Slopes

Slope refers to the steepness of a line or surface. Slope of a line is the ratio of change in elevation to the horizontal distance required to achieve that new elevation. Slope may also refer to a surface inclined at an angle from the horizontal.

How to get the slopes: Constant velocity

Suppose a student is strolling down the street in a straight line at a steady speed. The student takes one pace every second and covers 0.80 m with each pace.

After 1 s the student has traveled 0.8 m.

After 2 s the student has traveled another .8m for a total of 1.6 m.

. . . and so on.

The data points form a straight line on a position-time graph. Using any two points on the line results in a slope of 0.80 m/s.

The position-time graph for constant velocity is a straight line The slope of a position-time graph is the velocity of the object. Expressed as an equation, v = d/t .

Since at any time the velocity is + 0.8 m/s, it is easy to construct a velocity-time graph of the motion. The velocity-time graph for constant velocity is a horizontal line.

The area of a rectangle is given by A = bh where b is the base and h is the height.

If you find the area under the curve of this particular graph for any 1 second interval you will find it to be A = bh = (1 s)(0.80 m/s) = 0.80 m

The area under the curve for any 2 s interval is A = bh = (2 s)((0.80 m/s) = 1.6 m In general: The area under a velocity-time graph gives the displacement during that interval, or, d = vt

The student realizes she dropped something. She takes 3 paces backward, covering 1.0 m with each pace, and taking 1 pace each second. The velocity during this interval is (-2 m)/(2 s) = -1 m/s. On a position-time graph, a negative slope corresponds to a negative velocity. If forward is positive, then backward is negative.

The corresponding velocity-time graph shows a velocity of 0.80 m/s for the first 5 s, and -1.0 m/s for the last 3 s. To use the velocity-time graph to find the displacement for the 8 s trip, add the areas under the curve: (5 s)(0.80 m/s) + (3 s)(-1.0 m/s) = 4.0 m - 3.0 m = 1.0 m This corresponds to the final position in the position-time graph, as it should.

Constant acceleration

Suppose a skier, starting from rest, goes down a hill in a straight run, picking up speed steadily. At 1 s the skier's speed is .50 m/s, at 2s 1.0 m/s, at 3 0 s 1.5 m/s and so on for 5 s. The velocity-time graph for constantacceleration is a straight line. Using any two points on the line gives a slope of 0.50 m/s/s. This is the rate of change of velocity, or acceleration. In this case the skier gains 0.50 m/s each second. In general, the slope of a velocity-time graph is acceleration. Or, a = v / t . As before, the area under the velocity-time graph gives the displacement of the object for the specified time interval. The area of a trapezoid is given by A = b(h1 + h2) / 2 where b is base and h is height. In this example the displacement of the skier from 2 s to 4 s is (2 s)(1 m/s + 2 m/s ) / 2 = 3.0 m
Note that the heights are velocities, and the base is time interval. In general, for constant velocity, d = t(v1 + v2) / 2

The position (displacement from the starting point) of the skier is determined at 1-s intervals and tabulated below. This was determined from the area under the curve, or from the above equation (which is the same thing). The corresponding positiontime graph is shown below.

t (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5

d (m)
0 .25 1 2.25 4 6.25

The position-time graph for constant acceleration is curved (parabolic).

Acceleration
Speed is scalar. Scalars are quantities with only magnitude. The direction does not matter. If you are on the highway whether traveling 100 km/h south or 100 km/h north, your speed is still 100 km/h. Other examples of scalar quantities are shoe size, mass, area, energy.

Average speed =
Example 1: If someone walked 400 m in a straight line in 5 min, their average speed would be (400 m) (5 min) = 80 m/min. If the same person walked 100 m [North] then 300 m [South] in 5 minutes, their average speed would still be (4005) = 80 m/min. If that person walked 100 m [E] in .75 min, 100 m [N] in 1.50 min, 100 m [W] in 1.00 min and finally 100 m [S] in 1.75 min, their average speed would be (400 m) (5 min) = 80 m/min. Answer: The total distance driven = [ (2 h ) ( 40 km /h) + (2 h) ( 60 km/h) ] = 200 km The total time = 2 + 2 = 4 h average speed = (200 km) / (4 h) = 50km/h

Example 2: You drive a car for 2.0 h at 40 km/h, then for another 2.0 h at 60 km/h. a.What is your average speed? b.Do you get the same answer if you drive 100 km at each of the two speeds? Answer: Total distance = 100 + 100 = 200 km total time = [ (100 km) / (40 km/h) + (100 km) / 60 km/h) ] = 4.17 h average speed = (200 km)/(4.17 h) = 48 km/h

(average velocity) = displacement time. Velocity is a vector. Both direction and quantity must be stated. It one train has a velocity of 100km/h north, and a second train has a velocity of 100km/h south, the two trains have different velocities, even though their speed is the same. Other examples of vectors are force, and field intensity.

Example 3: If a person walked 400 m in a straight line in 5 min, that person's velocity would be (400 m [forward]) (5 min) = 80 m/min [forward] . If the same person walked 100 m [North] then 300 m [South] in 5 minutes, we first find their displacement. displacement = 200 m [S] velocity = 200 5 = 40 m/min [S] If that person walked 100 m [E] in .75 min, 100 m [N] in 1.50 min, 100 m [W] in 1.00 min and finally 100 m [S] in 1.75 min, that person would end up back where they started. Since their displacement is zero, Their velocity is zero.

Remember, (average velocity) = displacement time.

Example 4: A hiker traveled 80.0 m [S] at 1.00 m/s, then 80.0 m [S] at 5.00 m/s. What is the hiker's average velocity?

Answer: displacement = 160.0 m [S] time for the first part is 80.01.00= 80.0 s, time for the second part is 80.0 m 5.00 m/s = 16.0 s.

Total time = 80.0+16.0 = 96.0 s

Therefore, the velocity is (160.0 m [S])96.0 s = 1.67 m/s [S]

Example 5: A train on a straight track traveled 60.0 km/h [E] for 2.00 h, stopped for 15 min, then traveled 100.0 km [W] at 133 km/h. a. What was the train's average speed for the whole trip? Answer: a. To find average speed, we need total distance and total time. During the first part of the trip, the train covered 60.0x2.00 = 120 km in 2.00 h. During the second part of the trip the train traveled 0.00 km in 0.25 h. During the third part of the trip, the train traveled 100.0 km in 0.75 h. In total the train traveled 220 km in 3 .00 h. Average speed = (220 km)3.00 = 73.3 km/h b. To find average velocity, we need displacement and total time. During the first part of the trip, the train covered 60.0x2.00 = 120 km [E] in 2.00 h. During the second part of the trip the train traveled 0.00 km in 0.25 h. During the third part of the trip, the train traveled 100.0 km [W] in (100.0 km 133 km/h) = 0.75 h. The train's displacement was (120-100) = 20 km [E] in 3 .00 h. Average velocity = (20 km [E])3.00h = 6.7 km/h [E] Example 6: A runner covers one lap of a circular track 40.0 m in diameter in 62.5 s. For that lap, what were her average speed and average velocity? answer: average speed = (total distance)/(total time) = (*40.0)/(62.5) = 2.01m/s average velocity = displacement/time = 0/62.5 = 0 m/s acceleration = (change in velocity) time. Acceleration is a vector when it refers to the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is scalar when it refers to rate of change of speed. A car slowing down to stop at a stop sign is accelerating because its speed is changing. We might refer to this type of acceleration as deceleration or negative acceleration. A car going at a constant speed around a curve is still accelerating because its direction is changing. Example 7: A pitcher delivers a fast ball with a velocity of 43 m/s to the south. The batter hits the ball and gives it a velocity of 51m/s to the north. What was the average acceleration of the ball during the 1.0ms when it was in contact with the bat? answer: acceleration = (vf - vi)/t = ( 51m/s to the north - 43 m/s to the south)/(1.0x10-3s) Letting south be positive and north negative yields acceleration = ( -51m/s - 43 m/s )/(1.0x10-3s) = -94000 m/s/s acceleration = 94000 m/s/s to the north

Newtons Second Law of Motion

The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. Newton's Second Law of Motion : Means that if you push twice as hard, then you get twice the acceleration. If your push three times as hard, then you get three times the acceleration and so on. (directly proportional) If you have the same force and an object with twice the mass you will have half the acceleration. Just like if you had three times the mass you would have one third the acceleration. Fnet = ma m stands for the mass (kg) of the object and a stands for the acceleration (m/s/s). Where Fnet is the total force that is acting on the object (N, newtons). Question: An object has a mass of 20.41 kg and an acceleration of 8.22 m/s2. What is the force on the object? Answer: You have the mass and the acceleration of the object so you can easily figure out the force. All you have to do is apply Newton's Second Law of Motion. Fnet = ma = (20.41 kg)(8.22 m/s2) = 167.8 N

Applications of Newton's Second Law of Motion : An electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31. It is moved a distance of 6.0 mm and accelerated by a net electrical force of 4.6 x 10 -10 N. If it started from rest, find its acceleration and final velocity. A.) To find the acceleration use Newton's Second Law of Motion Fnet= ma 4.6 x 10 -10 N = (9.11 x 10-31)(a) a = 5.0 x 1020 m/s2 B.) To find the final velocity use the formula Vf2 = Vi2 + 2ad. Remember to convert the units, (distance must be in meters). Vf2 = Vi2 + 2ad Vf2 = 02 + 2(5.0 x 1020)(0.006) Vf2 = 6.0 x 1018 m/s Vf = 2.5 x 109 m/s