Professional Documents
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Review of Basics
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V Pi
Active power
Reactive power
Inductive Load
Inductive Load
Capacitor
Reactive power
Inductive Load
1
P(kW)
Q(kVAr)
1 2
P(kW) -QC
QC = P (Tan 1 - Tan 2) Cos 1 = Initial Power Factor Cos 2 = Final Power Factor Partially compensated Load
Resonance Analogy-1
Definition:Resonance is defined as a condition where Capacitive Reactance becomes equal to Inductive Reactance in magnitude. The frequency at which this occurs is called the Resonance Frequency.
| XL| = |XC |
Inductor
=
Inductor
|Z| = 0
| XL|
|XC |
Zeq = Z1 + Z2
Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance
Resonance Analogy-2
Uncompensated load
Inductive Load
Compensated Load
If you make |XL| of Load = |XC| of Capacitor at Fundamental Frequency, then the PF will be Unity due to Parallel resonance b/w capacitor & load inductor.
Inductive Load
Inductor
Inductor
Resistor
Resistor
Resistor
Inductive Loads
Induction Motor 0.8 P.F Arc Furnace 0.8 P.F
Floursent Lamp 0.5 P.F. Induction Furnace 0.8 P.F Welding Transformer 0.5 P.F.
Session 2
Benefits of Power factor improvement
Variable Compensation
For Varying Loads
Selection of Capacitor
1. Individual Compensation 2. Group Compensation 3. Central Compensation
Central Compensation Providing compensation at the main incomer of the installation is called central compensation (pos. No. 1). This is suitable for installations where the loads are few and situated close to the main supply. (Refer Fig. 3.1) Supply Bus
Fig. 3.3
Session 6
Selection of capacitors
Comparison of Technologies
MPP-S Rating MPP-H Long life Rating MD Long life Rating MD-XL Long life Rating FF Long life Rating
Optimum
10
10
10
Up to 10 %
Up to 15 %
Up to 25 %
10
Up to 25 %
10
Up to 25 %
10
Initial cost
Lowest
10
Medium
Highest
High
Highest
Operating cost
Lowest
10
Lowest
10
Highest
Lowest
10
high
Total
24
25
22
31
25
Compact Size Better heat dissipation Discharge resistor in Minimal internal wires Suitable only for panels MPP-S,MPP-H,MDXL Not repairable
Bulky Inferior heat dissipation Two resistor configuration More Internal wires Robust construction Available in all types Elements can be replaced
Session 13
Harmonics & Effect of Adding Capacitors in the System
Type of Harmonics
Characteristic harmonics
- Related to circuit configuration. - Fairly predictable frequency spectrum. - Frequency spectrum given by k*p+1 ; k = 1,2,3. - For ex. 5&7 for 6 pulse, 11 & 13 for 12 pulse. - Magnitude inversely proportional to order.
Non-characteristic harmonics
- Caused by frequency converters. - System imbalance (voltage & impedance)
Triplen harmonics
- 3.(2n+1) order n = 0,1,2 i.E 3,9,15,21.. Etc. - Zero sequence in nature. - Accumulates as neutral current.
Phase Sequence of RYB (+ Seq.) For Fundamental Component R Fundamental +120o Second Harmonic +240o -120o Y 0o 0o 0o B -120o -240o +120o
Positive Sequence
Y
B B
Negative Sequence
Y
R Y +1200 00
B -1200
+3600 00
Positive Sequence
Y
Time.
Third harmonic currents of R,Y&B phases are in phase with each other and hence adds up, without cancellation in the neutral conductor.
1 +
2 -
3 0
4 +
5 -
6 0
7 +
8 -
9 0
Positive Sequence Fundamental 4th Harmonic 7th Harmonic 10th Harmonic 3n+1 Div. by 3 Rem. 1
Negative Sequence 2nd Harmonic 5th Harmonic 8th Harmonic 11th Harmonic 3n+2 Div. by 3 Rem. 2
Zero Sequence 3rd Harmonic 6th Harmonic 9th Harmonic 12th Harmonic 3n+3 Divisible by 3
Characteristics of Harmonics
Positive Sequence
Causes over heating due to Skin effect Aids the fundamental Moderate heating Relatively less harmful
Negative Sequence
Causes over heating due to Skin effect Opposes the fundamental Excessive heating Most harmful
Zero Sequence
Causes over heating due to Skin effect Accumulates in the neutral Creates hot neutral Responsible for neutral to earth voltage and open neutral condition.
Skin effect
Cross-section of current carrying conductor
DC current flow
The effective area of the conductor, available for current flow, reduces as the frequency of the AC current increases. Hence, the resistance of the conductor increases, at higher frequencies, as it is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
R =
L A
Effect of Harmonics
Type of equipment Rotating machines Effect of harmonics Increased losses, over heating due to skin effect. Pulsating torque Over heating, increased power consumption Mal-operation, nuisance tripping Mal-operation, failure Erratic operation High currents & failure due to overload
Transformer, switch-gear, power cables Protective relays Power electronics Control & automation Power capacitors
Drive Fundamentals
Current spectrum of six pulse drive for star-star & star-delta configuration
Harmonic currents flow towards Grid. Min. Import of Harmonics from Grid. No Resonance at harmonic frequencies.
BUS
Non Linear Load
Harmonic currents flow towards Capacitors , due to parallel resonance with load ZL Import of Harmonics from Grid towards Capacitors , due to series resonance with network & transformer impedances ZN &ZT Increase of THD(V) in the Bus Harmonic overloading of Capacitors, leading to its failure Improvement in Power Factor With Harmonic overload
M
Non Linear Load
lh
XC
XL
Session 14
Harmonic Filters
No resonance at harmonic frequencies as filter is inductive at such frequencies Harmonic currents flow towards Grid , as it offers least impedance compared to filter
M
Non Linear Load
Predominantly fundamental current flows through Capacitors Moderate THD(V) in the Bus No harmonic overloading of Capacitors Improvement in Power Factor without Harmonic overload
Harmonic Filter
Harmonic filter comprises of a reactor (L) in series with a capacitor (C) Such a filter has a unique self series resonance frequency fR at which inductive reactance of reactor equals capacitive reactance of capacitor. Fr = 1/(2LC) Below fR the filter is capacitive Above fR the filter is inductive
Inductive
fR= Resonant
Frequency
fR
Frequency
Detuned Filters
Tuned Filters
7%
14 %
CY
CY
Session 15
Active Compensation
Voltage Stabilty
Extremely Flexible
+
(Time Domain)
+
(Frequency Domain)
Suitable for installations having high harmonic distortion (cement, sugar & steel plants, etc.)
Hybrid Filters
Tuned Filters
14% Detuned Filters Suitable for installations having 3rd harmonics and above (IT parks, corporate banks & establishments) 7% Detuned Filters Most common, Base end product suitable for majority of industries having 5th and above harmonics