The design parameters of the motor are as follows: topological configuration shown in Fig.

1 total air gap = 1/8 in blade thickness = 3/8 in number of turns on the core = 600 coil resistance = 0-25Q The motor, as described above, is not self-starting and has to be started manually. In the above, the 6-blade 6-coil motor system is purely arbitrary. In fact, for the maximum utilisation of space, the maximum number of blades and coils should be used, because the total torque produced by the motor is the sum of the torques produced by each coil-blade set. Test results A 6-blade 6-coil motor was built, based on the above principles. The approximate blade shape is shown in Fig. la, and they move in C shaped core. The motor runs on no load and on load, and a typical speed/torque curve is shown in Fig. 4. The speed/torque curve was determined by the brake

2 BATES, j . J.: 'Thyristor-assisted commutation in electrical machines' ibid., 1968, 115, (6), pp. 791-801 3 ALEXANDERSON, E. F. w., and MiTTAG, A. H. : 'The thyratron motor' Elect. Engng., 1934, 53, pp. 1517-1523 4 SAY, M. c:'Electrical design manual'(Chapman & Ha'i \Qf>2\
5 GENTRY, F. E., GUTZWILLER, F. W., HOLONYOK N..JON., and VON

ZASTROW, E. E. : 'Semiconductor controlled rectifiers' (Prentice-Hall, 1964) 6 GUTZWILLER, F. w. (Ed.): 'SCR manual' (General Electric, 1967)

AVERAGE ASYNCHRONOUS TORQUE OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO RELUCTANCE MACHINES
Synchronous motors with noncylindrical rotors develop average asynchronous torques which are negative at zero slip. This phenomenon, which is very dependent on the ratio Xd\Xq and is particularly marked in modern reluctance machines, is explained in terms of conventional 2-axis theory. Additionally, some points of clarification concerning the term 'load angle' are made. In connection with our work on 3-phase reluctance motors, measurements and calculations have been made of asynchronous torque/slip curves. As with any noncylindrical rotor machine, the torque is not constant but pulsates as the travelling field moves with respect to the 'saliency'. In modern reluctance machines the ratio Xd\Xq is frequently high (six would not be an uncommon value), and the torque pulsations are correspondingly large. Conventional analysis assumes that the slip is constant for any given loading. For experimental purposes, the variations in slip can be kept small by using a large coupled inertia, and the average load torque and average slip can be recorded and plotted. Curve a of Fig. 1 shows an experimental characteristic for a typical machine. The most striking feature of this curve is that it cuts the slip axis below the synchronous speed and shows a negative torque at zero slip. (The friction and windage loss for this machine is a negligible 5 W). Torque/slip curves have been published for salient-pole machines many times before, but they have never, to our knowledge, included this feature of negative torque at zero slip. As will be seen, this inaccuracy is not likely to be serious for conventional machines, because of their relatively low Xd\Xq ratio (and usually low stator resistance also), but it was not justified in Fig. 13 of Reference 3, in which one of the curves was extrapolated at low slips and assumed to pass through zero. This letter is primarily intended to explain this negative average torque at small and zero slip, in terms of the conventional 2-axis theory, but the opportunity is also taken to make some minor points concerning the 'load angle' of a reluctance machine. The following well known expression,1 based on 2-axis theory, gives the average asynchronous torque at constant slip, for a salient-pole machine:
T =

28 24 20

b
t 1 2

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

speed, rev/mln

Fig. 4 Torquelspeed characteristic of the motor

test. Tests were performed at 12 V d.c, with a current of 8 A flowing through each coil. More tests will have to be done to determine the possible applications of the motor. Future work and conclusions The motor described in the preceding sections is not self-starting. As an immediate next step toward further work, a self-starting mechanism has to be devised. The overall performance of the motor has to be improved. This could, perhaps, be done by increasing the number of coils and the number of blades, and by obtaining an optimum match between the switching circuit and motor driving coil. Possible a.c. switching has to be investigated. Based on the work reported here, it is concluded that it is practicable to build d.c. (and universal) motors without any commutators or other moving contacts. It also seems to be feasible to develop linear, d.c.-switched reluctance motors based on the principles described here. Acknowledgment The work reported here was supported by US National Science Foundation grant GY-3942. 30th January 1969 Department of Electrical Engineering University of Kentucky Lexington Ky. 40506, USA References
1 NASAR, s. A.: 'Solid-state switching in rotating electrical machines', Proc. 1EE, 1966, 113, (2), pp. 338-339

2 r\\Yd\*Yq + \Yq\*Yd)} . . (I)

where a = 1 2s D = a - r2YdYq - sr(Yd + Yq) Although derived in per-unit form in Reference 1, this equation gives the torque, in synchronous watts, for a starconnected machine, when dimensional parameters are used and V is the r.m.s. line, voltage. The expression is arrived at by considering the axis currents and voltages as phasors of constant slip frequency, and it gives the average torque per slip cycle. Calculations using eqn. 1 show that the shape of the torque/slip curve varies very much with changes in the relative resistances and reactances of the rotor windings and with the degree of saliency. Curves b and c of Fig. 1 show the effects of changing the direct-axis rotor resistance, for a typical machine; the two curves assume the same leakage reactance for both rotor windings, but the direct-axis rotor resistance is half that of the quadrature-axis rotor resistance for curve b, whereas it is double that of the quadrature-axis 1049

S. A. NASAR

PROC. IEE, Vol. 116, No. 6, JUNE 1969

rotor resistance for curve c. Note that both curves exhibit the negative motoring torque at positive slip, indicated by the experimental curve a, and that, while the point of zero

can now be seen. Eqn. 1 gives the average torque with respect to time, over a cycle of constant slip. However, since " is dt equal to the (constant) slip, the time-averaged torque over a
q axis 4

*1O
Fig. 1

075

0-5
normalised slip

0-25
JX q l q d axis

Characteristics showing the average asynchronous torque at constant slip as a function of slip
a Measured characteristic for a typical reluctance motor b Calculated characteristic for a typical machine with direct-axis rotor resistance half the quadrature-axis rotor resistance c Calculated characteristic for the same machine as in b, but with direct-axis rotor resistance twice that of the quadrature axis

Fig. 2

Phasor diagram for a synchronous reluctance motor

torque occurs at a larger slip for the machine with the higher resistance, both have the same negative torque at zero slip. Letting the slip in eqn. 1 tend to zero, (7%= 0 = 2{XdXq + r ))
2 22

1-5

(2)

1O
0-5

This is the average torque per slip cycle as the slip tends to zero, and it is always negative, except when the stator resistance or saliency is zero, when it also becomes zero. Evidently, it is necessary to supply shaft torque to keep the machine running at small positive slips, the power being required to supply the losses due to the pulsations of current caused by the saliency. The interpretation of the negative torque at zero slip, and the reconcilation of this with the theory of synchronous operation, calls for further consideration. In the 2-axis theory of synchronous machines, the slip is equal to the time rate of change of load angle ~ . 8V is the load angle between the quadrature-axis and the supplyvoltage phasors, and it is shown in the phasor diagram (Fig. 2), for a synchronous reluctance motor. For any constant supply frequency, the voltage phasor has a constant angular velocity, and so is the electrical load angle which is observed under synchronous conditions, if the shaft is illuminated by a stroboscope triggered from the supply voltage. The synchronous torque of a star-connected reluctance machine can be expressed in terms of 2-axis theory as _ V\Xd-Xq) ,Xq - r2) sin 28 v 2{XdXq + r2)2 +r(Xd + Xq)cos28v-r(Xd-Xq)}

I' 05 I
F -10

-1-5
-20

1 / Y
I -45

/
I 0 load angle,deg L_ 45

V \\
90

-2-5l -90 Fig. 3

Curves showing the variation of the synchronous torques developed by a typical reluctance machine as functions of load angle
(b) 8l-Stt
(a) Sv

Motoring torque is taken as positive

. (3)

where V is the r.m.s. line voltage. In this expression, 8V has been defined as positive for motoring and negative for generating operation. Curve a of Fig. 3 shows the synchronous torque as a function of 8V, for both motoring and generating regions for a typical machine. (The machine parameters are the same as those used to calculate the curves of Fig. 1). The significance of the negative torque at zero slip (Fig. 1) 1050

slip cycle is the same as the average torque obtained by integration with respect to 8V over a cycle of 8V. Thus, in the limit, as the slip tends to zero, the average torque, as given by eqn. 2, is also obtained by the integration of eqn. 3 with respect to 8V from 0 to TT. Because of the stator resistance, the average torque for the generating half cycle is always greater than for the motoring half cycle, and so the average torque per slip cycle at zero slip is always negative for a motor. Confusion can arise over the term 'load angle', because PROC. IEE, Vol. 116, No. 6, JUNE 1969

another load angle, in addition to 8V, has been used in the development of the theory of reluctance machines (e.g. Reference 2). This is defined, as the electrical angle by which the direct axis is ahead of the axis of phase a, in which the current is a positive maximum, at / = 0. This load angle can, alternatively, be defined as the angle by which the direct axis leads the axis of the stator potential. In Reference 2, this electrical load angle was designated 8e, to differentiate it from its mechanical equivalent 8, but here it will be denoted by 8,-, in recognition of the fact that it is one of two electrical load angles, being the one which relates the stator-current phasor to the direct axis. It is negative in the motoring condition, and it is shown in the phasor diagram (Fig. 2). This load angle is particularly useful in the calculation of the reactances of machines in terms of their physical geometry. The equivalent expression for eqn. 3, in terms of 8,-, is -2V\Xd-Xq)sm28i [{lr-{Xd-Xq) sin 28i}2+{(Xd+Xq)+(Xd-Xq) cos 28,}2] (4) (Eqn. 4 is derived in Reference 2, although the initial minus sign was unfortunately omitted). Curve b of Fig. 3 shows the torque given by eqn. 4 plotted against 8,-. The very different
180 r V
Oo>$o N*^X X
X

LAWRENSON, p. j . , and AGU, L. A. : 'Theory and performance of

polyphase reluctance machines', Proc. IEE, 1964, 111, (8), pp. 14351445

LAWRENSON, p. j . , and GUPTA, s. K. : 'Developments in the per-

formance and theory of segmental-rotor reluctance motors', ibid. 1967, 114, (5), pp. 645-653

GENERALISED THEORY OF INDUCTION MOTORS WITH ASYMMETRICAL PRIMARY WINDINGS

In the paper by Butler and Wallace [Proc. IEE, 1968, 115, (5), pp. 685-694], the generalised analysis has been developed for induction motors having any number of asymmetrical primary windings, and assuming a symmetrical or asymmetrical power supply. The method, due to Campbell,31 Butterworth32 and Calvaer,33 of transforming mutual leakage reactance into an equivalent self-leakage reactance was applied with great advantage. The simplicity achieved is of great interest. The generality of the approach is such that it has been easily applied to shaded-pole motors having more than one shading winding. SastryA has conducted experiments on a single-phase induction motor with its starting winding not in quadrature, 1200

5 o"~ "o
X
y

800
A A

6 0 -o a
1 1
i i

400 1

12r

0 X

0 X

4)

o a
1 1 1 1

E 2 2

0-2

0-4

0-6

0-8

10

Fig. A

slip

0-2

0-4

0-6

0-8

10

Comparison of experimental and computed performances of an 8-pole single-phase induction motor

Applied voltage = MOV Capacitance across phase B = 267|i.F Shift between two phases = 60 (for fundamental) Calculated: Measured: phase A x phase A phase B o phase B line A line 1 torque torque Calculated values include all spatial harmonics, including subharmonics

shapes of the two curves in Fig. 3 emphasises the following: d8= . , . d8v d8: , , . (a) 7-7^ -7- and therefore -1 is not constant at constant at at at slip*, so that integration of eqn. 4 does not lead to the average torque per slip cycle at constant slip; and (b) 8V and 8; are, in general, very different for any given torque, and therefore a stroboscope which is triggered from the supply voltage will not indicate 8,- even approximately. 8,- can, of course, be observed by triggering the stroboscope from the supply current. 13th December 1968 J. M. STEPHENSON P. J. LAWRENSON Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering University of Leeds Leeds 2, England
References
1 ADKINS, B.: 'The general theory of electrical machines (Chapman

& Hall, 1957)

* At finite constant slip, the stator phase current can only be represented by a phasor whose magnitude and phase, relative to the supply voltage, vary periodically with the slip frequency

PROC. IEE, Vol. 116, No. 6, JUNE 1969

and an analysis has been made to take into account any space angle, and any number of space harmonics, including subharmonics. This was developed as an extension of the work of Puchstein and Lloyd,8 and the recent work of Buchananc on the double-revolving-field theory. In this analysis, the slot mutual leakage is accounted for by the calculation of the slot leakage factor.0 The results of this investigation are summarised in Fig. A. In Appendix 11.3, the authors have presented a method of arriving at the effective value of the air gap in the salient-pole constructions. This derivation seems to be valid only for the fundamental component. Since the permeance distributions are different for different harmonics,E a different constant value of the air gap, equivalent to the varying one, has to be taken for each harmonic. This is not clearly apparent. With a view to avoiding any error in such a choice, and also to determine the variatipn that would otherwise exist as a result of neglecting the mutual leakage, we have conducted tests in the following way. A conventional single-phase induction motor, with its starting winding shifted from the main winding by 40 (electrical), was chosen. The starting winding was short-circuited through a condenser, and the 1051