CCNA – Semester3

Module 4
Switching Concepts

Objectives

• Introduction to Ethernet/802.3 LAN

• Introduction to LAN switching
• Switch operation
 Introduction to Ethernet/802.3 LAN

Collisions in Ethernet

• Collisions are a by-product of Ethernet

networks.
• This indicates that the network has become too
congested or too many users are trying to
access the network at the same time.
Layer 2 Switches

Layer 2 and layer 3

• The disadvantage of Layer 2 devices is that they

forward broadcast frames to all connected
devices on the network.
• When the number of broadcasts in a network is
excessive, sluggish network response times
result.
• The router makes decisions based on groups of
network addresses, or classes, as opposed to
individual Layer 2 MAC addresses.
Routers

• The purpose of a router is to do all of the

following:
– Examine incoming packets of Layer 3 data
– Choose the best path for them through the network
– Switch them to the proper outgoing port
• Routers are not compelled to forward
broadcasts.
• Routers are the most important traffic regulating
devices on large networks.

Factors that impact network performance

• The multitasking environment present in current

desktop operating systems allows for
simultaneous network transactions.
• Network intensive applications such as the
World Wide Web is increasing.
• Client/server applications
Ethernet/802.3 Interface

CSMA/CD Algorithm
Host wants
to transmit

Too many
Broadcast attempts = Attempts collisions; abort
jam signal attempts + 1 > too
Is carrier transmission
many?
sensed?

Algorithm
Assemble Wait for calculate
frame t seconds backoff

Is
Start a collision Keep Is
transmission Transmission
transmitting detected? transmitting
done? completed
Half-Duplex Ethernet
• Legacy Ethernet is a half-duplex
technology.
• As more hosts are added to the network and
begin transmitting, collisions are more likely
to occur.

Network-intensive applications

• Today's networks are experiencing an increase

in the transmission of many forms of media:
– Large graphics files
– Images
– Full-motion video
– Multimedia applications
• Results in slower response time, longer file
transfers, and, hence, less productive.
• Solutions:
– More bandwidth is needed OR
– Available bandwidth must be used more efficiently.
Congestion and bandwidth

Network latency
• Latency, sometimes called delay.
• It is important to quantify the total
transmission latency.
• Latency has at least three sources:
– NIC delay (around 1ms for 10BASE-T NICs).
– Propagation delay.
– Latency in networking devices.
• Latency does not depend solely on
distance and number of devices.
Ethernet 10Base-T transmission time

WHY ?

Full-duplex Ethernet

• Full-duplex mode allows two stations to

simultaneously exchange data over a point
to point link
• Provides independent transmit and receive
paths.
• Bypasses the CSMA/CD protocol.
• Full-duplex Ethernet offers 100% of the
bandwidth in both directions.
• Results in doubled aggregate throughput of
the link.
Full-duplex media
• The physical medium must be capable of
supporting simultaneous transmission and
reception without interference.
– Supported: 10Base-T, 100Base-TX, 100Base-FX,
and 1000Base-T.
– Not supported: 10Base5, 10Base2, and 100Base-T4.
• End stations’ NICs must be capable of full-
duplex operation.
• Full-duplex operation is restricted to point to
point links.

Fast Ethernet 100Mbps

• Transmission speed is 100Mbps.

• Three main media varieties:
– 100Base-TX: Two pairs of twisted-pair cable
– 100Base-T4: Four pairs of twisted-pair cable
– 100Base-FX: Fiber optic
• Introduces Auto-Negotiation mechanism of
the media speed.
 Introduction to LAN switching

LAN Segmentation
Segmentation with bridges

• Bridges increase the latency (delay) in a network by 10-

30%.
• A bridge is considered a store and forward device.

Segmentation with switches

• Results in faster transmission and more efficient use of bandwidth.
• Micro-segmentation, can reach 100% bandwidth utilisation.
• Low latency levels and a fast frame forwarding speed (switching is
implemented in hardware )
Segmentation with routers

• Routers operate at the network layer.

– Routers makes packet forwarding decisions based on the Layer 3
protocol address.
• Layer 3 operations adds more latency.
• Adding a latency factor of 20% to 30% over a switched
network

Layer 2 Switching

• Layer 2 switching is based on MAC address

information.
Layer 3 Routing

• Layer 3 routing is a function of the network

layer.
• Layer 3 routing: layer 3 header information is
examined and packets are routed after
consulting routing table.
• The process is software-based

Layer 3 switching

• Layer 3 switching:
layer 3 header
information is
examined and packets
are switched using
specialized hardware
ASICs for high speed
and low latency.
Symmetric switching

Asymmetric switching
Memory buffering

• Is an Ethernet technique to store packets to

be forwarded to the correct ports.
• Buffer is an area of memory where the
switch stores incoming frames.
• Effectively used when the destination port is
busy.
• Two methods for forwarding packets:
– port-based memory buffering
– shared memory buffering

Two switching methods

• Store-and-forward:
– The entire frame is received before forward.
– Increases latency with larger frames.
– Error detection is high.
• Cut-through:
– Fast-forward switching:
• Immediately forward a packet after checking the destination
address.
• Offers the lowest level of latency
– Fragment-free switching:
• Forwards a packet after receiving the first 64 bytes.
• Filters out collision packets (size < 64 bytes)
Forwarding

Switch operation
LAN Switches
• Replace shared hubs and are designed to
work with existing cable infrastructures.
• Perform two basic operations:
– Switching data frames: Frame arrives on an input
and is transmitted to an output media.
– Maintaining switching operations: Switches build
and maintain switching tables.

Content addressable memory (CAM)

• Records MAC address of the source station with a timer

stamped with it
• Sends out frame to all ports (except frame’s input port) when
destination is broadcast, multicast or unknown
• Forwards when dest. is on different segment
• Filters if dest. is on the same segment
Frame transmission modes
• Another transmission mode (hybrid mode) is called
adaptive cut-through, the switch uses cut-through
until it detects a given number of errors. Once the
error threshold is reached, the switch changes to
store-and-forward mode.

Intersubnet

• Challenge: intersubnet communication

• Solution: use routers or add Layer 3 capability to switch
Switches and workstation

Summary

• Collisions in an Ethernet network

• Elements affecting network performance
• The basic operations of a switch
• Symmetric and asymmetric switching
• Major switch frame transmission modes
• The process by which switches learn addresses
• Microsegmentation using switching
CCNA3 – Module4