing at the expanded joints due to differential thermal expansion between the tubes and steam shell because the force which it is possible to develop in the tube by the maximum temperature difference reached during operation. Inside the steam shell the condenser tubes are supported at intervals by support plates. These plates prevent any vibration of the tubes induced by the flow of steam.

[23]

Fig. 2.15 Spring support for KWU design condenser Sizes of Tubes : Different sizes of tubes have been used in various condensers designed so far for KWU machines due to various reasons. These are as follows : 1. 2. 3. 4. Hasdeo T.P.S. Korba NTPC Korba Condenser Raichur T.P.S. Condenser Unchahar T.P.S. Condenser 25.4 19 25.4 25.4 x 1.245 x1 x 1.245 x 1.245 L = 6400 L = 9900 L = 10100 L = 7600

Self Draining of Tubes : Most of the condensers have been installed with 0 inclination for proper draining of the tubes during long outages of the condenser. Korba hasdeo double pass, Korba NTPC single pass and Unchahar double pass condensers have been developed based on this concept while in Raichur condenser, like Russian design, the tubes have been bowed upward by gradual lifting at the intermediate supports so that these are automatically drained during shut downs of the condensers. Water Box Profiles : There water boxes should be designed to ensure even distribution of cooling water and also to keep the pressure drop to a minimum. Except Raichur all the condensers for 210 MW KWU machines have been provided with domed head. These domed shape water boxes are specifically suited for on-load wall cleaning arrangement which has been provided with few of such condensers. The condenser at Raichur Thermal power station has got rectangular water box with flat covers in line with Russian Design.

Expansion Bellow on C.W. Side :

[24]

As per normal recommendations, two bellows one in horizontal and one in vertical run on C.W. piping are provided so that there is no upward thrust on the turbine. Normally this recommendation is given to either consultant or customer since this piping in most of the cases is not BHEL scope. Drains Inlet : The drains from L.P. feed heaters, turbine drains etc. are fed into the condenser hotwell via flash vessels. The flash steam produced in the flash vessels by the reduction in pressure flows into the condenser steam dome through connecting pipes. By-Pass Steam Inlet : During by-pass operation the initial steam is discharged directly into the condenser via the combined by-pass valves. The necessary by-pass steam inlet connections (steam throw-device-see Fig. 2.16) are welded into the condenser dome wall. Each connection incorporates an orifice plate (diaphragm forging) which reduces to approximately condenser pressure the steam which has already been partially reduced in pressure; and by means of injected condensate cools it to saturation temperature.

Fig. 2.16 Steam throw device Hot Well : The condensate produced in the condenser and the drains entering via the flash vessels collects in the condenser hotwell from where it passes to the condensate pump. The level of condensate in the hotwell is regulated by a control system according to the requirements of the plant. Special provision is made to maintain the minimum suction head for the condensate pump. The hotwells of condensers in large plants are normally divided. There is a partition in the middle and outlet branches on each side. The purpose is to separate the condensate produced by each half of he condenser nest for better identification of tube-leaking zone. Conductivity measuring devices are fitted in each condensate outlet from
[25]

the hotwell to give a warning of any leakage of circulating water into the condenser. The affected half of the condenser can then be shut down. The condensers have been designed to take 60-100% dumped steam during by-pass operation which consequently reduces the time of hot start of the TG set and also prevents loss of condensate by preventing the blowing of the safety valves. Substantial amount of site-assembly erection work is carried out at site in these condensers as most of the individual components like bottom plate water boxes, dome walls and side walls etc. are fabricated in the shop and dispatched loose for assembly at site due to transport limitations. Few significant technical parameters of these KWU type of condensers are reproduced below : A. SINGLE PASS CONDENSER : Total surface area Total number of tubes Length of tubes Size of tubes Tubes material a) Condensing zone b) Air cooling zone CW quantity required Weight of condenser including tubes Length of condenser across turbine axis Height of condenser Width of condenser 10232 M2 17492 9900 mm dia 19x1 mm 90/10 Cu. Ni. 90/10 Cu. Ni. Or stainless steel 28570 M3/hr. 275 Tonnes Approx. 13.5 M Approx. 8.5 M Approx. 6.7 M Approx.

B. DOUBLE PASS CONDENSER : Total surface area Total number of tubes Length of tube Size of tubes Tube material a) Condensing zone b) Air cooling zone CW quantity required Weight of condenser including tubes Length of condenser across turbine axis Height of condenser Width of condenser 9656 M2. 19208 6400 mm dia 25.4 x 1.245 mm Al. brass or Adm. Brass 70/30 Cu. Ni. 28500 M3/hrs. 310 Tonnes 10.0 M Approx. 10.0 M Approx. 6.7 M Approx.

C. UNCHAHAR T.P.S. DOUBLE PASS CONDENSER :

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Surface area No. of tubes Length of tubes Size of tubes Tube material (Condensing and Air Cooling zones) C.W. quantity Weight of condenser

11495 M2. 19208 7600 mm 25.4 x 1.245 mm 90/10 Cu. Ni.

- 27000 M3/hr - 345 Tonnes

D. RAICHUR T.P.S. DOUBLE PASS CONDENSER : Surface area No. of tubes Length of tubes Size of tubes Tube material (Condensing and Air Cooling zones) C.W. quantity Weight of condenser 13845 M2. 17350 10100 mm 25.4 x 1.245 mm 90/10 Cu. Ni.

- 27000 M3/hr - 460 Tonnes Approx

[27]

Chapter 3

CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
3.1 INTRODUCTION

With the increasing size of the power plant more attention is being focused upon the design of the exhaust end of the machine. The main control parameter is the back pressure measured at the turbine exhaust since any deviation in this directly affects the heat rate of the machine. The main factor in a good condenser performance is the maintenance of the most efficient value of back pressure possible with the available cooling water condition. Even the slightest increase of the back pressure has a considerable effect on the heat consumption of the turbine.

3.2

PRESSURE CONDITION IN THE CONDENSER

The low pressure in the condenser is induced mainly by the conversion of steam to water, the latent heat of steam is being transferred to the cooling water through the tubes. The lowest pressure will be at the bottom of the condenser because there is very little steam at this point, most of it having been converted in to water. The true condenser pressure is therefore taken as that at the bottom of the condenser. The pressure at the top of the condenser must be greater then that at the bottom by an amount necessary to provide a downward flow of the steam. The difference in pressure, from the exhaust steam inlet at the top, to the condensate take off at the bottom is known as the condenser pressure drop. It is very important that the pressure drop is kept as low as possible because any increase means a higher pressure at the top of the condenser and a higher back pressure against the turbine. There is also a direct heat loss with greater pressure drop as the condensate has a temperature lower than that of the exhaust steam in proportion to the amount of pressure drop. If a condenser is so designed or operated that after condensing the steam, the condensate is cooled below saturation temperature, then under cooling said to be taking place. This causes a direct heat loss and can take place in most condensers in winter when the temperature of the cooling water is low. To illustrate the important contribution made to the work done by operating at vacuum, consider fig. 3.1. Steam is admitted to the turbine at the pressure of 11 bar absolute as shown by P1. The volume of the steam is 0.177 m3/Kg. If after expansion in the turbine, it is rejected at a pressure P2 of 1 bar absolute the volume will become 1.7 m3/Kg and work done will be represented by the area under the cure between the limits shown by P1 and P2.

[28]

Fig. 3.1 Pressure Vs. Specific volume for Dry Saturated Steam If now the final pressure is reduced to 0.5 bar absolute the expansion will continue to P3 and volume will be 3.3 m3/Kg. The extra work obtained per Kg of steam is represented by shaded area. To achieve a comparable amount of extra work at the inlet to the turbine, the stream pressure would have to be lifted from P1 to P4, i.e. from 11 to 17.5 bars as shown by the cross-hatched area. So even small change in the back pressure can cause considerable changes in work done per Kg of steam. So, it is important for efficient operation of a unit that is back pressure is always maintained at optimum level. The factors which affect the back pressure of condenser or responsible for low vacuum are : i) ii) iii) iv) v) Air ingress through leaking joints . Insufficient cooling water flow. Fouling of cooling water tubes of condenser. Malfunctioning of vacuum-pulling Excessive thermal loading of condenser due to leaking drain valves and HP/LP bypass.

3.3

EFFECT OF VARYING THE BACK PRESSURE

A large amount of the extra work is done by the team, when the back pressure is reduced. However, the trouble is that as the back pressure improves certain losses increase. Those are mainly : 1) CW Pumping Power. 2) Leaving losses. 3) Reduced condensate Temperature. 4) Wetness of the steam.
[29]

3.3.1

Increased CW Pumping Power

Assuming that the CW inlet temperature is low enough, the back pressure can be reduced by putting more and more CW through condenser tubes. However, this will require more CW pumping power and the gain from improved back pressure must be offset against extra power absorbed by the pumps. So the CW pumps should be run only when the cost of running the pump is equal to, or less than the gain in output from the machine. 3.3.2 Increasing leaving loss

The steam leaves the last row at a velocity which depends upon the conditions prevailing at the point. As this velocity is not utilized usefully, it is represents a loss of possible work known as the leaving loss. So velocity steam through fixed annulus is must also double. But leaving losses varies as square of the velocity. So it will increase four times. 3.3.3 Reduced condensate temperature / increased bled steam

The condensate in the condenser is at saturation temperature corresponding to the back pressure. It back pressure is reduced, saturation temperature will drop. When it enters first LP heaters it will be cooler than before consequently more steam will automatically be bled to the heater. The extra steam is no longer available to do work in the turbine will be deprived of some work. 3.3.4 Increase wetness of the steam

The lower the back pressure, the greater the wetness of steam. The extra moisture could result in damage to the moving blade. Also with increased wetness, volume of steam is reduced water droplets being heavier than steam moves slowly. So the front edge of moving blades have to push the droplets out of the way. This can cause damage to blades. Therefore, it is usual to fit satellite erosion shields to the leading edge to reduce this damage. As a rough guide, it can be assumed that every 1% wetness will reduce efficiency of associated stage by 1%. The reduction in back pressure will result in net improvement in heat consumption until a point is reached beyond which benefit due to improve back pressure is outweighed by the losses and heat consumption increase.

3.4

EFFECT OF AIR ON BACK PRESSURE

The reason why air has such an adverse effect on vacuum is often misunderstood, so a few words on the subject will not be out of place. The 100 percent capacity of the air pumps is often of the order to 1/2000 of the weight of steam entering the condenser per hour. Now, it is frequently (but wrongly) assumed that the back pressure suffers because of the extra partial pressure of the air. That this is not so can be easily
[30]

shown by calculation. Maxing even the maximum weight of the air, the air pumps can handle with the steam in the condenser would do very little to increase the back pressure because of the partial pressure alone. For example, if the back pressure is 34.474 mbar (vacuum) without any air presently would only rise to 34.3485 mbar. The real trouble with air is that as the steam condenses on the condenser on the condenser tubes the air (which is incondensable) is left behind. If the quantity of air is mall the scouring action of the steam and condensate will sweep the air is small the scouring action of the steam and condensate will sweep the air off the tubes. However, if the air quantity is significant things are different. Air is such an excellent heat insulator that it only requires a film a few molecules thick to seriously interfere with the heat transfer to the cooling water from the steam. Accordingly the vacuum suffers. Fortunately, it is easy to determine whether air is present in a condenser by merely measuring the temperature of the contents of the air suction pipe to the air pumps. With no air present this temperature is approximately the same as that of the saturated steam in the condenser. When air is present this temperature falls-the more air present the lower is the temperature.

3.5

SCALE FORMATION

Scaling is the precipitation of hare and adherent salts of calcium and magnesium on metal surface. These scales have very poor thermal conductivity and heat transfer in condenser is affected very seriously. It is therefore essential to control the scale formation on one hand and remove the deposited scale on the other hand for good condenser performance. Some of the common scale are calcium and magnesium carbonates and sulphatas, silicates and iron salts. Most commonly encountered scale in normal cooling water system is calcium carbonate, which is moderately soluble in water is present in almost all cooling waters and get decomposed into calcium carbonate at higher temperature and ph. Calcium carbonate is soluble in water and gets precipitated on the tubes. Calcium sulfate has higher solubility and hence less precipitation scale. Magnesium salts have less scaling potential, as they are more soluble than calcium salts and their concentration in water is usually slow. Process of scale formation gets accelerated with increase in water temperature and pH or alkalinity. Limiting cycle of concentration, using softening water for CW makeup, reducing CW water pH to about 8.5, and using on-line tube cleaning system with sponge balls - these are some of the measures that can be taken for controlling scale formation. Typical scales removed from condenser tubes (copper-based alloy and stainless steel) at Khaperkheda Thermal power station were analysed. The results are presented in the table follows.

[31]

Sr. Parameters No. 1 Physical appearance 2 Loss on ignition at 900 Deg (for CO2 estimation) 3 Acid insoluble 4 Metal oxides (R2O3) (comprising Fe2O3Al2O3 ) 5 CaO & MgO 6 Sulphate as SO3 7 Phosphates as P2O5

Scale from Copper-based Alloy Tubes (21OMW Units) Brown colored hard scale 39.55% 2.6% 2.4% 55.54% Nil Nil

The analysis clearly indicates that the properties of scale are not a function of tube metal but solely depend upon the quality of cooling water and conditions like increased temperature and ph which are favorable to scale formations and deposition on metal surface.

3.6

CONDENSER EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE

The condenser efficiency may be defined as ''the ratio of the difference between the outlet and inlet temperature of cooling water to the difference between the temperature corresponding to the vacuum in the condenser and the inlet temperature of the cooling water." Because of the considerable effect that condenser performance can have upon heat rate there is a need to apply a strict control upon its operation. Though the main control parameter is the back pressure measured at the turbine exhaust flange, since any deviation in this directly affects the heat of the machine, the following parameter also have to be measured and recorded periodically. A) B) C) D) E) F) G) H) I) J) K) C. W. inlet temperature C. W. outlet temperature C. W. pump amperage and bus voltage Loss of pressure across the condenser Megawatt load on unit Main steam temperature and pressure Reheat heat temperature and pressure FW final temperature Whether all feed water heaters are in service, if not , which are not Condenser exhaust temperature Condensate temperature

Generally, condensers are designed to operate at 85% cleanliness factor. It is possible to draw curves for different C.W. inlet temperature designed exhaust pressure at different cleanliness factors at a different MW loads. The steam flows can be read out from heat balance chart or in case of any basic departure (like a particular heater remaining out of service) a fresh heat balance can be drawn. Once these curves are available, the performance of the condenser ca be easily estimated any time . The C.W. pump current and pressure drop across condenser would give fair estimate of the quantity of C.W. flow to the condenser in practice checking of condenser tubes can be apprehended by people, but loss due to scaling/deposition is not easily seen and need shut down inspection.
[32]

3.6.1 a)

Condenser Condition Graph Deviation due to CW inlet temperature

Plot a line vertically from the actual CW inlet temperature to intersection with the optimum CW rise. Then plot horizontally to the intersection with optimum terminal difference (TTD) line, and then vertically downwards to cut the saturated steam temperature line to obtain the corresponding back pressure. (Refer fig 3.1) Hence the loss due to the high CW inlet temperature can be calculated by subtracting the optimum value from the actual back pressure b) Deviation due to C.W. flow

Plot a line from the actual CW inlet temperature vertically to the intersection with actual CW rise Then plot horizontally to the optimum TTD, then vertically downward to the satueration steam temperature to obtain the actual back pressure. the difference between the actual back pressure and the optimum back gives the loss due to the incorrect CW flow. c) Deviation due to air/dirty tubes

The effect of the air and dirty tubes on the heat transfer is to increase the TTD above optimum. As they both give the same effect they are lumped together in this exercise pot from the actual CW inlet temperature to the actual CW rise and then across the actual TTD line plotting vertically downwards to adjacent steam temperature back pressure. So the deviation due to air/dirty tubes can be found out.

Fig. 3.2 Condenser Conditioning Graph

[33]

3.7

CASE STUDY

The table below shows observation for condenser performance monitoring carried out at different seasonal days for Unit No. 10f -210 MW KHAPARKHEDA THERMAL POWER STATION (MSEB) Input data CW inlet (0C) CW outlet(0C) CW rise (0C) Vacuum (Kg/cm2) Saturation temperature corresponding to back pressure (0C) Terminal Temperature Difference (0C) Design Data. Condenser tubes specification 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Tube diameter (outside diameter) Tube thickness Tube diameter ( inside diameter) Tube length Number of tubes Cross sectional area per tube Surface area per tube Total surface area of tube Specific heat of CW Density of CW Condenser vacuum Condenser back pressure Sat. temperature at condenser back pressure Average temperature of CW inlet 30.500C Average temperature of CW at outlet CW temperature rise across condenser Terminal temperature difference 25.4mm 1.0mm 23.4mm 7.5m 19208 430.05m3 0.60m2 11495 m2 1.00kcal/kg/0C 1000kg/ m3 650.06mm of Hg 0.09kg/cm2 43.60C 30.500C 39.200C 8.790 C 4.400 C Test -1 July 2001 29 39.2 10.2 0.87 46.3 7.1 Test -2 Dec. 2001 22 32 10 0.9 39.9 7.9 Test- 3 May 2001 27.82 38.8 11 0.82 54.2 15.4

Calculation for the TEST-1 1) 2) If all values of C.W. Inlet (C.W.), C.W. Rise (C.W.R) ,T.T.D. are as per design then C.W.I+C.W.R.+T.T.D. = 30.5 + 8.79 +4.4 = 43.7 = 89.11 mbar If only inlet water temperature is actual then (C.W.I)a.+C.W.R.+T.T.D.=29 +8.79 +4.4 = 42.2= 82.46 mbar
[34]

3) 4) #1) #2) #3)

If both the inlet temperature and temperature rise is actual then (C.W.I)a.+C.W.R)a.+T.T.D.=29 +10.2 +4.4 = 43.6 = 89.11 mbar If all parameters are actual then (C.W..I)a.+(C.W.R)a.+(T.T.D)a=29+10.2 +7.1 =46.3 = 102.4 mbar Now effect of various parameters is as a follows Cooler Circulating Water improves vacuum by (82.46 -89.11) = -6.65 mbar = - 5 mm of Hg. Dirtiness of tubes detoriates vacuum by (89.11 - 82.46) = 6.65 mbar = 5 mm of Hg. Air ingress detoriates vacuum by (102.4 - 89.11 ) = 13.29 mbar = 10 mm of Hg.

Conclusion: #1) #2) #3) Inlet temperature is slightly lower than design value and hence little improvement in vacuum by 5 mm of Hg. Tubes are dirty which detoriates vacuum by 5mm of Hg. There is a little air ingress which causes vacuum detoriation by 10mm of Hg.

Calculation for the Test - 2 : 1) 2) 3) 4) #1) #2) #3) If all values of C.W. Inlet C.W. Inlet (C.W.), C.W. Rise (C.W.R) , T.T.D. are as per desung then C.W.I.+C.W.R.+T.T.D. =30.5 +8.79+4.4 =43.7 = 89.11 mbar If only inlet water temperature is actual then (C.W.I)a. +C.W.R.+ T.T.D.= 22 + 8.79 + 4.4 =35.19 = 56.6 mbar If both the inlet temperature and temperature rise is actual then (C.W.I)a.+(C.W.R)a.+T.T.D.=22 + 10 +4.4 =36.4 =61.18 mbar If all parameters are actual then (C.W.I)a.+(C.W.R)a.+(T.T.D)a= 22+10+7.9=39.9=73.15 mbar Now effect of various parameters is as a follows Cooler Circulating Water improves vacuum by (56.6 - 89.11) =-32.5 mbar =-24.4 mm of Hg. Dirtiness of tubes detoriates vacuum by (61.18 - 56.6) = 4.58 mbar =3 mm of Hg. Air ingress detoriates vacuum by (73.15 - 61.18) = 12 mbar = 9 mm of Hg.

Conclusion : #1) #2) Inlet temperature is slightly lower than design value and hence little improvement in vacuum by 24.4 mm of Hg. Tubes are dirty which detoriates vacuum by 3mm of Hg.
[35]

#3) Hg.

There is a little air ingress which causes vacuum detoriation by 9mm of

Calculation for the TEST - 3 1) 2) 3) 4) If all values of C.W. Inlet (C.W.), C.W. Rise (C.W.R) , T.T.D. are as per design then C.W.I.+C.W.R.+T.T.D.=30.5 + 8.79 +4.4 = 43.7 89.11 mbar If only inlet water temperature is actual then (C.W.I)a.+C.W.R.+T.T.D. =27.82 + 8.79 +4.4 =41 = 73.5 mbar If both the inlet temperature and temperature rise is actual then (C.W.I)a.+(C.W.R)a.+T.T.D.=27.82 + 11 +4.4 = 43.2 = 87.11 mbar If all parameters are actual then (C.W.I)a.+(C.W.R)a.+(T.T.D)a=27.82+11+15.4 = 54.22 = 151.62 mbar Now effect of various parameters is as a follows Cooler Circulating Water improves vacuum by (73.5 - 89.11) = -15.61 mbar = -11.74 mm of Hg. Dirtiness of tubes detoriates vacuum by (87.11 - 73.5) = 13.61 mbar =10.23 mm of Hg. Air ingress detoriates vacuum by (151.62 - 87.11) = 64.51 mbar = 48.5 mm of Hg.

#1) #2) #3)

Conclusion : #1) #2) #3) 3.7.1 1) Inlet temperature is slightly lower than design value and hence little improvement in vacuum by about 0.5 inches of Hg. Tubes are dirty which detoriates vacuum by 10.23 mm of Hg. There is a little air ingress which causes vacuum detoriation by around 2 inches of Hg. Notes on Results Losses due to high CW temperature.

Provided that the cooling towers are performing satisfactorily this loss must be accepted to some extent. It is possible, of course, to minimize the loss by having an abnormal quantity of cooling water flowing through the condenser; this gives a smaller cooling water temperature rise across the condenser then optimum. However, the gain which results from this is almost cancelled out by the additional pumping power required. Therefore, the increased turbine output caused by improving the vacuum must be greater then the increased circulating pump hour by required to justified these means of reducing the loss. 2) Variation of CW flow :

This is a loss which can normally be eliminated. If the cooling water temperature rise across the condenser is less then optimum, then the opening of the condenser cooling water outlet valve should be reduced. This condition may
[36]

also be shown up when the condensate temperature is lower than the saturated steam temperature. If the cooling water temperature rise is hardly effected by opening (even abnormally wide) of the cooling water valves then the condenser tube plates are probably fouled-assuming that there is no shortage of cooling water. 3) Dirty tubes.

Operationally little can be done to eliminate the cause of this loss, as the tubes must normally be cleaned when the unit is off - load. However, as soon as loss due to dirty tubes is determined, it should be ascertained that chlorine injection to the affected condenser satisfactory. It may be that the station chemist will wish to have the dosage increased; so he should always be informed. 4) Effect of air in condenser.

Practically all the air entering the condenser does so through leakages into the turbine spaces which are under vacuum and can have one or more of the following ill effects on operation:a) Air entering to the outside to the condenser tubes adds considerable resistance to the heat flow. To overcome this, in order to maintain the flow of heat the exhaust temperature must rise. This is known as air blanketing. The corresponding backpressure will rise as a result of increased exhaust temperature. The condensate temperature in relation to that of the exhaust temperature in a similar manner to the pressure drop.

b) c)

In the case of a) the increasing heat transfer resistance will increase the amount of heat that must be transferred and as the steam consumption is increaser attempts to hold the turbine output constant would further aggravate the situation. 5) Partial Pressure.

The reason for a) and b) are clear but some explanation is necessary for c). Here the reason lies in a scientific law known as Dalton's law of partial pressure, which states that if a mixture of gases of vapor is contained in a closed vessel each gas exerts a pressure equal to that which it would normally exert if alone in the vessel. In other words each exerts a partial pressure and the total pressure in the vessel is the sum of the partial pressures. Consider these laws in relation to the condenser. At the top, the weight of air present is very small compared with the weight of steam and the air partial pressure can be neglected. The total pressure can be regarded as that due to the steam alone. The steam temperature actually corresponds to the partial steam pressure. At the top of the condenser, steam temperature will therefore correspond to total pressure.
[37]

At the bottom of the condenser, however, most of the steam will have been condensed and there is a much bigger ratio by weight of air to steam. So, now the air partial pressure is not negligible, hence, at the bottom of the condenser the total pressure is greater than the steam partial pressure by an amount equal to the partial pressure. The condensate temperature corresponds to the steam partial pressure at the bottom of the condenser. It will therefore, be lower than if calculated from the total pressure. This is shown numerically in the following examples : Pressure (mm of Hg ) At the top of the condenser, due to steam alone. Pressure drop through condenser. Total pressure at the bottom of the condenser made up of partial pressure of steam & air. Partial air pressure at bottom Partial steam pressure at bottom 38 Say 5 33 Say 2.5 30 Temperature (0C) 33 -30.5 29

Thus the total losses in temperature are now 70C and there are due to air in the example shown is 20C. These emphases the importance of prevention of the air leaks and the removal of them condenser. 6) Velocity of steam.

The velocity of incoming steam is the main factor in the forcing the air towards the bottom of the condenser. Because of these velocities, the steam sweeps over tubes and drives the air away before it. In this way the tubes are kept free of air, which is kept. Moving towards the air outlet. It must not be allowed to recalculate or find a stagnant corner. During this tine the steam has been condensing so the air concentration increased towards the bottom of the condenser. When the air and the any uncondensed steam mixed with it reach the bottom of the condenser they come within the range of powerful effect of ejector draws this mixture under a baffle which encloses a nest of the tubes in the lowest temperature cooling water zone. In fact the water temperature at the outlet from this section might be only 50F higher than the water inlet temperature. In this air cooler section any steam remaining in the mixture is condensed and the air cooled. The reason for cooling the air is to reduce the volume and enable the ejector, which operates by volume, to remove a greater weight of air. The actual take off from the air cooler is usually placed about three tubes drawn the top of the air cooler section. This is to prevent air being reheated through contact with the baffle plate which has relics much hotter steam on the side.

[38]

[39]

Chapter 4

METHODS OF IMPROVING CONDENSER PERFORMANCE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The main scope for short term control of turbine efficiency is in the optimization of condenser vacuum and auxiliary power consumption. C.W. pumping power may account for upto 15% of steam auxiliary consumption and is therefore an appreciable saving when a pump is shut down. This, however, impairs the condenser vacuum and reduces turbine efficiency. It is required therefore to determine whenever the shutting down of a C.W. pump will produce greater saving than the corresponding loss in turbine efficiency or, consequently, whenever the starting up of a pump will bring about a more than compensating increasing in turbine efficiency. The effect of a change in the number of C.W. pumps in service depends upon the initial vacuum and the number of machines and pumps on the system. Also the change in heat rate corresponding to a given vacuum change depends upon whether the vacuum rising or falling; the question of putting a pump into service must, therefore, considered separately from that of shutting one down. Figure 4.1 illustrates typically changes in heat consumption due to depreciation in vacuum and the equivalent heat of pumping power. The intersection of these curves indicates the critical "breakeven" vacuum changes which are plotted in figure 4.2. If the vacuum changes which is greater then the critical value the pump ought not to have been shut down and vice-versa. These curves give no guidance as to when to experimentally increase or decrease the no. of pumps in service. It has been found possible by comparing the actual and critical vacuum change for a wide variety of pump, machine, initial vacuum and load condition to derive a relationship between CW temperature differential and vacuum. (See fig. 4.3).

Fig. 4.1 Turbine heat consumption plotted against vacuum change

[40]

Fig. 4.2 Critical vacuum chart

Fig. 4.3 CW temperature differential plotted against vacuum

4.2

CONDENSER CLEANING

When condenser tube plates become fouled, with debris CW flow is reduced, CW temperature differential rises and there is a deterioration of vacuum. The heat rate corresponding to actual vacuum may be readily determined from correction curves. However, it is necessary also to know what the vacuum and corresponding heat rate would have been if the fouling had not taken place. By a suitable range of test with clean condenser the normal CW temperature differential corresponding to machine and pumps in service, with fully open CW valves, may be determined. (The effect of initial CW temperature is negligible). The corresponding vacuum and heat rate may then be derived. By throttling in CW inlet valves to simulate fouling the change in vacuum corresponding to various degree of fouling may also be derived for various states of initial vacuum and then corresponding increased in heat rate derived. The form
[41]

of a family of curves relating heat rate to load in shown in figure 4.4 in which the curve applies to mild fouling except curve no. 1 applies to heavy fouling.

Fig. 4.4 Turbine heat rate plotted against load for various degrees of condenser fouling It is also necessary to know the cost of cleaning to restore efficiency. For on load cleaning this involves evaluation of : 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) The rise of vacuum for any initial vacuum with one side of a condenser isolated and drained, the dirty side remaining in commission. The vacuum which would exist when the second side of the condenser is being cleaned, the already clean side being back in commission. The duration of cleaning operation. The incremental labor cost involved (this may be expressed in terms of the BTU of heat that could have been purchased with the additional money spent on labor). The load reduction is necessary for safe operation with one half of condenser isolated & drained. The cost of cleaning will obviously be influenced be the loading condition of the station. In the extreme case, if the turbine is to be shutdown over night or at the week end the cost of heat loss due to running at reduced load owing cleaning will be eliminated. Partial load reduction will alleviate this loss but the optimum redistribution of station load during condenser cleaning on one machine must be established.

4.3

ON LOAD CLEANING

The desirability of keeping the condenser tube clean on the C.W. side is obvious, as dirt is synonomous with interference with heat transfer. One particular source of trouble arises from slime deposition. River water contain algae another organism which find the habital inside a condenser tube amenable, and so they settle on the tube surface.

[42]

The solution of the problem is to make the environment inhospitable, which is done by intermittently dosing the C.W. going to condenser with chlorine. The residual free chlorine at the C.W. outlet must be carefully monitored to ensure that no contamination occurs if it is return to river. Chlorination is very effective, although quite expensive. An alternative to chlorine injection for keeping the tubes clean is to use on load mechanical cleaning. A modern method has been developed where by the condenser tube are cleaned continuously while the unit is on load. (See the fig. 4.5) Foam rubber balls of diameter slightly in excess of the tube bore are circulated, trapped and the recirculated in the circulating water system. In this way the tubes are continuously cleaned & dirt & scale formations are not allowed to build up.

Fig 4.5 On - load condenser cleaning system

4.4

CONDENSER LEAKS

There are two leakage problems associated with all surface condenser is; these are air leakage, and C.W. leakage into the steam and condensate space. A third leakage problem which can arise is the leakage of cooling water into the turbine hall. 4.4.1 Air leakage

Air leakage into the condenser is one of the main causes of poor vacuum. Air can leak into the condenser from any part of the condenser system which is
[43]

under vacuum, but leakage at the condenser itself is usually via the flange is associated with the condenser mounting, such as at the condenser flash box and the gauge glass. This type of leakage very often occurs after the prolonged period of two shift operation, when the temperature cycling causes failure of the flange joints. 4.4.1.1 The effect of air in the condenser Air is poor conductor of heat. As air collects in the steam space of the condenser it tends to form a blanket around the tubes and so increase the resistance of the heat transfer path. This means that the temperature at which the steam has to be increased to transfer the latent heat of condensation from the steam to the circulating water result in a poorer vacuum. This is a similarity effect to that caused by dirty tubes. Excessive air in the condenser also tends to under cool the condensate. Dalton's law of partial pressure states that the pressure of mixture of gaseous substances is the sum of the pressure which each would exert if it alone were present in the vessel. These individual pressures are called partial pressures. At the top of the condenser the quantity of steam is far in excess of that of air and the pressure at the top of the condenser can be taken as being equal to the partial pressure of the steam. As the steam passes over the tubes and condenser the air which is present becomes more significant and the pressure in the lower part of the condenser is the sum of the partial pressure of the steam and the partial pressure of the air. 4.4.1.2 Detection of air leakage a) ON. Load Detection :

The traditional method of locating air leaks when the turbine is on load is to pass a lighted taper round the joints which are suspected of having a leak. The flame of the taper is drawn towards the place where the air is being drawn into the condenser. This is a time-consuming technique as the taper has to be passed slowly over every area where a leak is suspected, and the presence of draughts can make this a very frustrating job. A quicker way of locating leaks is to spray the suspected area with freon or other halogen gas. This is then drawn into the condenser and sucked into the air extraction equipment. If a lighted blow lamp is placed with its flame above the air discharge port on the air extraction equipment the normally blue flame will change to orange when the halogen is emitted. A more modern development of this method is the use of halogen gas detectors. These are inserted into the air discharge line from the air extraction equipment and a meter registers when a halogen gas passes the detector. A suitable gas (such as freon) is sprayed round the suspected area until the detector registers.
[44]

The disadvantages of these systems are : a) b) The operation needs two men: one man spraying, and the other watching the blow lamp or inkicator. Time must be allowed to elapse after each spray so that, if there is an indication, the operator knows which area that has been sprayed contains the leak.

b)

Off. Load Detection :

Off - load leak searches are carried out by filling the condensate system and steam space with water to a level below the turbine blades. Care must be taken to ensure that the condenser supports have first been set in the correct position to cater for the extra load in the condenser. Fluorescene is added to the water, and if any leakage takes place the fluorescene can be detected by the use of an ultra-violet lamp. Leakage is detected by this method, not only at the condenser mountings, but also on the low pressure feed heaters also. In KWU turbines, vacuum leak detection is done by filling water up to one meter above the top row of condenser cooling water tubes. This procedure is called vacuum tightness test. During this test, CW side of condenser is kept completely empty. In this procedure, however, leakage points one meter above the tube nest, remain undetected. Previously, "FREON GAS " detection instrument was employed for the same. This instrument is currently not manufactured due to environmental degradation by the Freon gas. The following sections bring out the procedure of detecting leakage points in above mentioned undetected area by steam pressurization. The purpose of this test is to check the leakage in those areas which will remain under vacuum even at a load of 80 to 100% on the machine. This procedure is to be adopted during commissioning process. 4.4.2 Circulating water leakage

The two kinds of CW leakage, internal and external. Internal leakage into the steam and condenser space is the most important of these two. 4.4.2.1 Internal leakage Leakage of cooling water into the condensate can be caused by several fault, but the main causes area) b) c) d) Tube to tube plate fixing leaking Internal corrosion and erosion of the tubes. External corrosion of the tubes. Fatigue and stress cracking of the tubes
[45]

We shall look at each of this in some detail to see exactly how the leakage occurs. a) Tube to tube plate fixing

The condenser tube has to be securely fastened into the tube plate to make a watertight joint and yet has to be allowed to expand relative to the tube plate. There are two types of tube fixing; by the use of ferrules, and by tube expansion in the tube fixing by fellows the tube is fixed at both and by ferrules. There being a clearance which allows expansion of the tube to take place. Ferrules are screwed into the tube plate and the seal is made by packing rings, which are usually made of lead and fibre and are leak resistance. The expanded or rolled in method is a better method of fixing. It gives better hydraulic configuration is simple, and has good sealing properties. The relative expansion which may occur between the tube and the condenser shell is usually catered for by fitting bellows section between the tube plate and the condenser shell. b) Internal corrosion and erosion:

Internal corrosion and erosion of tubes can be a serious source of leakage and can lead to tubes having to be blanked off. c) External erosion:

External erosion of tube results from water impingement. Where baffles have worn away, or have by mistake been omitted only get from the condenser, make-up or drainage water can impinge directly onto the tube. d) Fatigue and stress cracking:

Fatigue cracking can take place when tubes have been subjected to vibration. Cracking takes place at positions adjacent to the tube of support plates and is mainly transcrystalline within the structure of the metal. Stress cracking takes place in the metal where unequally distributed static stresses exist or are applied to it. Cracks due to stress cracking are usually inter crystalline and within the metallic structure and viewed under microscope, and be seen to be branching in character. Condenser tube leaks have also been caused by broken turbine blades being rejected into the condenser. Moreover, if there is any vibration of the tubes, the tubes may come into contact with one another, so causing them to racks after a while and give further leaks.

[46]

The effect of C.W. leakage into the condensate : Leakage of cooling water into the condenser steam side can have serious consequences. The C.W. carries impurities with it into the condensate system; the most detrimental are those containint chloride, such as NaCl. These impurities are then carried forward into the boiler. The presence of chloride in the boiler water constitutes a potential hazard, principally because acid chlorides can be formed and boiler tubes corrosion can result. The higher the boiler pressure the greater is the danger. It is, therefore, very important that C.W. leakage should be detected, the source of leakage located, and the leaks rectified. The initial indication of a tube leaks Fortunately, the impure water has a property which can be utilized to detect it. The impure water conducts electricity better than the pure condensate and is said to have a higher conductivity. If the conductivity of the condensate is monitored a change will be detected when a leakage of C.W. occurs. The practical advantage of condensate conductivity measurement is that it indicates changes, not only in the actual value but also in increases above the normal running value. To the plant operator, this often gives the first indication of condenser leakage. Detection of Leaking Tube There are several methods of locating the leaking tube, and new methods are continually being tried. The principal methods of leak location are as follows : a) The simple manometer :

Fig. 4.6 shows a simple manometer, which can be manufactured by the station chemist. One end of the condenser tube is plugged and the manometer is inserted into the other end. The leaking tube will suck the liquid out of glass because of the vacuum in the condenser. This method is very effective, but can be time consuming. b) The Blanket Effect :

In this method the tube plate is covered by thin plastic sheeting or by foam. The leaking tube will tend to pull the foam or sheet into it. c) Sonic detection :

As air is drawn into the leaking tube it creates a supersonic whistle. This wistle is detected by a microphone placed in the entrance to the tube, and the resulting signal is amplified.

[47]

d)

Bubbler leak detectors :

Fig. 4.7 shows a conventional bubbler. This can be used for on-load detection and its method of operation is similar to the simple manometer. If one end of the tube is blocked with a bung, the vacuum of the condenser pulls air through the bubbler when it is inserted in the other end of the tube. A more advanced type of bubbler called MEL bubbler can be used both for on-load and off-load detection and is very suitable for use with pannier and integral condensers. Fig. 4.8 illustrates the principle of the MEL bubbler. The tube to be tested is plugged, connected to a reference vessel and vacuum pump, and there the system is evacuated. The pump is then isolated from the system and, after a short time, to ensure that the pressure in the tube being tested and the reference vessel have equalized, the balance valve is closed. From then on any air leaking into the tube under test will be indicated by a stream of bubbles issuing from the end of the tube in the jar or water. If on-load location is not successful it may be necessary to take the turbine off load to locate the leak. On some older turbines it is possible to enter the steam space and locate the leak directly as the CW sprays into the steam space, but usually this is not possible on a modern turbine. Where underslung condensers are fitted it is possible to fill the steam space with condensate containing fluorescene and examine the tube plate with an ultra-violet lamp to find the leaking tube. As we mentioned previously, the condenser support springs must be jacked up before the steam space is filled with condensate. Where pannier or integral condensers have been fitted this method cannot be used if the steam space is filled with water the low pressure cylinder could be under water. The Double-Tube Plate On modern turbine plant extensive use is being made of the double-tube plate in an attempt to reduce the effect of leakage at turn fixings. Fig. 4.9 illustrates the principle of the double-tube plate. The interspace A can either be under vacuum (in which case leakage will be into space) or it can be fed with condensate under pressure a leakage from the system. Alternatively, the conductivity of the drainage from the interspace A can be monitored; an increase indicating a leaking tube fixing.

[48]

4.4.2.2 External Leakage External Leakage from condenser water boxes and joints is usually due to metal removal by erosion or corrosion. Erosion is the physical removal of metal by excessively turbulent water (particularly when it contains air bubbles), or by water carrying grit or other suspended solids. This makes particularly susceptible those places where water has to change direction quickly, such as water boxes, or in areas of excessive turbilance due to the throttling action of valves. Leakage path erosion between the impeller eye and casing of large CW pumps may necessitate the use of wearing rings at this point. An external leakage source may also be a broken or loose anode in a cathodic protection system. Corrosion is the result of electro-chemical action, which can be reduced but cannot be entirely eliminated. Cast iron condenser waterboxes are particularly affected by sea water, which dissolves the iron content of metal, leaving behind weak and porous graphite in original shape. The application of protective coatings and cathodic protection adoption help to reduce electrolytic corrosion. Painting gives some protection to condenser water-boxes, although adequate surface preparation and coverage is difficult to achieve; severe localized corrosion may occur where there is a defect in point film. Natural or synthetic rubber coatings are more successful and have a longer life, although initial cost is high. An unprotected water box, however, provides some protection for copper alloy condenser tubes by limited cathodic protection mechanism. Conversely, successful coating of waterboxes accelerates corrosion, elsewhere, particularly at tube ends. Thus, cooling should extend a short distance into tubes, or plastic inserts may be placed in tube ends.
[49]

Cathodic protection is based on the principle of a corrosion cell; if two dissimilar metals are placed in electrolyte, corrosion of the more electro-negative one (anode) takes place in preference to the other (cathode). In cooling water systems the iron components from the anodes and the copper alloys (tubes) from the cathodes. If a third electrode, more electro-negative than the iron and the copper alloys, is added to the system and is electrically connected to the other two electrodies, the new electrode corrodes in preference to the iron, or the copper alloys. This system is know as the sacrificial anode type of cathodic protection (Fig. 4.10), as the third electrode is sacrificed to save the original (iron) electrode. Improved cathodic protection, requiring less maintenance (replacement of sacrificial anodes) and able to protect a larger area, is provided by an impressed circuit type system. It uses the same principle, but an inert or semi-inert material (e.g. platinum coated titanium) is deliberately made anodic to existing material by passing low voltage direct current through it into the electrolyte (Fig. 4.11).

[50]

Chapter 5

CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The cooling water circulating (CW) system is probably the most important auxiliary system in a power station. Without a supply of cooling water to the condensers, a condensing turbine cannot be operated. It is therefore essential that the CW system is reliable. A 210 MW turbine rejects large amount of heat to the cooling water with a CW temperature rise of between 80C and 100C. A lot of money can be saved by skilful operation of the CW system to give optimum conditions in the condenser. Fig. 5.1 shows where the major losses occur in 210 MW unit. The CW system has to be designed so that it is flexible for economic operation, and reliable to give good availability. The basic aims of the designer are to provide : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) A guaranteed supply of water to all running sets at all times. Ready and efficient control of water quantity to give optimum power station efficiency under all conditions of power station load and water temperature. A balanced supply of water to all sets without recourse to unnecessary throttling. Minimum maintenance needs easily carried out. Minimum overall capital and operating costs consistent with the above requirements.

In this chapter we shall deal more with the design aspects of CW systems and plant items.

Fig. 5.1 Major Losses in Thermal Power Station

[51]

In the thermal power station we require the cooling water for : i) ii) iii) iv) v) Condensers. Generators. Lubrication oil coolers. For bearing cooling. Air conditioning plant.

Among all above circulating water required for condenser is comparatively very high. In the condenser about 60 to 65% at steam is condensed, quality of circulating water for 210 MW unit is around 15500 m3/hr. Circulation water required in condenser depends upon i) ii) iii) Steam condition (Turbine exhaust) Unit size Use at regenerative feed heating cycle.

5.2

TYPES OF C.W. SYSTEM

It

In various thermal power station different C.W. systems are used. depends upon the availability of cooling water and atmospheric condition. There types are : i) ii) Once through or Direct system or Open system. Recirculation or closed system.

In the once through system water is taken from the source either pond or river or sea, it is introduced condenser and after condensing the steam water is discharged in the source at suitable location. See in fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2 Once through or open C.W. system

Wherever cooling water is not available in ample quantity the recirculation system is used in the thermal power station. In this system C.W. discharge from the condenser is cooled by cooling towers either wet type or dry type and again same cooled water is reintroduced in to the condenser. In this system we have to
[52]

add some quantity of make up water into system on the part of evaporative losses. See the fig. 5.3

Fig. 5.3 Recirculation or closed system

The economics, design constriction and functional requirements of the C.W. system and associated plant components are discussed in detail in the sections which follow. Fig. 5.4 indicates the component terminology for the two typical arrangements of Recirculation cooling system and once through cooling system and it is intended to be used for reference purpose. The following paragraphs briefly describe the functional requirements of some of the C.W. system equipments. Screening Plant : The screening plant must remove any debris from the cooling water which is large enough to block the condenser or auxiliary cooler tubes. It must be easy to keep clean even during periods of excessive debris. C.W. Pumps : The cooling water (C.W.) pumps must circulate the water against system resistance, or pumping head, or pumping head, under all the condition encountered at a particular site. To ensure efficient and flexible C.W. pump operation, valves are usually provided to allow any combination of pumps, condensers and cooling towers to operate together. Cooling towers : The purpose of cooling tower is to cool the hot C.W. discharges from condensers, so that it could be reused for the same purpose.

[53]

Fig. 5.4 Terminology for condenser and C.W. system

[54]

5.3
5.3.1

DESIGN ASPECTS OF MAJOR ITEMS

Cooling towers

When power stations are built beside rivers which cannot supply sufficient water to condense the turbine exhaust steam by using a once-through system, cooling towers are used in conjunction water with a closed-circuit system to cool the circulating water. 5.3.1.1 Principles of operation Fig. 5.5 illustrates the operation of a cooling tower. Cooling water is pumped from the turbine condenser by the tower pump to the cooling tower. Inside the tower the water passes through sprinklers, and sprays out in find drops. The water then falls as droplets, passing over pickings where it is made to present a greater surface area to the cooling air. The water then falls into the cooling tower pond. Air is drawn in near the bottom of the tower, either by natural draught or by a fan. The air passes up the tower and cools the water is it does so. Any water droplets which have been carried up by the air are removed by the water droplet eliminator screen. 5.3.1.2 The theory of cooling As a water droplet falls through the tower, air flows past it and cooling takes place in three ways : (a) (b) A small proportion of heat is lost from the droplet by radiation of heat from its surface. Approximately a quarter to one-third of the heat transferred is by conduction and convection between the water and the air the amount of heat transferred depends on the temperature of water and air.

Fig. 5.5 : Cooling Tower Operation.

[55]

(c)

The remainder of the heat transfer is by evaporation. As the air evaporates some of the water into water vapour, the vapour takes with it the latent heat of evaporation. The remaining water therefore has a lower heat content than it had originally, and is also at a lower temperature.

The amount of evaporation which takes place depends on a number of factors; these include the total surface area the water presents to the air (the reason the packing design is so important), and the amount of air flowing. The greater the air flow, the greater the cooling achieved. 5.3.1.3 Types of cooling towers There are several types of cooling tower tasted on two air and water systems. They can be natural or forced draught cooled, and can be wet towers or dry towers. Fig. 5.6 and 5.7 illustrates some of these types are shown. Natural draught cooling tower The modern natural draught tower is usually of the concrete hyperbolic pattern. The term 'hyperbolic' refers to the fact that the side of the tower has the form of a hyperbola. In this type of tower, air moves upwards, because of the chimney effect created by the difference in density between the warm moist air inside the tower and the colder, denser air outside. Hyperbolic towers are best suited to regions with high humidity, populated areas, and where land prices are high the height of the exhaust from these towers helps to prevent the formation of fog along the ground. Mechanical draught - cooling water Mechanical draught towers, using fans either to force or to induce the movement of air, first came into use in the 1930s. In a forced-draught tower, the fan is at the bottom and pushes the air up through the tower. I n an induced draught tower the fan is at the top and pulls the air up. One of the main problems with forced draught towers in recirculation; vapour leaving the tower at low velocity tends to re-enter the tower, with the result that the wet bulb temperature of the entering air is increased and the performance of the tower is impaired. A combination of natural and mechanical draught cooling can be seen in the assisted draught tower. The fans, in this case, help to increase the air flow. Fig. 5.8 shows such a tower with cross-flow packing (which we shall explain leter).

[56]

Fig. 5.6 : Natural draught wet cooling tower

Fig. 5.7 : Induced draft cooling tower

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Fig. 5.8 : Assisted draught cooling tower With this arrangement it is estimated that a single tower will provide the cooling for at least 660 MW of plant and although its base diameter will be about 140 m (450 ft), its appearance from a distance will be little different from a single natural draught tower with a capacity of 250 MW. Compare this with a 500 MW unit which requires two natural draught towers 115 m (375 ft) high by 90 m (300 ft) diameter. Dry cooling towers In cooling tower made their first appearance in Hungary during the year 1950, and later it was used in 1962 by CEGB in U.K. for one of their unit of 120 MW capacity. Fig. 5.9 show a schematic layout at a dry cooling tower system. In principle, it is a simply a water to air surface heat exharger, like a motor-car radiator, the air being induced to flow through the radiator by the tower chimney effect.

Fig. 5.9 : Dry cooling tower system. In the closed circuit, cooled water from the heat exchangers in the cooling tower is sprayed through nozzles into the condenser, where exhaust steam form the turbine is condensed by direct contact. The cooling water and condensate mixture passes to the CW pump, which delivers most of it through the discharge
[58]

culvert to the heat exchangers : the remainder (about 1 per cent) is taken by the extraction pumps and delivered through the feed heating system to the boiler. As you will appreciate, all the water used is to condensate quality. 5.3.1.4 Tower shape and construction Air entering a cylindrical tower is carried in towards the centre of the tower as it rises up through the tower until the man of air reaches a minimum diameter, as shown in fig. 5.10. The minimum diameter is called the vena contracta, and its dimension depends on the radius of the tower at the air opening (R), and the ratio of the height of the air opening (h) to the radius.

Fig. 5.10 : Air flow through a cylindrical cooling tower From a strictly thermal point of view, the cooling tower shape could be cylindrical, but there is no thermal advantage to be gained by making the throat of the tower of greater diameter than the diameter of the vena contracta. Considerable savings in materials and costs can be gained by tapering the shell to the diameter of the vena contracta. One more advantage is that the hyperbolic shape stiffens the concrete shell against wind forces an added safety factor. Windening out the tower after the throat also helps to stiffen the shell against wind forces. In Germany, cylindrical shells are used, the main advantage being that sliding shutters can be used in the construction, which makes for speedy construction. In British conditions the extra steel and concrete required is not considered to be economical. In Britain, tower shells are built with concrete cast in situ; the shuttering is supported on the concrete case a few days earlier, so dispensing with the great quantity of scaffolding which was formerly employed. The entire weight of the shell and wind reaction load is supported by reinforced concrete columns. These columns are inclined in the same plane as the bottom of the shell and provide a support between the base rings of the shell and the foundation. The cold water basin beneath the tower may form the foundation, or it may be separate. The basin is sometimes provided with a conical bottom to collect silt from the cooling water. 5.3.1.5 Packings
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The water to be cooled is allowed to flow over the packing and, in so doing, presents a large surface area to the air stream. It is in the packing where most of the cooling takes place. For this reason, it is worthwhile examining in more detail the design and construction of the various types. The ideal requirements of any packing are that it should : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Have a very large surface area for a given volume of material. Be structurally strong. Be chemically inert. Not support scale. Not be susceptible to attach by micro-organisms. Have a low resistance to air flow. Have a low weight per unit volume.

There are two types of packing which are both named after the way they provide a large surface area to the water; they are splash packing, and film packing, and are shown in fig. 5.11.

(a) Film packing (b) Splash packing Fig. 5.11 : Types of cooling tower packing

Splash packings, as you may have guessed, break the falling water droplets into smaller water droplets, by breaking them up as they splash on to the packing. The packing may be up to 6 m high, and the spacing of the splash bars may be 150 mm horizontally and 230 mm vertically. The area of wetted surface of the splash bar also has some effect on the cooling rate. A rectangular cross-section gives the highest surface area for a given volume of material, but a triangular cross-section has more strength and has less resistance to air flow.
[60]

Film packings spread the water into a thin film, so forming a large surface area for a given volume. These packings must have good adhesive properties so that the water will stick to them, and then (because water has a low surface tension) a thin film will be formed (see Fig. 5.12).

Fig. 5.12 : Formation of thin water film Materials for packings Spalash packings and some types of film packings have traditionally been made from wood. The timber is unplanned, so giving a greater surface area. The wood used is from one of the varieties of fir tree grown as far north as possible that for the most severe duty coming from within the Arctic circle. The growth of the wood is slower in trees grown within the Arctic circle, and so their annual rings are closer, making the timber more durable when wet. One of the main disadvantages of wood packings is that they are subject to fungal attack. Chemical inhibitors can be used to stop this attack, but these, like the older but still popular creosote, tend to leach out of the timber, by evaporation, or are washed out by the water. This has been overcome by the use of water-borne salts such as 'Tanalith C' and 'Celcure' which combine with the timber to form insoluble compounds which are not leached out by the circulating water. Through timber packings have advantages, the limitation in their active life and the increasing cost of timber has led to a search for new packing materials and it is replaced by asbestos cement. A more efficient design is the use of a double layer of corrugated sheets fabricated from asbestos cement, and this is the design which is now in use. The material is relatively inexpensive, non-flammable and is not subject to fungal or chemical attack. Glass has also been used as a packing material at some power stations, but its use is not widespread.
[61]

As in so many other fields considerable attention has been paid in recent year to plastics. Fig. 5.13 shows a typical plastics plate packing. One of the main disadvantages not yet overcome is its poor mechanical strength. Work is still progressing to determine how the various plastics can best be used and also to see if better materials can be found. The advantages of plastics as packing are that they : (a) (b) (c) (d) Give a light, easily supported pack. Are inert in acid or alkaline water conditions. Do not leach away to form a sludge. Do not support scale. Will not support animal or vegetable life. Are not subject to electrolytic action. Are comparatively cheap. Are easily formed.

(e)
(f) (g) (h)

Fig. 5.13 Plastic plate cooling tower packing Cross-flow packings In the cross-flow packing water falls vertically, by gravity, over the packing, while air flows horizontally, as we showed earlier in fig. 5.14. The performance of the tower improves as the height of the packing increases. In the cross-flow tower the height of the packing can be increased without affecting the length of the air flow path and, therefore without increasing the draught loss.

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Fig. 5.14 : Cross-flow packing arrangement 5.3.2 Screens

Circulating water, whether it is taken from a river or from the sea, contains matter which could easily block condenser and cooler tubes. Among the things most likely to cause blockages are leaves, fish, wool, and other industrial waste. Most of the water drawn in is used in the condenser and, therefore, all the water passes through a screen, immediately before the CW pump, this screen has holes of such a size that it will allow only those particles which will easily pass through the condenser to enter the system. After the water has passed through the moving screens, it still contains some particles that would block the smaller tubes in the auxiliary plant coolers, such as the air and oil coolers on electric motors, and the oil coolers on the variable speed couplings. Water which is tapped off the main CW system to be used in the auxiliary coolers is passed through strainers with smaller perforations. So that large floating debris, such as logs and oil drums, are not sucked into the system with the possibility of damage to the moving screens, fixed coarse screens are mounted at the main intake. These take the from of vertical bars, an dare spaced up to 300 mm (1 ft) apart. If anybody should fall into the water at the main intake these fixed coarse screens also prevent them from being drawn into the system. Fig. 5.14 shows the relative positions of the screens and strainers in the CW system.

Fig. 5.15 : Screen positions

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5.3.2.1 Fixed coarse screen These screen consists of vertical steel bars which are placed close enough together to stop large debris entering, but because these screens are not continuously cleaned the bass have to be so for apart that smaller debris will not build up and cause a blockage. The bass may upto 300 mm apart. As the cleaning of the screens is carried out by raking, it is important that these should be a minimum at cross members. The screen bars are usually manufactured of mild steel, but are given a protective coating, possibly galvanized, but more probably a bituminous paint or an epoxy based paint. 5.3.2.2 Moving Screens The open traveling or band screen is shown in fig. 5.16 with a band screen the civil engineering costs are much lower than with the previously mentioned screens. It is used where there is a high tidal difference and a smaller requirement for water. Unfortunately, because of the many moving parts, the maintenance costs are must higher; these costs must be considered in relation to the savings in the civil engineering costs.

Fig. 5.16 : Band or moving screen The screen consists of two chains suspended by chain rollers running in two sprockets fixed to a head shaft and guided by fixed tracks. The screen panels are fastened to the inner links of the chain and are made up as in the cup screen design. Wash water sprays and trash collecting buckets and baskets are provided as in the cup screen design. It is very important to keep the load on the band screen to a minimum because a high differential pressure across the screen at low tide can cause severe buckling of the screen. It is important, therefore, to keep the screen clean. To assist the sprays in this task, the screen can be driven at varying speeds up to 0.15 m/s (30 ft/min) but because of the wear on the moving parts, periods of running at high speeds should be kept as short as possible, and whenever possible the screen should be stopped.

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As a safety device against the screen being permanently damaged by buckling, a by-pass door is sometimes provided which opens on receipt of a high screen differential pressure signal. This allows unscreened water into the condenser. Although this system saves the screen from permanent damage, it can result in blocked condenser end plates and tubes. This type of screen also requires more operator attention, not only because the screen has to be regularly inspected for screen blockage, but also because someone has to make sure that the rollers are running centrally on the sprockets and in the guide tracks. 5.3.3 Strainers

The strainer mesh has to be sufficiently fine to stop small particles that have passed through the CW screens from blocking the small auxiliary coolers. The mesh size is approximately 4.00 or 4.75 mm (5/32 or 3/16 in) diameter. The strainer bodies are made from cast iron or fabricated mild steel while the mesh is brass or stainless steel. Because of the fineness of the mesh, it is important that the strainers are kept clean. A differential pressure gauge is fitted across the strainer so that an operator can tell when it is becoming blocked. The strainers are arranged in pairs, in parallel, and the inlet and outlet valves of each strainer are connected so that the valves on the stand-by strainer are opened as the valves on the strainer in service are shut. An alternative type of strainer is the basket strainer where, instead of the double reel, there is a basket which can be lifted out for cleaning when necessary. This type is now being superseded by the double reel strainer. Strainers can also be made to have a continuous back-washing system, which reduces the work required from the operator and is useful where a strainer might be required in a relatively remote part of the power station. Fig. 5.17 shows a rotating disc strainer which is having back-washing arrangement.

Fig. 5.17 : Rotating disc strainer

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In this type of strainer, a small portion of the cleaned water passes back through the strainer disc, which is motor driven; an alarm sounds if the motor fails or if the screen differential pressure becomes too high.

5.4

CHLORINATION

Chlorination of cooling water is required to be done, because water from river or sea contains algae, mussel and bacteria. These may choke the cooling water tubes and reduces the plant efficiency. The atmosphere inside condenser is highly positive for the growth of bacteria which reduces the heat transfer rate. To control and kill the small living organism like mussel and marine fouling, chlonination is done periodically or as it is required. Chlorine can be dozed at the cooling towers or at the site of course or primary screen. To ensure the cooling water is free from bacteria and living organism, residual chlorine content is checked at the C.W. outlet of condenser. Generally it should be 1ml/m3 (1 ppm Vol/hr). The amount of chlorine needed to prevent marine fouling is larger than that required to prevent-slime buildup, specially in the spring and summer month and continuous chlorine dozing may be required. Bacteria, slime and algae are rapidly killed by chlorine.

5.5
5.5.1

CIRCULATING WATER PUMPS

GENERAL

Two types of C.W. pumps are used in thermal power stations. First is horizontal split casing double-entry designs and second is vertical spindle bottom inlet single-entry type. The horizontal pumps, while easy to maintain, require a large floor space, and the weight problems on the larger units necessitated the use of multiple casing castings. The alternative vertical spindle pumps, now generally specified, have been developed for both metal casing and concrete volute applications, with the choice depending on the overall economics of the installation. They have significant advantages compared with the horizontal designs in terms of the compactness and cost of mechanical, electrical and civil engineering work. Considering the hydraulic designs the specific speed is limited to 1.6. This reduces the risk of both head/flow characteristic instability and high powers at low flows. It also gives a good efficiency spread over the range of operating flowrates. The head/flowrate and absorbed power characteristics are now controlled by the following specification : Pumps are designed so that the discharge head falls continuously as the flowrate is increased from zero to rated capacity by a minimum of 1% for any 15% increase in discharge flow. The pumps are capable of sustained running at any point on their head/flow curve from 25% to the maximum runout condition. The input power rises continuously as the flow is increased from zero to the rated flowrate.

Circulating water pump speeds are normally in the range 150-300 r/min. Low speed motors, suitable for direct coupling to the pumps, are expensive and it
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is usually economically justifiable to include a step-down gearbox between the pump and motor. The combined efficiency of a 1000 r/min high speed motor and associated gearbox can be similar to the low speed multi-pole motor. When comparing capital costs of the two options, the costs of extra cranage equipment and the additional civil work to support the heavier motor have to be added to the direct drive pumpset costs. The two main advantages of the direct drive option are its simplicity, which can lead to higher availability, and the elimination of any noise control requirements arising from the high speed motor / gearbox combination. For flowrates over 10 m3/s, main cooling water pumps are now based on the concrete volute type. Below around 6 m3/s, it is impractical to consider concrete volutes because of physical access limitations in the mechanical seal area, and metal casing designs have been used. 5.5.2 HORIZONTAL SPLIT-CASING PUMPS.

This design of pump has the major advantage that the top section of casing and the rotating element can be removed without breaking either the pipe joints or disturbing the alignment. While this feature gives good accessibility for both overhaul and maintenance work, the horizontal design has a number of disadvantages apart from the large floor area required. In particular, the preference for installing the unit with the impeller eye below minimum water level, to eliminate the need for complicated priming equipment, results in expensive civil excavations. The physical size of the large metal casings has also brought about both manufacturing difficulties and flexing problems with the complicated assembly. 5.5.3 VERTICAL PUMPS

5.5.3.1 Vertical metal-casing pumps Volute casing designs are used for pumping duties up to around 8 m3/s. On low head coastal applications, standard gear-driven units may be prefferd, while on the higher head inland cooling tower applications, it has been possible to use a direct motor drive while still retaining the same equivalent specific speed as the equivalent gear-driven units. With this design, the pump forms part of the piping and its intake is from a relatively unsophisticated suction chamber; it generally has a smaller civil engineering cost than the equivalent concrete volute design. There is not complicated volute to construct, and as the pump has a smaller overall diameter than the concrete volute, the pumphouse floor area is smaller. On the debit side, the bowl pump arrangement has a much higher mechanical pumping equipment cost. Maintenance of the bowl pump is also difficult and the crane normally has to be sized to take the total pump weight for installation and overhaul. As the pump is withdrawn vertically for major overhaul work, a suction isolating valve is not required. This however leads to a relatively long pump to facilitate vertical isolation. One major technical disadvantage of the bowl pump is the need for
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submerged shaft bearing bushes. These are not readily accessible and can have a relatively short life in silt-laden water. Casting problems have tended to limit the size of both the volute and bowl pump designs. The standard use of cast iron necessitates the inclusion of substantial allowances on coastal units to allow for corrosion/erosion effects over the life of the station. 5.5.3.2 Concrete volute pumps Figure 5.18 shows the sectional arrangement of a typical concrete volute pump which follows the same hydraulic principles as the conventional metal casing designs except for the volute which is formed on-site on the concrete foundations. The pump casing consists of permanently-embedded top and bottom seating rings separated by the cutwater and stay vanes. These are carefully positioned over the inlet duct. The assembly then acts as both a sealing ring for the top cover and also as a central location around with the precisionmade volute shuttering framework is assembled prior to concrete pouring. The volute shuttering is normally provided by the civil contractor to the pump manufacturer's dimensions, and can be re-used on all pumps. Figure 5.19 shows the various stages of construction of the volute. From experience, it has been found that no special protective coating is required on the concrete to guard against the effects of the water being pumped. Both wear and life expectancy of the concrete are excellent and no problems have been reported so far.

Fig. 5.18 Bottom inlet single-entry impeller concrete volute pump

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A fabricated steel bearing bracket is mounted on top of the pump cover and bolted down and dowelled into position to secure correct alignment. The speed reducing gearbox is mounted on top of the bearing bracket, with the unit incorporating the pumpset forced lubrication system. The rotating assembly is supported by a combined thrust and journal bearing which can be located within the gearbox. Access to the bottom bearing and mechanical seal is gained from within the tubing.

Fig. 5.19 Construction of concrete volute

5.5.4

GEARBOXES

Gearboxes, when included on vertical pump units, must be of the coaxial type wit the pump, motor and gearbox centerlines positioned vertically above each other to ensure an equal load distribution on the support ring. Coaxial gearboxes may be either of the multilayshaft or epicyclic designs. With recent epicyclic designs, it has been possible to combine the gearbox and the pump by mounting the impeller on the low speed output shaft of the gear unit (Fig. 5.20). This arrangement eliminates the need for one journal bearing, which in turn reduces the overall height of the pumpset leading to a more compact arrangement. A further reduction in pumpset length is achieved by combining the thrust collar into the coupling hub, as shown in fig. 5.20. The gearbox is equipped with a complete forced lubricating oil system to provide a continuous flow of oil to the gear internals and the thrust and journal bearings throughout the pumpset. The oil system includes both gear-driven and standby motor-driven oil pumps, and the piping and non-return valve layout allows delivery of oil to the bearings and gears, whichever direction the pump is rotating.

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Fig. 5.20 CW pump gearbox

Fig. 5.21 Pump shaft seal

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5.5.5

SHAFT SEALS

Mechanical seals are included to prevent water escaping from the casing along the pump shaft. Split type seal designs are used (Fig. 5.21). All the components which are subject to wear, are split into two sections to permit inspection and replacement of worn components to be carried out without any major dismantling of the pumpset. The seal needs to provided with a clean supply of flushing water which should be filtered water taken from the pump discharge. Figure 5.22 shows a typical seal flushing arrangement on a coastal station, where the filtered water is normally taken from the pump discharge for flushing purposes while the pump is running. The seal assembly also includes an additional inflatable static seal. This is operated by air and forms a watertight joint around the shaft to allow dismantling of the main seal unit without dewatering the pump. A secure source of air is required and the use of a standby accumulator eliminates the need for the station air supply accumulator eliminates the need for the station air supply to be available at all times. Any water which leaks into the access well of the concrete volute pumps is removed to the drainage sump by either a small submersible pump or an airoperated ejector system. These can be controlled from float switches or an adjustable timer.

Fig. 5.22 Typical seal water flushing system.

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5.5.6

MATERIALS

For fresh water applications, grey cast iron is suitable for pump casings an delivery mains. However, for seawater conditions, severe erosion and corrosion of the cast iron occurs. Although generous allowances can be included in the material thickness, these may not prevent the need for replacement of the cast iron parts during the life of the station. The use of austenitic Ni-resist cast irons for the casing material of cooling water pumps where severe conditions exist is now increasing rapidly. This material, particularly in its spheroidal graphite form, offers proven superior resistance to attack, with negligible wear after several years' operation. On concrete volute pumps, the built-in metal parts must be suitable for the life of the station. Again, while gray cast iron an be used for inland fresh-water sites, austenitic Ni-resist cast iron is required for seawater applications. Circulating water pump impellers are supplied in stainless steel with renewable eye rings to cater for the erosion effects in this close clearance / high velocity area. Both 13/4 chrominum-nickel steel and 18/10 chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steel have been used successfully in freshwater and seawater applications. Pump shafts are normally made of carbon steel and are fully protected by stainless steel sleeves through the waterways. Special attention is required at the sleeve/sleeve and sleeve/impeller joints to prevent ingress of water onto the shaft surface, which can cause corrosion fatigue. On horizontal pump designs, overlapping sleeves and radial O-rings have been introduced to cater for the effects of shaft static and dynamic deflections. Mounting the mechanical seal on top of the shaft sleeve permits seal refurbishment without slackening the sleeve nuts, with resultant loss of axial compression.

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GLOSSARY
a) b) c)
d) Atmospheric pressure : Above the surface of the earth there is a layer of atmosphere or air and the weight of this air upon the earth surface exerts a pressure is called an atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure : An instrument, which record pressure above atmospheric pressure is called a pressure gauge, and the reading of the gauge is called gauge pressure. Absolute pressure : It is a sum of atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure. Vacuum : A pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum. Condenser vacuum : The difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure measured at the steam inlet and expressed in mm of Hg at a temp of 320F. Absolute pressures in the condenser : The difference between the barometric pressure and the condenser vacuum and expressed in mm of Hg. Heat head : The difference between the inlet circulating water temperature and the temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure at the steam inlet to the condenser. Temperature rise : The difference between the outlet and inlet circulating water temperature. Terminal temperature difference (TTD) : The difference between the temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure at the steam inlet to the condenser and the outlet circulating water temperature. Condensate depression : The steam after condensing forms condensate, which is also under vacuum, collects in a hotwell at the bottom of the condenser and requires pumping out. The condensate depression is the difference between the temperature corresponding to the condensate in the hotwell and the temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure of the steam at the inlet to the condenser. It is the actual number of degrees, the condensate is subcooled and must be maintained within closed limits since subcooling reduces the saturation pressure and hence the suction pressure on the intake of the condensate pump, reducing its performance. Dry bulb temperature : It is a temperature measured by an ordinary thermometer. Wet bulb temperature : If a wick wetted with water and air surrounds the bulb of an ordinary thermometer passed around it, water at surface will begin to evaporate. The vapourisation takes heat-latent heat of vapourisation and the wick is cooled. The temperature finally reached when cooling stops is known as wet bulb temperature. Cooling tower approach : The temperature difference between WBT of incoming air and outgoing temperature of water is known as cooling tower approach.

e) f) g) h) i) j)

k) l)

m)

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REFERENCE
1) 2) 3) CEGB Manual on Turbine and Auxiliary B.E.I. Manual on Turbine and Auxiliary BHEL Course Material.

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