MGT 3940: Business Research

Dr. Sasithorn Phonkaew

Chapter 1
Business Research: a systematic + objective process of finding
(gathering) and analyzing data in order to help people or “managers”
make better decision.

- use scientific method / not use intuition

- be objective + impersonal / not subjective
- help reduce uncertainty and risk
- help managers (or decision makers) make better decision

Research: 1. Basic research (Pure research)  for gaining knowledge

2. Applied research  for solving real-life problems

Factors to determine the “need” of research

1. enough time
2. not enough data on hand
3. very important decision
4. compare benefit and cost

Importance of business research

1. Identify problems or opportunities
2. Select + implement the “right” course of action
3. Evaluate the course of action

Evaluation research
: a formal appraisal or evaluation (e.g. once a year)

Performance monitoring research

: a routine + regular evaluation (more often, e.g. every month)

1
 (Review Chapter 1)

Example of Basic vs Applied Research

A. What are some determining factors that lead to “diversified

market strategy”?

B. What are customer perceptions and attitudes on Toyota Altis

compared with its competitors?

C. Could leadership style influence job commitment of employees?

D. How much loyalty of customers who shop at Central Department

Store?

Ways to find Information

1. Authority : from those who have power or authority
2. Experience : from those who have past experiences
3. Intuition : from our own sense, instinct
4. Research : from a research process

Skip Chapter 2

2
 Chapter 3
Six stages / steps in Research Process (* exhibit 3.6 p.60)

1. Problem Discovery + Problem Definition (Chapter 5)

- Problem discovery: through “Exploratory Research”  Situational

Analysis
1.1 secondary data analysis or literature review – past studies
1.2 pilot study – small sampling survey with customers
1.3 experience survey – asking experts or authority
1.4 case study – study or observe any “similar” case to our problem

- Problem definition (or Research Problem): a formal statement of

research problem + objective  it should be in sentence, not a word.
There are 3 formats of writing the “Research Problem”:-
1.1 research question : who, what, when, where, how, why questions
1.2 hypothesis : statement of belief and relationship between factors
1.3 research objective : To study..., To measure.. , To identify… etc.

2. Planning Research Design(Chapter 7-11)

2.1 survey (interview, questionnaire) Chapter 8-9 - all
2.2 experiment (field or laboratory experiment) Chapter 11 - some*
2.3 secondary data analysis Chapter 7 – some*
2.4 observation Chapter 10 – some*

** Design the Questionnaire **  Chapter 13-15

3. Sampling (Chapter 16-17)

3.1 target population - who
3.2 sample size – how many of them (small size vs large size)
3.3 sampling method – Probability sample vs Nonprobability sample

4. Data Gathering (Field work) (Chapter 18 – skip)

4.1 pre-testing – trial of data collection (e.g. about 15-20 sets)
4.2 main study – actual data collection (e.g. equal to sample size)

3
5. Data Processing and Data Analysis (Chapter 19, 20-24)
5.1 editing and coding  for data processing, data entry
5.2 data analysis  statistical analysis  questionnaire survey
 qualitative analysis  in-depth interview
(content analysis)

6. Preparing Conclusions and Report (Chapter 25)

6.1 interpret and make conclusions
6.2 prepare “A summary of finding” (Executive Summary)

- Research Program versus Research Project

Type of Research (based on “Purpose”)

1. Exploratory research to explore, to analyze situation,

to discover research problems
2. Descriptive research  to describe answers to research problems in
details (e.g. in numbers / percentage)
3. Causal research  to test a cause-effect relationship between
things or factors (need Experiment only!)

X Y X and Y are related

X is related to Y, it is a “concomitant variation” or has a relationship

XY X causes Y, it is a cause-effect relationship (causal)

- concomitant variation (relationship) ≠ causal relationship

by observation by experiment in controlled

situation

There are 6 steps in Research Process

Forward Linkage: when earlier steps influences later steps

Backward Linkage: when later steps influences earlier steps

4
 (Review Chapter 3)

Example of Forward Linkage or Backward Linkage

- Since we plan to use in-depth interview for our research design,

we then need “data interpretation”(qualitative analysis) rather than
statistics in data analysis.
(Research design  Data analysis)
- If we plan to choose kindergarten kids as our sample, we’d better
use “observation” technique rather than “questionnaire survey”.
(Sampling plan  Research Design)

Backward vs Forward Linkage

Proposition vs Hypothesis
Deductive vs Inductive Reasoning

A. You decide to use “survey”, so you have to do pretesting.  

___________.
B. Better incentives lead to higher productivity.  _____________.
C. One study found that 70% of those who gambled in UEFA
Champions League were below 25 years old. It may be concluded
that people of young generation are high-risk takers. 
_______________.

Research Questions

What are factors influencing service quality of MK restaurant?

What are perceptions of teenagers toward MK restaurant?
Which are the top 5 menus that teenagers like to order the most?

Research Objectives

To study factors that influence service quality of MK restaurant

To measure perceptions of teenagers toward MK restaurant
To identify the top 5 menus of MK restaurant from teenagers

5
Research Hypotheses
- Speed of service is the important factor that influences service
quality of MK restaurant.
- Level of satisfaction of MK restaurant is “high”.
- There is a positive relationship between the modern atmosphere of
MK restaurant and the satisfaction level of teenagers.
- There is a difference in “satisfaction of MK restaurant” between
teenagers and working people.
- There is a difference in “satisfaction of MK restaurant” between
customers in different income groups.

Exploratory vs Descriptive vs Causal Research

The following objective belongs to which research above?

A. To provide a conclusive statement about profile or characteristics

of a particular situation under study.
B. To identify cause-effect relationships between variables.
C. To clarify nature of business problem.

The following situation needs what type of research above?

A. A factory manager would like to know if the new ventilation

system would influence the increase in productivity of the
assembly line. So he conducts ________ .

B. A general manager of Land and House company is hiring you to

find out about consumer preference of living places, cost of
building materials, and the future location of the house project.
So you decide to conduct ____________ .

C. If you want to find about what features of hand-bags that

teenagers in Thailand prefer right now, the appropriate research is
___________ .

Skip Chapter 4

6
 (For Assignment # 3)

Conceptual Model of “Student learning”

Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Teaching aids

- Quality of power point

- Quality of handout

Class size
Student learning

Teacher characteristics

Hypothesis about “one” variable

- Level of student learning in Physics class is low.
- Level of quality of teaching aids in Physics class is low.
- Level of class size of Physics is low.

Hypothesis about “two variables”

a. Test of Relationship
b. Test of Difference
(between 2 groups vs more than 2 groups)

Research Objective: To study if class size will influence student learning.

Measurement in Questionnaire: (Which is correct, A or B?)
A. Do you think that class size will affect student learning?
_____ Agree ______ Disagree

B. How many students are there in your Physics class section?

__ less than 40 students __ 40-60 students __ more than 60 students

How well can you understand the lecture in Physics class?

High understand 5 4 3 2 1 Low understand

7
Hypothesis : Relationship between ?? and ??

continuous variable (scale), and continuous variable (scale)

- There is a relationship between teaching aids and student learning.
- There is a relationship between class size and student learning.
- There is a relationship between teacher characteristics and student
learning.

categorical variable (choice), and categorical variable (choice)

- There is a relationship between class attendance and gender.
- There is a relationship between behavior of skipping class and
staying (or not staying) in dorm.

Hypothesis : Difference in mean of ?? between ??

continuous variable, and categorical variable (2 groups)

- There is a difference in student learning between gender. (male
and female students)
- There is a difference in student learning between dorm and non-
dorm students.

continuous variable, and categorical variable (3 groups or more)

- There is a difference in student learning among students with
different GPA levels. (3 groups of GPA: less than 2.00, 2.00-2.80,
more than 2.80)
- There is a difference in student learning among students with
different high school backgrounds. (4 high school backgrounds:
art-language focus, art-math focus, science focus, other focus)

Hypothesis about “more than two variables”

- There is a relationship between “teaching aids”, “class size”,
“teacher characteristics” and “student learning”.
Or
- Student learning can be predicted by teaching aids, class size, and
teacher characteristics.

8
 Chapter 5
Theory Building (theory  explanation of facts or phenomena)
1. Observe reality = objects, people, events
(or Do literature review)
2. Create concepts = given names of objects, events
3. Create propositions = relationship bet. Concepts
4. Create a theory = relationship bet. Propositions / combination
of many propositions (or networks of
propositions)
(from min. abstract to max. abstract)
<tangible> <intangible>

Abstract level: just concept, idea  “Ladder of Abstraction”

Empirical level: experience, measurable, something specific

: reality (objects/events) that we can observe + experience (or can be
measured)

Abstract Level linkage Empirical Level

Theory
(explanation of one phenomenon
based on many relationships or
propositions, it is simplified in the
“conceptual model/framework”)
Research
(testing or verifying theory
by doing a research to test
the conceptual model)

Proposition Hypothesis
(relationship bet. Concepts) (relationship bet. Variables)
(deriving tested hypothesis
from the conceptual model)

Concepts Variables
(abstract words, things) (designing the
measurement of concepts
in the model)

9
Scientific method
: technique used to “analyze” empirical reality or evidence
: to confirm prior theories or disprove them  and get the new theories
(knowledge)
 literature review  look for “concepts”  “propositions” 
develop “hypotheses”  research design (method)  data collection
 data analysis  conclusion (a new knowledge or theory)

Concepts = words
: abstract names (at abstract level)  e.g. learning aids, furniture,
happiness etc.
Variables = words
- Concepts that can be observed / experimented and have different
numerical values.
- Concepts at empirical level  e.g. power point, chair, smiling face
etc.
Attributes = characteristics of a concept
e.g. furniture: - type of furniture = indoor / outdoor
- raw material it is made of = wooden / metal
- size of furniture = big / small
concept - use of furniture = living room / kitchen
Proposition = statement (sentence)
- abstract level
- relationship bet. concepts
Hypothesis = statement (sentence)
- empirical level
- relationship bet. variables, a proposition that is empirically testable.
, an unproven proposition
- 5 types of Hypothesis:
• If-then  If X increases, Y also increases too.
• Directional  The higher X, the higher Y.
(X is positively related to Y)
(There is a positive relationship between X and Y)
• Non-directional  X is related to Y. There is a relationship
between X and Y.
• Null  There is “no relationship” between X and Y.

10
 • Alternative  There is a “positive relationship” between X and Y.
Theory is generated by: (how to make conclusion regarding the theory)

1. Deductive reasoning
: from general (abstract level) to specific conclusion

2. Inductive reasoning
: from specific (empirical) to general conclusion

Example of Deductive or Inductive

- If we notice that whenever Popeye eats spinach, he can run faster.

So we may conclude that eating vegetable can make better health.

- Since the economy of most countries in EU is well-developed, the

economy of Germany should be well-developed.

Note: Study in the Extra Handout about “Variables, Hypotheses, and

Conceptual Model”

11
 (Review Chapter 5)

Ladder of Abstraction
- Terminator - Three; Movie; Entertainment
- Pantene; Shampoo; Consumer Product
- Activity; Tennis; Sport

Proposition and Hypothesis

A. Teaching aids (or tools) influence student learning.
B. Employee incentives increase employee motivation
C. Using the power point in class can increase student exam scores.
D. Bonus can increase employee intention to stay in the same
company.

12
 (Extra Handout/Sheet)
Conceptual Model / Framework
= a model that theorizes a logical set of relationships among several
factors that explains the main concept under study. It is based on
“literature review” of previous and existing studies of others. It is the
basis on which the entire research project is based.
Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Teaching Aids (+)

(-)
Class Size
Student Learning

Teacher
Characteristics

??

??

Research Topic ?? (of the above Conceptual Model)

a. Who could learn more effectively?

b. What are characteristics of learning?

c. What are consequences of student learning?

d. What are determining factors that influence student learning?

e. What are causes and effects of student learning?

13
 Types of Variables
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
(Predictor Var.) (Criterion Var.)

Class Size (-) Student Learning

Class size:
A. How many students in one class? Fill the number in the blank
_____ students (continuous variable  can find “mean value”)

B. How big is your class?

___ Small ____ Medium ___ Large (categorical variable)

Intervening Variable (coming in between IV and DV)

Class Size (-) Student Learning

Level of Student
concentration

Moderating Variable (modify original relationship)

Class Size (-)  (+) Student Learning

Interestin
g topic
discussed

14
 Chapter 6

Exploratory Research  in order to clarify situation or help define

the right problem.
- Initial / preliminary research
- Need subsequent research
- Provide qualitative analysis / data
- To understand nature of problem, but not to solve the problem

- No conclusive research answers

- Not determine a proper course of action
- Not solving problem
- Not quantitative research: no calculation is made

Exploratory discover more data, more background, no conclusive

answers

Descriptive  describe answers to specific research problems in details

 such as in numbers, percentages, average values

Purpose of Exploratory Research

1. diagnosing situation
2. screening alternatives / options
*Concept testing *test “proxy” (substitute) of any new product/idea
3. discovery new ideas

Types of Exploratory Research (based on purpose)

1. Experience survey = “experienced people”, experts, knowledgeable

2. Secondary data analysis = literature search/review
3. Case study method = study similar “situations” or “organizations”
4. Pilot study = use “sampling survey”, not rigorous, use small survey
= is divided into three types: focus group,
depth interview, and projective techniques

15
 4.1 Focus group interview = free-flow group discussion with
moderator (a group = about 6-10 members)

4.2 Projective techniques:

- word association: what first comes to your mind when you hear the
word “—“
- sentence completion : fill in the blank to complete a sentence
- third-person technique : suppose respondents to be someone else and
ask questions like “If you were “—“, what would you choose?”
- role playing : similar to third-person technique, but respondents are
supposed to be someone else and show “behaviors” or “acting”
- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)  story telling from picture
- picture frustration  suggest dialogue from cartoon story

4.3 In-depth interview = intensive personal interview

- unstructured intensive interview
- focus on “why” question
- elaborate / deep on topic discussed
- highly-skilled interviewer
- difficult for analysis + interpretation
- “better than” focus group interview

Sampling Survey  using results from a small number or some

number of sample to make conclusion about the total population.

16
 Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative

Discover ideas with general research Test hypothesis with specific

questions research questions
Observe things, and interpret Measure things, and test

Unstructured questions Structured questions

Researcher is involved (Subjective) Researcher is uninvolved (Objective)

Use “small sample” Use “large sample”

Exploratory research Descriptive and Causal research

Major categories of Qualitative Research

1. Phenomenology: study of “human experiences” in an environment

2. Ethnography: study of “culture” by immersing himself or herself into a

culture – be a part of that culture (participant observation)

3. Grounded Theory: study by “probing or asking questions deeper and

deeper” to himself or herself toward the information received to get deeper

explanation on that information (inductive study). It does not begin with
theory.
4. Case Study: study of “documented history” of something

17
 (Review Chapter 6)

Concept Testing
- test the tendency of acceptance for any new product/service idea
- screen the most acceptable concept from many alternatives
- may apply the projective technique, e.g. word association
Example

“The university in a park”  which university?

“Lux is not just a SOAP, but it is the SKIN CARE”
“Bar Buree is the entertainment after work”

Pilot Study versus Experience Survey

A. People are selected for interview because they are articulate
(knowledgeable) rather than being representative.
B. People are selected for survey because they represent the target
population of the study.
C. _____ is similar to a survey method except that it is a small-scale
study and based on qualitative analysis.

Pilot Study vs Experience Survey vs Case Study

A. Su Su video rental shop intensively investigated the computerized
video renting process of Block Bluster. This investigation is
called __________ .
B. Discussing the economic crisis issue with the Minister of Finance
may be referred as the ___________ .
C. Discussing the impacts of crisis on SMEs with entrepreneurs or
investors is called the ______________ .

Moderator vs Depth Interviewer

A. He or she must be a high-skilled interviewer who can stimulate a
respondent to elaborate on the topic discussed.
B. His or her job is to be a good listener who can also develop a
rapport with everyone in order to stimulate spontaneous answers.

18
 Chapter 7
(Overview)
*only p.159-169*
Secondary data
: data gathered – before the current research
– not for the purpose of the current needs of researcher.

Primary data
: data gathered at the current research and for the purpose of the
current need of researcher.

Data conversion
: changing “original” form of data to format suitable for current
research.

Advantages of secondary data

- less expensive
- quickly obtained
- get some info. that may not be obtained by primary data.

Disadvantages
- not designed to meet current researcher’s need
- outdated
- different in definition of “terms”
- different units of measurement
- no proof for accuracy

Sources of secondary data

1. Internal
= usually organization has many internal records kept for future use,
but researcher may ignore these records (e.g. Annual Report, Memo,
Marketing Plans, etc.)
2. External
- public library
- government sources (e.g. BOI, Bank of Thailand, etc.)
- commercial sources (e.g. companies that sell the data)
- media sources (e.g. newspaper house, TV stations, etc.)

19
 Secondary Data Vs Primary Data

gathered and analyzed gathered and analyzed

“before” the current research at the current research

- data vs information

- data conversion = data transformation

- Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary data

- Sources of Secondary data ---- internal

external

- Reference or Bibliography (base on APA style – see the next page)

Objectives of secondary data research

1. fact finding  simple
2. model building  more complex (conceptual model)
3. data mining  the most complex
 using “computer” to categorize people/things

20
 Chapter 8
Survey (an “obtrusive” research method)
: method of primary data collection based on communication between
researcher and respondents (based on “asking questions” method)

Verbal – face-to-face interview (personal interview)

– telephone interview  measure “immediate feedback”

Written  questionnaire
- popular method, quick, accurate, inexpensive
- mostly for “descriptive research”  measuring awareness, attitudes,
behaviors, opinions.

Types of survey (based on “Time)

1. Cross-sectional study – more than one group at one point in time
2. Longitudinal study – one group for a series of time
- Panel study – same group (same individuals) for a series of time
- Cohort study – more than one group for a series of time

Survey error or Total error (Exhibit 8.1, p.188 )**

not precise = 1. Random sampling error (chance or probability error)
: chance variation or results from our sample ≠ results
from the real population

not accurate = 2. Systematic error

: mistake in conducting research (human error)
: it is divided into “Respondent error” and
“Administrative error”

21
2.1 Respondent error
- non-response error  not-at-home error, refusal
- response bias  deliberate or unconscious

Response bias: 6 types of response bias

* acquiescence bias: yes-sayers or give one rating to all

* extremity bias: too strong expression/attitude

* interviewer bias (**): want to please interviewer

* auspices bias: want to please the research sponsor

* social desirability bias: want to look as “good” citizen

* self-selection bias: strongly want to share opinions for

the survey

2.2 Administrative error

- data processing error: mistakes in editing, coding

- sample selection error:choosing the wrong sample

- interviewer error(**): mistake during interviews

- interviewer cheating(**): intentional cheating

22
 (Review Chapter 8)

Acquiescence Bias vs Extremity Bias

SA = strongly agree A = agree N = neutral

DA = disagree SD = strongly disagree

Statement of attitude SA A N DA SD
1. Internet service at ABAC is of x x x x x
good quality.
2. Computer lab at ABAC Bangna is x x x x x
convenient.
3. Staff at computer lab is very x x x x x
helpful.
4. Operating hours of the lab is x x x x x
reasonable.
5. Fees at the lab is reasonable. x x x x x

Or
1. Internet service at ABAC: good quality 5 4 3 2 1 bad quality
2. Computer lab at ABAC BangNa: convenient 5 4 3 2 1 inconvenient
3. Staff at computer lab: helpful 5 4 3 2 1 unhelpful
4. Operating hours of the lab: reasonable 5 4 3 2 1 unreasonable
5. Fees at the lab: reasonable 5 4 3 2 1 unreasonable

23
 Survey Bias or Error

A. interviewer bias F. acquiescence bias

B. sample selection bias G. interviewer error
C. social desirability bias H. auspices bias
D. interviewer cheating I. extremity bias
E. non-response bias J. self-selection bias

1.If a researcher noticed that some security guards with higher authority tended to
refuse to answers the interviewer’s questions about ghost rumor on campus.

2. Researchers forgot to ask some personal data from some respondents.

3. When a job applicant is asked by HR manager (during job interview) about how
long he or she intends to work for this company, the possible bias may come from
______ .

4. If Oishi conducts it own survey about preferences of Japanese food of teenagers,

the findings may suffer ______ .

5. The question, “Do you come from a good family?, might suffer ____ .

6. Respondents disagreed very strongly with all ideas proposed in the

questionnaire items.

7. Researchers wanted to study about “Chat Program” in internet, so they

interviewed senior citizens and farmers in rural towns.

8. Housewife respondents tend to agree with all proposed qualities of the new
product survey.

9. The researcher filled in the income level for some respondents who did not
write the answers on the questionnaire.

10. Bias from a hotel guest who was so upset with the room service and after that
he wrote a complaint on the questionnaire placed near the check-out counter and
rated the service quality of the hotel very negatively.

24
 (Chapter 9)
Personal
Face-to-face (door-to-door)
Verbal interview
(Interview)

Mall intercept
Survey interview

Telephone Central
Location
telephone
interview
Written
(Questionnaire) Computer
Assisted Tele.
Sent by hand Interview
Sent by mail, email, fax
Not sent (self-administered questionnaire) Computerized
Voice
Activated
Tele. Interview

Survey
Cross-sectional

Longitudinal Panel Study

Cohort Study

25
 Chapter 9
Survey: is divided into 3 types (based on “method”)
1. Personal interview – door-to-door
(face-to-face) – mall intercept interview
(or high traffic area interviews)

2. Telephone interview Central Location (has interviewer and paper)

CATI - Computer Assisted Telephone
Interview (has interviewer and computer)
 Computerized Voice Activated Telephone
Interview (use “answering machine system”,
no human interviewer)

3. Mail questionnaire

Personal Interview (about 1 - 1½ hr.)

Advantages
1. Immediate feedback
2. Probing complex questions “Can you tell me more about…”
3. Longer period
4. Can collect more complete info.
5. Can show product, visual aids
6. High participation

Disadvantages
1. no anonymity between researcher and respondents
2. influence of the demographics of interviewer (interviewer bias)
3. interviewer cheating
4. cost
5. callback problem

26
Telephone interview (about 10 minutes up to 30 minutes)
: very good, popular now in case that researcher has a short time

Advantages
1. speed “CATI” = can collect, record, analyze data at the same time
2. cost
3. more impersonal (no face-to-face meeting)
4. cooperation
5. easier to get callback

Disadvantages
1. can’t use visual aids
2. not get good representatives samples

CATI: Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing

= telephone interviewer asks people on the phone while keying answer

into computer at the same time.
= labor-saving, questions must be highly structured

Mail Questionnaire (taking about 6-8 weeks, with 8-10 pages)

Advantages
1. lowest cost
2. respondents’ convenience
3. most impersonal  respondents feel more relaxed/ using
standardized question
4. length  no more than 6 pages /  should “Pretest” (trial run) first

Disadvantage
1. low “response rate”

Response Rate = no. of questionnaire returned, completed (not biased) x 100

no. of questionnaire sent (mailed) (without problem)

27
 How to increase response rate
1. use a cover letter ***
2. monetary incentives ***
3. interesting questions
4. use follow-ups reminder postcard (** most common)
5. preliminary notification  advance postcard
6. survey sponsorship  e.g. Study conducted by University ??
7. other techniques: free postage, colorful questionnaire

*Exhibit 9.4, p.231 *: Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages.

Personal Mall Telephone Questionnaire

Interview Intercept Interview
- immediate feedback
- short time, short question
- cover wide area with low cost
- sensitive / personal issue
- anonymity of respondents
- low response rate problem
- easy to call back
- easy to “probe”
- get complete information
- highest cost
- no interviewer bias
- can show pictures/products
- most structured questions
- respondents’ convenience
- high versatility (= flexibility)
- appropriate for retired +
housewives
- appropriate for busy
executives
- appropriate for less-educated
people
- appropriate for high-educated
people

28
 (Review Chapter 9)

Response Rate =
100 x (No. of questionnaires returned and completed without bias)
(No. of questionnaires sent to eligible persons without problems)

Example
You mailed 1,000 questionnaires, 200 were returned to you as “wrong address”.
After 4 weeks, 600 were returned and completed, but 50% of those returned
contained acquiescence bias and extremity. It was found later that 100 were
refusal cases and the other 100 were not-at-home cases.
What is the response rate of this study? Answer = 37.5%

Different Types of Survey

A. mail survey E. door-to-door interview
B. computer-assisted telephone interview F. mall intercept interview
C. self-administered questionnaire G. telephone interview
D. computerized voice activated telephone interview

1. Honda would like to identify the characteristics of potential customers who

showed interest on their new car models during the MOTOR SHOW.

2. Department of Public Health used its own budget to study about the usage of the
30-Baht healthcare policy from Thai citizens all over the country.

3. A-Day magazine wanted to identify the demographic characteristics of its

subscribers and measure their perceptions about the magazine.

4. The survey technique that allows researchers to do a lot of “probing” in order to

get as much as information as possible.

5. The survey that conducts the telephone interview without human interviewers.

6. The survey that allows data collection and data processing (keyboarding the
answers and coding) to occur simultaneously.

7. Right after the new campaign of drug problems was on air, the researchers used
the very short and simple survey questions to measure the awareness of target
respondents toward this campaign.

29
 Chapter 10
(Overview)
(only p.236-244)*

Observation: scientific observation – observer

– subjects
Being the scientific observation if it ….
• has research objectives
• is planned systematically
• is record systematically
• can be checked for validity + reliability of results

• Observation is “unobtrusive method” = without communication

without asking any questions

2 types of observation (based on subjects’ awareness)

1. Visible
2. Hidden

* observer bias
* observer error

6 type of observation (based on method / technique)

1. Direct Observation
- straight-forward method in natural setting
- observer records everything he sees
- should write fast

2. Scientifically Contrived Observation

- create an artificial environment in order to test hypothesis
- “mystery shopper”  researcher disguises himself, being a shopper.

Response Latency = amount of time a person spends in choosing a

product / thing. (decision-making time)

30
3. Participation Observation / Participant Observation
- observer “participates” in the situation, becomes a member (temporary)
- have interaction with subjects  gain the first-hand knowledge.
- combination between direct observation + interviewing

4. Observation of Physical Objects (physical traced evidence)

- finding visible marks for some events, e.g. garbage survey to identify
market share of some products

5. Content Analysis
- study the message itself– main content
– characteristics of message
- used when analyzing message in media and advertisement

6. Mechanical Observation  disadvantage  subjects know that

they are being observed / being studied.
- don’t use human observer, use machine instead

1. eye-tracking monitor
2. pupilometer are placed onto subjects’ body parts.
3. psychogalvanometer
4. voice pitch analyzer

What should be observed? (p. 237)

1. participants  subjects / people
2. setting  location, place
3. purpose  why they come together to the setting?
4. social behavior  people’s interactions, activities (**)
5. Frequency and duration  how often of behavior, for how long

31
 (Review Chapter 10)

Which one can be observed?

- attitude, perception, feeling
- behavior, action, verbal, non-verbal
- time (temporal patterns)
- space (spatial patterns)
- content of message, main point communicated in the message
- actions, interactions - objects, things
- educational level - gender

Example
A mail order company was suffering from a high rate of returned merchandises.
Management asked a marketing research manager to investigate the causes of high
return rate. The researchers started to examine the characteristics of returned
orders, such as location of customers, category of returned orders, and reasons for
return on the Return Form. One hypothesis was that “the longer customers waited
for receiving the mail orders, the greater probability of returns. Statistical results
also supported this hypothesis. So the company turned to focus on improving the
speed of mail order services and then could experience the lower return rate later.

Different types of Observation

A. content analysis C. observation of physical trace evidence
B. role playing D. direct observation

1. BTS would like to estimate the number of student passengers using its service
during the rush hours.

2. To study the interpersonal relationship between students and teacher in a

classroom of western culture. A student was asked to behave as an American
teacher and the expected results were observed.

3. We can know that the current government aims to solve the poverty problems as
its top priority by investigating the government policies announced in the
Parliament Meeting.

4. A car company wants to determine the most popular radio stations listened by its
customers by checking at the “setting programs” from one to six radio-
programmed buttons of all cars parked at the “check-up service”.

32
 Chapter 11
(Overview)
(only p.255-265)
Experiment
: the study of causal relationship between variables in the condition
controlled by research (experimenter and test units)
units of analysis = test units in the experiment

1. Select independent variable.

2. Manipulate or make some changes on independent variable.
= experiment treatment (variation of independent variable)
3. Observe and measure an effect on dependent variable.

- experimental group: receive experiment treatment (= real treatment)

- control group: not receive experiment treatment
(sometimes, receiving “placebo” = fake treatment)

• field experiment: in natural setting

• laboratory experiment: in artificial + controlled setting

 basic experiment design: study effect of one independent variable

 factorial experimental design: study effect of more than one
independent variables

Basic issues in experiment

try to vary it, make it “different” for each group.
1. manipulate independent variable
2. select and measure changes on dependent variable
3. select and design test units
4. control extraneous variables
try not to vary it, keep it the “same”

Constancy of condition
: a way to control errors by keeping conditions / situations the same in
experimental groups (only treatments that are not the same)
: if there is no constancy of condition, there will be “constant error”

33
Some types of “errors” in experiment
1. Constant error = varying conditions in experiment
2. Demand characteristics = situation hints/demands test units to
behave in particular way

- Experimenter bias = interviewer bias in survey

- Guinea pig effect = acquiescence bias in survey 
over - cooperative with experimenter
- Hawthorn effect = unintentional change in behavior

(Guinea pigs = tested animals in the lab experiment e.g. rabbit, mouse, etc.)

Order of presentation bias

: problem about treatment when there are more than one treatments
given to test units continuously and they gain more experience +
knowledge / or it is the bias from giving the same order of treatments.
A, B, C
A, B, C
A, B, C

This problem is solved by:

1. Counterbalancing : switch the sequence or order
2. Blinding  true vs placebo treatment, keep confidential to test units
3. Double-blinding : keep confidential to both experimenter and test
units

How to control Extraneous Variables

1. matching: match backgrounds of all test units
2. randomization: select + assign test units to experiment group and
control group by random
3. repeated measures: every test unit gets all treatments/ measure test
units more than one time – before and after treatment
4. constancy of condition: keep conditions/environment during the
experiment the same for all groups (**)

The end of Chapter 12 at p. 265

34
 (Review Chapter 11)

Experiment
1. To study the impact of lotion on the skin of women.
2. To investigate how music affects work performance of security
guards at a parking lot.

Independent variable  Dependent variable

Lotion  Skin
Music  Work performance

Extraneous variable ≠ Irrelevant variable

- sunlight, soap, food, body weight
- working hours, type of music, salary, religion of security guards

Experimental Treatment : how to manipulate the independent

variables
- Lotion  using Nevia Lotion twice a day for 3 months
- Music  listening to country music during rush hours

Testing Unit (= dependent variable of ??)

Women  measure skin of “women”
Security guards  measure work performance of “security guards”

Example
Sending employees to training at Phuket Island seemed to result in
higher work morale. The least we can conclude about “out-of-the-house
training” and “morale” is that these two variables have ____.

(causal relationship or concomitant variation)

35
Basic Issues in Experiment

The researcher would like to know if customers will order more food
when the restaurant is painted in bright colors. He records monthly food
sales before this experiment. Then he paints the wall of restaurant in red
and yellow colors. At the end of that month, he records the monthly
food sales plus drinks. In the following months, he observes the amount
of food sales and it confirms his hypothesis.

Determine the following

- Independent variable = _________

- Dependent variable = __________
- Test unit (Unit of Analysis) = _________
- (Experimental) Treatment = ________________
- Field or Lab. Experiment?? _____________
- Basic or Factorial Experimental Design?? ___________
- Extraneous or Irrelevant variables (taste of food, age of
customers, marital status of customers)

36
 Questionnaire Design (Ch.13-15)
Ch. 13 Level of Scale
Ch. 15 Two types of question - nominal
1. Open–ended question - ordinal
2. Fixed–alternative question - interval
2.1 Simple–dichotomy question - ratio
2.2 Determinant–choice question Criteria of measurement
- Reliability
2.3 Frequency–determinant question
- Validity
2.4 Checklist question - Sensitivity
2.5 Attitude rating scales question
- simple attitude scale
- category scale
- Likert scale (exhibit 14.2 p.313) measure
Ch. 14 - semantic differential scale “Attitude”
(exhibit 14.3 p.314)
- numerical scale (p.315)
- stapel scale (exhibit 14.5 p.317)
- graphic rating scale Happy Face Scale
(exhibit 14.6 p.318) Ladder Scale
2.6 Filter question
2.7 Ranking question
Four techniques to measure “attitude”
– Attitude Components > affective  feeling
> cognitive  belief, thought
> behavioral  intention to do

1. ranking  give rank order (e.g. Rank 1, 2, 3)

2. rating  give score (e.g. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1)
3. sorting  classify
4. choice  select, choose

Ch. 15 Questions that should be “avoided”

- complex question - burdensome question
- double – barreled question - leading question
- ambiguous question - assumption built-in question
- loaded question

37
 Chapter 13
Measurement: a process of assigning “numbers” to objects or concepts

- Concept cannot be directly measured, so researcher has to give

“Operational Definition” to the concept to be measured in the
research.

Operational Definition: giving “empirical meaning” to a concept by

specifying the activity or how to measure that concept
(≠ Conceptual Definition  abstract meaning)

Rule of measurement: rule or guideline of how to assign the number

Scale: - anything arranged in a series of order

- can be categories or continuous spectrum
- there are four levels of scale

low level 1. Nominal Scale: categories or classifications

2. Ordinal Scale: categories and order (sequence)
3. Interval Scale: categories, order and distance
high level 4. Ratio Scale: categories, order, distance and absolute zero
(natural zero)
zero value means “none” or
“nothing” eg. no. of brothers
or sisters = 0
no brother
no sister

(≠ single measure)

Index Measure (Composite Measure): asking more than one question

to measure one concept which is complex, e.g. social class, attitude, etc.

38
Three Criteria for good Measurement

1. Reliability: free from error, provide precise or consistent results

1.1 Repeatability consistency: Test-retest method

1.2 Internal consistency:

- Split-half method
- Equivalent-form method

2. Validity: ability of scale to measure “what” it is intended to

measure
2.1 Content or Face validity  commonly used scale or
get expert approval (professional agreement)

2.2 Criterion validity:  compare with some standard/other

measure
- Concurrent validity  meet the present standard
- Predictive validity  can predict the future standard

2.3 Construct validity  compare with theory or other concept

- Convergent validity high correlation with other similar concept
- Discriminant validity low correlation with other opposite concept

3. Sensitivity: ability of scale to accurately measure and include all

“variability” or “differences” of values for a concept

- more sensitive scale :-

__like so much __ like __ so-so __ dislike __dislike so much

- less sensitive scale :-

____ like ____ dislike

39
Important Notes
“When a scale is ‘reliable’, it does not need to be ‘valid’. But when the
scale is ‘valid’, it should be also ‘reliable’. Reliability is a necessary
condition of Validity.

40
Validity

- Face/content valid - our scale looks like other people’s scales – that
are widely used.
- our scale is used by experts or gets expert’s
approval.

- Criterion valid - compare our scale and another scale that

measures some standard
* if standard is at present = concurrent valid
*if standard is in the future = predictive valid

- Construct valid - compare our scale with theory / hypothesis, it

should support theory
- compare our scale with another scale that
measure another concept
* if similar concept = convergent valid
* if opposite concept = discriminant valid

Level of Scale can predict “what” statistical techniques can be used

(At Questionnaire Design step) (At Data Analysis step)

Level of Scale Statistical Techniques

- Nominal  percentage, mode
- Ordinal  percentage, mode, median, ranking
- Interval  percentage, mode, median, arithmetic
mean (x), standard deviation (S.D.)
- Ratio  percentage, mode, median, x, S.D.,
index number, geometric mean

41
 (Additional for Chapter 13)

Operational Definition VS Conceptual Definition

“Efficient Company”

A. A company that performs better.

B. A company that can reduce the fixed cost.
C. A company that can increase profit by 5% from the
previous year.

“Successful” ABAC student

A. An excellent student.
B. A student who graduates with G.P.A. more than 2.7.
C. A student who has a high concern on good health.

“Satisfaction”

A. When respondents feel good about services provided. Or

it means “a good feeling” of all services.
B. When respondents rate all services “positively”. Or it
means “positive ratings” to all services.

“Brand Loyalty”
A. When a person likes one brand so much.
B. When a person would like to buy the same brand again.

42
Sensitivity? (sensitive scale?)

 To measure “age” What is your age?

(A) __ less than 16 (B) __ less than 16
__ 16 – 18 __ 16 – 60
__ 19 – 21 __ more than 60
__ 22 – 24
__ 25 – 27
__ 28 – 30
__ more than 30

43
 Review Chapter 13

Four Levels of Scale

(Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio Scale)

Do you like Pizza?

a) __ Yes __ No

b) __ like so much __ like __ dislike

c) like so much __: __: __: __: dislike so much

(4) (3) (2) (1)

d) Do you like Pizza? Estimate percentage of your answer based on the

total 100%

__% for Pizza Hut

__% for the Pizza Company

__% for Narai Pizzeria

e) How often have you visited any Pizza Restaurant in the past two
months?

Visited for _____ time(s) in the past two months

f) Rank 1 to 3 for the following pizza brands that you like. 1 means
“like the most” and 3 means “ like the least”

__ Pizza Hut

__ The Pizza Company

__ Narai Pizzeria

44
 Four Levels of Scale with Pre-coding

Do you like Pizza?

a) __ 1. Yes __ 2. No

b) __ 1. dislike so much __ 2. dislike

__ 3. like __ 4. like so much

c) like so much 4 3 2 1 dislike so much

d) How much do you like Pizza? (based on 100 percentage)

- I like Pizza about = ____%

e) How often have you visited any Pizza Restaurant in the

past two months?

Visited for ______ time(s) in the past 2 months

a) is nominal scale (number 1, 2 represent “label”, no numerical value)

b) is ordinal scale (number 1, 2, 3, 4, represent “order in attitude”)

c) is interval scale (number 1, 2, 3, 4 represent “score” given to attitude)

d) is also interval scale (we can fill in from 0 up to 100, but 0 is not
absolute zero)

e) is ratio scale (we can fill in any number and 0 is absolute zero)

45
 Validity and Sensitivity

 To measure “wealth” of respondents

A. How much is your income per month?  something wrong?

__ less than 10,000 __ 20,000 – 30,000
__ 10,001 – 20,000 __ more than 30,000

B. How many bedrooms in your house?

__ 1 – 2 __ 1 – 50
__ 3 – 4 __ 51 – 100
__ 5 – 6 __ 101 – 150
__ more than 6 __ more than 150

 To measure “gender”

A. 1. What is your sex?

__ Male __ Female

B. 1. Can you get pregnant?

__ Yes __ No

2. Do you have menstruation?

__ Yes __ No

3. Whom do you want to marry with?

__ Man __ Women

C. 1. Do you want to have children in the future?

__ Yes __ No

 To measure “age” What is your age?

(A) __ less than 16 (B) __ less than 16
__ 16 – 18 __ 16 – 35
__ 19 – 21 __ 36 – 55
__ 22 – 24 __ more than 55
__ more than 24

46
 Validity and Reliability

- There is a high correlation between “grade” of Principle of Marketing

subject and what “grade” of Marketing Management (MM) subject
would be at the senior year at ABAC.

- There is a high correlation between communication skills and grade

in Public Speaking subject.

- There is a high correlation between three HR recruitment tests (Set I,

Set II, Set III tests).  (the same tests, but 3 sets)

- There is a high correlation between a test that measures “autonomy”

and the other test that measures “independence”.  similar concepts

- There is a low correlation between a test that measures “democracy”

and the other test that measures “centralized decision”.  opposite
concepts

Criteria for good measurement

- Face / content valid Concurrent
- Criterion valid Predictive
- Construct valid
- Reliability
- Sensitivity

- A test designed to measure brand loyalty that is evaluated and widely

used by most American consumer-product businesses.

- A test to measure employee needs that yields findings in accordance

with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory.

- A test that anyone who studied hard will get high scores while
anyone who did not study will get low scores.

- A test for air pilot which any trainer who scores very high will be
more potential for becoming air pilot.

47
- A test to measure “satisfaction” by providing 10 degrees of satisfaction
instead of just “satisfied” and “dissatisfied” – dichotomous choices.

- A test is given to the same respondent for 3 times and found that
there is such a high correlation of scores from those 3 times of the
test.

48
 Chapter 14
Attitude: enduring disposition toward something
1. affective component  feeling / emotion
2. cognitive component  thinking / thought / belief / awareness
3. behavioral component  buying intention / behavior intention
expectation

Hypothetical construct: any variable that cannot be “directly

observed”, but must be measured by the indirect way (such as by
survey) e.g. attitude, perception.

Four techniques to measure “attitude”

1. Ranking: list a rank order of preference
2. Rating: estimate magnitude and value or scores
3. Sorting: classify objects according to some criteria
4. Choice: choose from alternatives

Attitude Rating Scales

1. Simple attitude scale: 2 choices to choose
2. Category scale: more than 2 choices to choose
3. Likert scale: rate degree of “agreement” or “disagreement”
4. Semantic differential scale  using “bipolar adjectives” cheap __ __ __ __ __ expensive
5. Numerical scale - fast 5 4 3 2 1 slow
6. Stapel scale - –3 –2 –1 clean +1 +2 +3
7. Graphic rating scale - clean dirty
- Happy face scale   
- Ladder scale

for study of kids or small children (low literacy = can’t read)

= using “picture” as scale

8. Constant-sum scale  divide the constant sum (total marks) to options

9. Monadic rating scale  evaluate a single concept alone
10. Comparative rating scale  evaluate one concept by comparing
with others

49
 Review Chapter 14 “Attitude”

affective component = feeling

Attitude: cognitive component = thinking
behavioral component = intention to do something

Behavior:  exact activities to do

A. Do you use perfume?

B. How many perfume would you like to buy in this year?
C. Why do you buy new perfume?
D. Do you like perfume with vanilla smelt?
E. Do you prefer “female perfume” more than “male perfume”?
F. What is your favorite perfume?
G. Are you interested in using perfume?
H. How do you like perfume from Estee Lauder?
I. How often do you buy new perfume in a year?

Hypothetical Construct  something that cannot be observed

Which one is hypothetical construct?

- shopping time
- duration of shopping
- amount of money paid / shopping
- attitudes toward store
- response latency in buying perfume
- reasons for choosing a perfume
- marital status of shoppers

50
- Ranking technique
- Rating technique
- Sorting technique
- Choice technique

1. Which car do you like?

__ Toyota __ Mitsubishi

__ Honda __ Nissan

2. Rank 1 to 4 to the car that you like “1” means like the least and “4”
means like the most.

__ Toyota __ Mitsubishi

__ Honda __ Nissan

3. What is your attitude toward these cars?

3.1 Toyota: very good ___: ___: ___: ___: very bad

3.2 Honda: very good ___: ___: ___: ___: very bad

3.3 Mitsubishi: very good ___: ___: ___: ___: very bad

3.4 Nissan: very good ___: ___: ___: ___: very bad

4. What do you think about these cars in terms of “price worthiness”

and “good after-sale service”?
- Toyota - Honda - Mitsubishi - Nissan

4.1 Price worthiness: _________________________________

4.2 Good after-sale service: _____________________________

51
 (Additional for Chapter 14-15)

What is the name of these questions?

- Filter q. - Checklist q.
- Simple dichotomy - Simple attitude scale
- Determinant choice - Category scale
- Frequency determinant - Likert scale
- Semantic differential - Numerical scale
- Graphic rating scale - Stapel scale

A. ____ Agree, I support this plan

____ Disagree, I prefer to change the plan

B. Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree

C. -2 -1 Agree +1 +2

D. Agree --------------------------------- Disagree

E. Agree ___ :___: ___: ___: ___: Disagree

(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

F. SA A N D SD
- I support this plan __ __ __ __ __
- I like this plan __ __ __ __ __

G. ___ strongly agree ___ agree ___ neutral

___ disagree ___ strongly disagree

H. ___ Yes, I am using it now

___ No, I never use this product
___ I used it in the past, but now I change the brand

I. ____ Agree (Go to Part 3) ____ Disagree (Go to Part 4)

52
J. ____ coffee ___ tea ____ soft drink ___ fruit juice
(you can choose more than one beverage)

K. Coffee ___: ___: ___: ___: Tea

L. ____ very seldom

____ once a week
____ more than once a week

M. ____ at home ____ at coffee restaurant

N. ____ like ____ dislike

O. ____ like ____ so-so ____ dislike

P. ____ shopping ____ play sport ___ listening to radio

Q. ____ less than 2 times a month

____ 2 – 4 times a month
____ more than 4 times a month

R. ____ never
____ rarely
____ sometimes
____ often
____ always

53
 Chapter 15
Questionnaire: - instrument to collect data in survey research
- should have grammar and good common sense

Two qualities to judge good questionnaire

1. Relevance
2. Accuracy

Two types of questions

1. Open-ended question
2. Fixed-alternative question

2.1 Simple-dichotomy question

2.2 Determinant-choice question
2.3 Frequency-determination question
2.4 Attitude rating scales
2.5 Checklist question
2.6 Filter question
2.7 Ranking question

The Art of asking questions

1. Avoid complex question
2. Avoid leading question and loaded question
3. Avoid ambiguous question
4. Avoid double-barreled question
5. Avoid burdensome question
6. Avoid assumption built-in question (a type of “leading” question)

What is the best question sequence?

- good flow should be from “general” to “specific”
- start with easy questions to more difficult ones
- ask behavior before asking affective and cognitive components
- start with fixed-alternative questions then ending with open-ended
questions

54
Order bias: answer of earlier question influences answer of later question

Funnel technique: ask general questions “before” specific questions

Filter question: question that filters or screens out some group of

respondents to answer or not to answer some questions in later part.

Question Layout: physical format of questionnaire

1. Select good quality paper

2. Should run the “page numbers”
3. Write “title/topic” in all capital letters on the top of the first page
4. Put the date in questionnaire
5. Leave some space for comment part (at the end of questionnaire)
6. Space between each question should be equal
7. Choose beautiful font or letter type (look interesting and modern)
8. Leave good margin on each page (left and right margin)
9. Staple questionnaire in booklet form (how to clip the questionnaire)

* Researchers must pretest their questionnaire

- to test whether respondents can understand all questions.
- to identify any biased, ambiguous questions (if any) before
distributing all questionnaires to the sample

• Back translation: translate from language A to B by one person and

translate from B back to A again by the other person.
- to be certain about the same understanding (consistency) of all words
and sentences used in the questionnaire

For example, your sample is Thai, so the original questionnaire is

written in Thai version, then you translate this Thai version into English
version. After that, you ask your friend to translate from English back
to Thai version again. Then you compare your original (first) Thai
version with your friend’s (new) Thai version seeing if all words and
sentences used in the questionnaire are still the same between yours and
your friend’s. If they are the same, it means your questionnaire is
suitable and not causing any misunderstanding about the meaning.

55
 Review Chapter 15

Questionnaire

“Each question below represents ‘What type of question’?” (from

Ch.15)

A. What is your opinion about ABAC Bang-Na?

B. Do you drive a car?

___ Yes ___ No

C. What is your school year at ABAC?

___ Freshman ___ Junior
___ Sophomore ___ Senior or higher

D. How often do you go to ABAC library in a week?

___ less than 1 time
___ 1 – 3 times
___ 4 – 6 times
___ more tan 6 times

E. Which building do you have classes at?

(Can check more than one answer)
___ SR ___ SG
___ SM

F. Do you like McDonald’s?

___ Yes ___ No

G. Do you like McDonald’s?

___ Yes, very much ___ Yes, so so. ___ No, not at all

56
H. What is your opinion about McDonald’s?
(Please check at one space)
SA A N D SD
- Food is delicious: __ __ __ __ __
- Service is friendly: __ __ __ __ __

I.
- Food: delicious ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: not delicious
- Service: friendly___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: unfriendly
- Area: dirty ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: clean

J.
(Please circle one number)
- Food: delicious 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 not delicious
- Service: unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 friendly

K.
- Food: -3 -2 -1 delicious +1 +2 +3

L.
+3
+2
+1
- Service: friendly
-1
-2
-3
M.
(Please mark  on the line)
- Food: delicious -------------------------------- not delicious
- Service:friendly -------------------------------- unfriendly

N. How is the food at McDonald’s?

  
57
O. How is the food at McDonald’s? (Point at any step of ladder)
Delicious

Not delicious

P. Have you ever tried McDonald’s?

_____ Yes (Go to Part 3) ____ No (Go to Part 4)

Q. What type of ‘technique’ is used below? (choice, rank, rate, or sort?)

Please classify the following characteristics or factors under Japanese car
or European car

1. More safety
2. More reasonable price
3. Better after-sales service
4. Save energy

Japanese Car European Car

? ?
? ?

58
 “Order Bias” Vs “Against Funnel Technique”

Ex. 1: Do you smoke?

___ Yes ___ No

Do you agree with smoking?

___ Yes ___ No

Ex. 2: Do you agree with smoking?

___ Yes ___ No

Do you smoke?
___ Yes ___ No

Ex. 3: Do you use Nokia mobile phone?

___ Yes ___ No

Do you use mobile phone?

___ Yes ___ No

Category scale Vs Attitude-rating scale

(choice) (rate)

A. Do you think that “price” is important for buying a new computer?

__ very important __ not important
__ important __ not very important
__ neutral

B. Do you think that “price” is important for buying a new computer?

very important ___: ___: ___: ___: ___: not very important
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
or
very important 5 4 3 2 1 not very important

59
Research Problem

- To measure job satisfaction of factory workers.

- To study if marital status can influence job satisfaction of

factory workers.

- To study if gender can influence job satisfaction.

Questionnaire

1. How much do you feel with your job in this factory?

___ very satisfied ____ satisfied
___ dissatisfied ____ very dissatisfied

2. What is your sex? ____ male ____ female

3. What is your marital status? ____ single ____ married

OR

4. Do you think that your marital status can influence job

satisfaction?
___ strongly agree ___ agree
___ disagree ___ strongly disagree

5. Do you think that your sex (gender) can influence job

satisfaction?
___ strongly agree ___ agree
___ disagree ___ strongly disagree

60
 (Review Chapter 13-15)
Note: This is just an example for Review on Final (on Chapter 13-15). Some
questions are wrong or biased.

Mobile Phone Questionnaire

1. Do you use Nokia?

____ Yes ____ No

2. Which mobile phone system do you like?

____ AIS ____ DTAC ____ Orange ____ Hutch

3. What brand of mobile phone do you use now?

____ Motorola ____ Nokia ____ Siemens
____ Samsung ____ Ericsson ____ other, ________

4. The mobile phone is one of the necessary things in your life.

Strongly agree ____ : ____: ____: ____: _____ Strongly disagree

5. Advertising together with friend recommendation is very influential to

your purchase decision on the new mobile phone.
-3 -2 -1 Agree +1 +2 +3

6. How much influential of the following factors of the mobile phone?

VI = very influential NI = not influential
I = influential NV = not very influential
VI I NI NV
6.1 Reasonable price: __ __ __ __
6.2 Modern design: __ __ __ __
6.3 Advanced technology: __ __ __ __
6.4 Sales promotion: __ __ __ __

7. How often do you go shopping in a month?

Always 5 4 3 2 1 Never

8. How much do you pay for the monthly mobile phone bill?
_____________

9. What is/are problems you find from the current mobile phone you are
using?
____ not have many functions ____ not look modern
____ not enough service center ____ not appropriate size
____ too big size ____ no advanced technology
____ other, ________________

61
10. What is your attitude toward the following characteristics of the mobile
phone you are using now?
10.1 Price: very reasonable 5 4 3 2 1 very unreasonable
10.2 Design: modern 5 4 3 2 1 out-of-date
10.3 Technology: high advanced 5 4 3 2 1 low advanced
10.4 Promotion: satisfied 5 4 3 2 1 dissatisfied

11. Where did you buy the current mobile phone?

____ from the authorized dealer ____ from the unauthorized dealer
____ from your friend/relative ____ from the service center

12. The service center should be_____________ .

widely available 5 4 3 2 1 opened 24 hours

13. How often do you go to the service center of your current mobile phone?
____ less than 2 times a month ___ 3-4 times a month
____ 5-6 times a month ___ more than 6 times a month

14. What is the most appropriate price of the “good mobile phone” in your
opinion? (in Baht)
____ less than 4,000 ____ 4,000 – 8,000
____ 8,001 – 10,000 ____ more than 10,001

15. Are you satisfied with your current mobile phone?

____ Yes ____ No

16. In case you have a chance to buy a new mobile phone, you will buy
____________ brand.

17. What is the first word came to your mind when you think about the most
wanted mobile phone?
_____________________________

18. What is the chance of you buying a new mobile phone?

Never -2 -1 Soon +1 +2

19. What is the chance of you switching to the other brand of mobile phone?

Switch sure

May or may not

Don’t switch sure

“Thank you for sharing your attitude with this survey”

62
 Chapter 16
Sampling: method of choosing some respondents from a total group of
respondents to survey and draw a conclusion to that total population.
- sample: some items that researcher chooses to study  sampling
units (each unit to be sampled)
- population: a total + complete group of items sharing common
characteristics. (population vs universe)  population elements
- census: a national survey or a study of everybody in a population
- we can do sampling by using “sampling frame” or “working
population” to draw a sampling unit from

Sampling frame: a list of names / elements in a population such as

telephone directory (listed by surnames of house owners), class
attendance sheet, membership list, reverse directory (listed by city or
address)  systematic list vs non-systematic list

Why do we do sampling? (Why don’t we do the census?)

1. save energy, time, labor, money: less job  more saving
2. get accurate and reliable results: less job  lower human errors
3. avoid destruction of all elements or the whole things such as blood
test by sampling “5 cc blood”—not taking all blood, or Q.C of finished
products in the production department

Seven steps of Sampling Process

1. define target population
2. select the relevant sampling frame
3. decide sampling method between
– probability sampling – randomly
– non-probability sampling – non-randomly
4. plan detailed procedures for choosing sampling units

63
5. determine appropriate sample size – from calculation “n”
from past, similar studies
from pilot studies or exploratory
research
6. do the actual sampling
7. start conducting the field work = data collection (in the filed)

Total Error (Survey Error): to do sampling, we should be aware of total

error or survey error
1. Random sampling error or chance error (E = Z SX or E = Z SP)
(data is “not precise”/ solution  increase sample size)
2. Systematic error (non-sampling error) or human error
cannot be calculated
(data is “not accurate”/ solution  increase accuracy of data collection)
S
SX =
n
pq
SP =
n
* n = sample must be drawn by probability sampling only!!

Two types of Sampling Method (Exhibit 16.9, 16.10, p.420-421)

cannot find “E”
1. Non-probability sampling = non-randomization (unknown and zero
chance)
1.1 Convenience sampling (accidental sampling)
1.2 Judgmental sampling (purposive sampling)
1.3 Quota sampling
1.4 Snow-ball sampling
can find “E” or random sampling error
2. Probability sampling = randomization (known and non-zero chance)
2.1 Simple random sampling
2.2 Systematic sampling (be careful with “periodicity error”)
2.3 Stratified sampling = proportional vs disproportional
2.4 Cluster sampling (area sampling)
Cluster A, Cluster B, etc.

- Multi-stage sampling: get the highly representative sampling units

combine 2 or more of probability samplings

64
Formula to calculate a sample size (n)
2
 ZS 
1. n= 
E
 Z 2 pq 
2. n= 2 
 E 
 ( N − n) 
3. Adjusted “n” = 
( N − 1)
x n (N = population size)
 

need only when (n) is more than (5% N: Population Size)

65
 (Review Chapter 16)

A. Sample E. sampling frame

B. population F. probability sampling
C. sampling G. non-probability sampling
D. census

1. Sample ≠ ________.

2. Sampling ≠ _________ .

3. Researchers usually collect data from the _______ to get results, then
they will generalize or infer those results to explain the __________ .

4. Researchers use the ______ as a source to select sampling units for

their sample. If every unit has an equal, known chance to be selected,
the method is called _______ .

5. In the more homogeneous sample, the method of _______ is better.

6. In the more heterogeneous sample, the method of ______ may be

possible.

Random sampling error versus Systematic error

A. Increasing sample size would reduce _______ error while
increasing the accuracy of data collection would reduce _______.

B. To get the precise data, ______ error should be lowered and to

get the accurate data, ______ error should be lowered.

66
Sampling Method
A. Quota sampling
B. Stratified sampling
C. Judgment sampling
D. Snowball sampling
E. Convenience sampling
F. Simple random sampling
G. Cluster sampling
H. Systematic sampling

1. There are only six “pediatric” medical doctors in Thailand. They are
specialized in the heart surgery. The best way to sample these experts is
by ________.

2. In a marketing survey, if all customers are divided into two groups:

urban and rural groups. A sampling unit is randomly drawn from each
group to study.

3. In a test marketing of coffee consumption of Thai people in the

northern part of Thailand, we randomly selected 3 northern provinces
(Chiangmai, Chiengrai, Lampang) and then we randomly selected
people in these three provinces.

4. Researcher decides to interview 100 customers who are below the age
of 30 and 50 customers who are above 30 years old.

5. ITV news reporter interviewed the first person they met on the street
in front of his TV station.

6. In a manufacturing firm of “instant noodle”, an inspector does a

quality control check on the product once a month. He usually goes to
the inventory room and randomly selects 50 packs of instant noodle for
the quality check. His technique of selection is called _______ .

7. During an investigation of “corruption issue” within hospitals in rural

areas, the committee decided to inspect only those hospitals they
suspected of being corrupted. The committee’s selection is based on
________ .

67
Quota Sampling versus Stratified Sampling

A. Dividing a population of a product into three groups due to “size”

and then drawing each product item from the 3 groups
“independently”. This technique is called _______ .

B. Dividing a population of a product into three groups due to “size”

and then drawing each product item from the 3 groups
“conveniently”. This technique is called _______ .

68
 Chapter 17
Sample Size

Three factors to determine sample size (n)

1. variance value or heterogeneity of population: ↑ variance, ↑ sample
size
2. magnitude of accepted error (E): ↓ error, ↑ sample size
3. confidence level: ↑ confidence level,↑ sample size

One principle about “sample size”

- When E is double, n will be equal to ¼ of the original n ***

Ex.
In the first study, the E was 4, the sample size used was 2,000. What
should be the sample size of the second study if the E becomes 8?
= E from 4 to be 8  double, so use the above principle to get n
= n of the second study is 1/4 (2,000) or equals to 500.

Formula to calculate a sample size (n)

2
 ZS 
1. n= 
E
 Z 2 pq 
2. n= 2 
 E 
 ( N − n) 
3. Adjusted “n” =  x n (N = population size)
 ( N − 1) 

need only when (n) is more than (5% N: Population Size)

Calculation to find sample size (based on 3 formula and one principle

above)

* Note: Chapter 18 on “Field Work” is skipped.

69
 Example of Sample Size Calculation

1. A survey researcher studying expenditure on television wishes to

have 95% confidence level and a range of error of less than $10. The
estimated standard deviation of $120. Calculate the sample size.
2
Z S
n= 
 E 
 (1.96 )(120) 
2

= 
 10
= 553.19

2. A researcher assumes that 60% of respondents are aware of the name

of N company. The researcher wishes to estimate with 95%
confidence that the allowance for sampling error will not be greater
than 3.5%. What sample size is required?

Z 2 pq
n=
E2
 (1.96 ) 2 ( 0.6 )( 0.4 ) 
=
 ( 0.035) 2 
= 753

3. Based on the above problem, if the entire working people are 10,000
people, what should be the more appropriate sample size?

5% (N) = .05 (10,000) = 500

n from the above problem is 753, and it is more than 500 (5%N)
So, we need to find “the Adjusted n” to get the more appropriate sample size

Adjusted

n=
( N − n)  x  10,000 − 753 
n =   x 753
 ( N − 1)   10 , 000 − 1 

= 724

70
 (Review Chapter 17)

Descriptive statistics vs Inferential statistics

A. From a study of 800 students, it was found that 60% of them liked
with the atmosphere of the new campus.

B. From a study of 800 students, it can predict that more than 50% of
students liked the atmosphere of the new campus.

Review Concepts in Statistics

A. Mean D. standard deviation
B. Mode E. standard error of mean
C. Median F. standard error of proportion

1. ____ is used to determine the most favorite coffee from a list of four
brands of coffee.

2. ____ is used to estimate the average age of all Thai politicians.

3. ____ is used to determine (describe) the average income level of

ABAC students.

4. ____ is the square root of variance and commonly used for measure
of dispersion.

5. ____ is used to estimate (infer) the percentage of ABAC students who

drive car to ABAC.

6. ____ is the value at the 50th percentile.

- Skip Chapter 18 (Field Work)

71
 Overview of the Stages in Data Analysis (Chapter 19-25)
After Data Collection

Editing

Data Processing Coding

and verification
Error checking
Data entry
(keyboarding)

Data analysis

Descriptive Univariate Bivariate Multivariate

analysis analysis analysis analysis

Interpretation of “Result” (Findings)

Conclusions

Recommendation

Report
72
 Chapter 19
Data Processing:

Editing  Coding  Data Entry  Data Analysis

Editing: - checking and adjusting data before coding

- to get completeness, consistency, and reliability of data

1. Field editing: preliminary editing on the same day of data

collection
2. In-house editing: formal editing in a centralized office after data
collection is finished or after all questionnaires have been received.

A. Editing for consistency

B. Editing for completeness: having “item non-response”= unanswered

question. Two choices to edit for completeness:-
- leave it unanswered  write “blank” or “missing value”
- put the answer on behalf of respondent  it is called “plug value”

C. Editing questions answered out of order

D. Editing “don’t know” answers: Legitimate don’t know

Reluctant don’t know
Confused don’t know

1, 2, 3, 4,… “99”  missing value

Coding: assigning numerical scores to all answers in all questions of the
questionnaire

1. Pre-coding: coding before data collection, normally used with fixed

alternative questions.

2. Post-coding: coding after data collection is completed, normally

used with open-ended questions

73
Test tabulation: post-coding answer of the open-ended question by
selecting some questionnaire (e.g. 20% of total) to do preliminary
coding and come up with some code categories. Then using such code
categories to do coding for the rest of questionnaires (e.g. the rest 80%)

no missing answer/code
Two basic rules of coding
1. All codes must be “exhaustive” = all answers must have codes.
2. All codes must be “mutually exclusive” or non-overlapping  no
overlap. - the same answer must have one code
- no overlapping case.

Production coding: after all coding is finished, researcher will transfer

all codes from all questionnaires onto a single coding sheet to facilitate
data entry.
key-boarding
Data entry: a keyboard operator will type all codes into a computer for
SPSS or any statistical software to do data analysis

Re-coding: change some codes to better fit the final results  adding or
collapsing (Data Transformation)

Error checking: data cleaning stage = the last step of coding before
researchers go to do data entry (or after data entry)

Data storage (in computer)

- Field – a collection of characters that represent a single type of data
(such as a field of gender data, a field of age data, income field)
- Record – a collection of related fields (such as a record of “Personal
data part”, a record of “User part questions”, a record of “Non user
part questions”)
- File – a collection of related records (such as a file of “Questionnaire
Set 1”, a file of “Questionnaire Set 2”)

74
 Review Chapter 19

Editing

Ex. 1
Q1. Do you have a PC at your house?

___ Yes 
___ No

Q2. What brand is the PC at your house?

___ IBM ___ Acer


___ Compaq ___ Other, specify ___________

Ex. 2
Q1. Do you have a PC at your house?

___ Yes ___ No

Q2. What brand is the PC at your house?


___ IBM ___ Acer
___ Compaq ___ Other, specify ___________

Ex. 3
Q1. What is your monthly income?

I don’t know

Q2. What is your family monthly income?

--- or
I have no idea

Q3. What is your savage income?

Don’t know!

75
 Example of the Same Question Asked in Different Parts
(Questions answered out of order)

Part 1
1. Do you like to see movies at theatre?

___ Yes ___ No

2. Have you ever been to EGV theatre?

___ Yes (go to part 2)

___ No (go to part 3)

Part 2 (for those who go to EGV)

3. How often do you go to EGV in a month?

-
…….

7. Would you like to see movies at EGV in the near future?

Yes, sure ___: ___: ___: ___: ___ No, never

(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

----- (Skip to Part 4: Personal Data) -----

Part 3 (for those who do not go to EGV)

8. What is the reason you never go to see movies at EGV?

-

9. Would you like to see movies at EGV in the near future?

Yes, sure ___: ___: ___: ___: ___ No, never

(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

76
 Coding Sheet

Questionnaire
Part I Part II Part III
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Set 1 (filter)
1 1 1 5 5 4 3 5 - - -

2 1 2 - - - - - 2 2 4

3 1 1 5 3 5 4 4 - - -

4 1 2 - - - - - 1 3 3

 No need to prepare coding for Question 9 again because it asks the

same thing as Question 7. So these two questions can be coded at
the same place (column) at the Question 7 coding.

Test Tabulation
Sample size = 30
.
.
15. Why don’t you like Rungsit Campus?

Editing + Coding  8 questionnaires out of the total 30 questionnaires

Set 1 - It’s too far.

Set 2 - I hate traveling
Set 3 - I’m tired of driving 2 hours everyday.
Set 4 - I always feel exhausted after going back home.
Set 5 - Nothing much to do at Rungsit Campus.
Set 6 - There are not many activities there.
Set 7 - I feel bored over there because there are not many activities I
can do over there.
Set 8 - The campus is too large and I have to walk a lot over there.
…….

77
Recoding
Collapsing
5 4 3 2 1
SA A N D SD
11.1 I like to watch movies at EGV __ __ __ __ __

11.2 I think EGV is better than others __ __ __ __ __

11.3 I will go to EGV on my next holiday __ __ __ __ __

Recode 5, 4  3 = positive attitude toward EGV

3  2 = neutral
2, 1  1 = negative attitude

Or: Collapsing from many groups into “two groups”

17. Your age

__ 1. less than 16 __ 2. 16 – 20

__ 3. 21 – 24 __ 4. 25 – 30

__ 5. more than 30

Recode 1,2, 3  1 = less than 25 (young)

4, 5  2 = 25 or above (adult)

Or: Changing from open-ended answer to “categories of number”

18. Your income per month = ________ Baht (open-ended, cannot be

pre-coded)

Recode or Assign Code as follows:

1 = 8,000 or less Or lowest through 8,000
2 = 8,001 – 15,000 8,001 through 15,000
3 = 15,001 – 25,000 15,001 through 25,000
4 = more than 25,000 25,001 through highest

78
Recoding Case for “Reverse Items**”
(more scores  like cooking)
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
(Likert Scale) SA A N D SD

6.1 I enjoy cooking 

__ __ __ __ __

6.2 I like to eat the food I cook 

__ __ __ __ __

6.3 I am a good cook __ 

__ __ __ __

6.4 I usually eat out ** __ __ ____  __

(5)*
6.5 I don’t like cooking ** __ __ __ __ __
(4)*
6.6 I like to eat food at restaurants **__ __ __ __  __
(5)*
*Find “Total Mean” of Q.6 as a whole, using this calculation:
(X6.1 + X6.2 +
X6.3 + X6.4 +
X6.5 + X6.6) ÷ 6
Error Checking (Data cleaning stage)

2. What is your age? _____ (sample size = 10 persons)

Their answers are: 26, 20, 38, 55, 19, 277, 42, 35, 22, 50

Find average age = ∑ =

x 584 
= 58.4
n 10

334 = 33.4 
10

- You need to “look through” all codes or answers on the coding

sheet
(or at the Data View page of SPSS) AGAIN.

** To prevent Garbage-in  Garbage-out

(wrong input) (wrong output)

79
 Chapter 20
Hypothesis Testing:
Data Analysis  Univariate
 Bivariate
 Multivariate
Level of Descriptive Inferential Hypothesis Testing
Data Statistics Statistics Difference Correlation
Ratio Central tendency Standard error - T-test -Pearson’s “r”
Interval - Mean ** of mean - Z-test or Correlation
- Mode - ANOVA coefficient ®
- Median
Dispersion - Regression
- Range
- Variance, S.D
Ordinal - Median Standard error -Chi-square -
Nominal - Mode ** of proportion test
- Percentage
- Counting
Note: For descriptive statistics of “Nominal Data”, all can be used
(mode, percentage, counting) except “Median” and “Dispersion”. X

Tabulation: “counting” frequency of responses for each question or

each variable
1. Simple tabulation: counting one question at a time to determine
the result of one variable  results put into Frequency Table

2. Cross tabulation: counting more than one question at a time in

order to see a “relationship” between two or more variables  results
put into Contingency Table
= relationship of (2) variables
** Elaboration Analysis: analyze the basic cross tabulation by adding
another variable in order to see if there is any change in the
relationship of the original conclusion about previous two variables
- Researchers do elaboration analysis in order to be certain about the
conclusion of the relationship between any two variables (or more).
- They want to test  “Is such relationship always like that in all
circumstances?”
could be either “moderator variable” or “third variable”

80
Moderator variable: another variable when added could change the
original relationship between two variables under investigation

Third variable: another variable when added will not change the
original relationship

Spurious relationship: the relationship between two variables that is

changed after adding another variable

Authentic relationship: the relationship between two variables that is

not changed after adding another variable

Data transformation: data conversion, changing data’s original format

into a new form that is more suitable for data analysis, e.g. recoding
case, or calculating “total mean” of Likert scale (of multi-items)

Computer program packages: to facilitate tabulation and statistical

analysis, e.g. SPSS, SAS

Displaying data: using tables and graphs (pictorial representation of

data) to facilitate communicating the meaning of data, e.g. pie chart, bar
graph, line graph, histogram, etc.

Data interpretation: explain the meaning of data or results in order to

make inference or to draw conclusion about the implication of research
findings to managerial decisions.

Note: Read how to calculate and analyze “Rank Order” responses in

Exhibit 20.7 and 20.8 (p.482-483)

81
 (Additional for Chapter 20)

Do you like shopping?

____ Yes = 55 ____ No = 45  Simple tabulation

Do you like shopping?

 Frequency Table
Yes 55
No 45
Total 100

Conclusion: Most respondents (55%) like shopping.

Do you like shopping? And What is your gender?

____ Yes = 55 (male = 10, female = 45)  Cross tabulation
____ No = 45 (male = 40, female = 5)

Do you like shopping? by gender

 Contingency Table 2x2
Male Female
Yes 10 45
No 40 5
Total 50 50

Conclusion: Female respondents (45%) like shopping more than male

(10%).

82
A. Do you like shopping? by gender
Male Female Total
Yes 10 45 55 n = 100
No 40 5 45
Total 50 50 100 M F
(50) (50)
= quota sampling
Conclusion: Female like shopping more than Male.  correct??

B. Do you like shopping? by gender

Male Female Total
Yes 20 40 60 n = 100
No 10 30 40
Total 30 70 100 M F
(30) (70)
≠ random sampling
Conclusion: Female like shopping more than Male.  correct??

We need to compare “Percentages”, not Frequency

(20/30)x100 = 67%  (Percentage based on Column Total) OR

(20/60)x100 = 33%  (Percentage based on Row Total)

SPSS  Analyze  Descriptive Statistics  Crosstabs

Click at Cells, Percentages box  choose Column (calculate Percentage
based on “Column Total”)

B. Do you like shopping? by gender

Male Female Total
Yes 20 67% 40 57% 60 60%
No 10 33% 30 43% 40 40%
30 100% 70 100% 100 100%

Conclusion: Male like shopping more than Female. (67% > 57%)

83
 Elaboration Analysis

Do you like shopping at Central? By gender

Male Female
Yes 60 80
No 40 20
Conclusion: Female like shopping at Central more than Male (80% > 60%).

“Do Female like shopping at Central more than Male always?” or

“In all circumstances, or no matter what, that Female will like shopping
at Central more than Male? We want to test this doubt by doing the
Elaboration Analysis adding one more variable  marital status

Case 1: Do you like shopping at Central? By gender and marital status

Male Female
Married Single Married Single
Yes 30 30 40 40
No 30 10 20 0
Conclusion : Married female respondents like shopping at Central more
than married male (40% > 30%). And single female also like shopping
at Central more than single male (40% > 30%).
Therefore, based on Elaboration Analysis between “attitude about
shopping” and “gender” by adding marital status, it is concluded that
“female still like shopping at Central more than male”. Adding the
marital status does not change the original relationship.
So the marital status is called _________ , and the relationship between
attitude about shopping and gender is called ____________ . (in Case 1)

Case 2 : Do you like shopping at Central? By gender and marital status

Male Female
Married Single Married Single
Yes 10 50 40 40
No 30 10 20 0
Conclusion : ??
Therefore, based on Elaboration Analysis ?? (what is found??)
The marital status is called ___________ , and the relationship between
attitude about shopping and gender is called ___________ . (in Case 2)

84
 Ranking  to get final rank results

Ex. Which taste of ice-cream do you like?

Rank 1 to 3 (1  least preference, 3  most preference)
__ Vanila
__ Chocolate
__ Mint

Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3 Total Result Final Rank Result

Vanila (4x1) + (4x2) + (2x3) = 18 2nd  Second most
Chocolate (1x1) + (3x2) + (6x3) = 25 3rd  Most preference
Mint (7x1) + (2x2) + (1x3) = 14 1st Least preference

Rank 1 to 3 (1  most preference, 3  least preference)

__ Vanila
__ Chocolate
__ Mint
Rank 1 Rank 2 Rank 3 Total Result Final Rank Result
Vanila (4x1) + (4x2) + (2x3) = 18 ?  ? preference
Chocolate (1x1) + (3x2) + (6x3) = 25 ?  ? preference
Mint (7x1) + (2x2) + (1x3) = 14 ? ? preference

Rating  to get average or mean

Ex. Are you satisfied with Swensen’s ice-cream?

Very satisfied __: __: __: __: Very dissatisfied
4 3 2 1
= (5x4) + (2x3) + (3x2) + (0x1) = 32

Mean = Σx = 32 = 3.2
n 10

Conclusion: The average satisfaction level of respondents is equal to

3.2 based on the 4-point scale which means at the “satisfied” level.

*If mean = 3.7, it means = _________ level (what level?)

*If mean = 1.4, it means = _________ level

85
*If mean = 2.3, it means = _________ level

Chapter 21
Statistical Analysis

1. Descriptive Analysis: counting, percentage, central tendency

(mean, mode, median), and dispersion (range, variance, S.D)
Ch.17, 20

2. Inferential Analysis: estimating population parameters (standard

error of mean and standard error of proportion) Ch.17

3. Univaritate Analysis: investigate significance of hypothesis of

one variable Ch.21

4. Bivariate Analysis: investigate significance of hypothesis about

two variables (test of relationship or test of difference) Ch.22-23

5. Multivariate Analysis: investigate significance of hypothesis

about more than two variables (Advanced statistical analysis)ch.24

Three factors to determine which method of statistical analysis

-What is proportion of those who go to EGV?
1. Type of question asked -What are three most important factors
in ..?
2. Number of variables -What is average satisfaction level of …?
3. Level of scale for measurement

Nominal  mode, percentage, counting

Ordinal  median (and all statistics for nominal) nominal)
Interval  mean, standard deviation, variance (and stat. for
Ratio  geometric mean, index number ordinal)
(and all statistics for nominal, ordinal, interval)

Parametric Statistics: statistics used for interval and ratio scale and it
assumes that population has a normal distribution

86
Non-parametric Statistics: statistics-used for nominal and ordinal scale
and there is no assumption about normal distribution of the population

87
Hypothesis Testing

1. Null hypothesis (HO): assumption about “status quo”, no change

e.g. µ = 19 or µ ≥ 19, or µ ≤ 19 (must have “equal” sign)
µ = There is no difference…; There is no relationship…

2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha): opposite of null hypothesis

e.g. µ ≠ 19 or µ < 19, or µ > 19
µ = There is a difference…, There is a relationship…

Type I error (∝ Alpha): reject null hypothesis when it is true

Type II error (β Beta): accept null hypothesis when it is false
↓ type I error will lead to ↑ type II error
↓ type II error will lead to ↑ type I error

- We can’t completely eliminate any type of error, so researchers keep

one type of error constant, normally setting Type I error at 0.05 and
calling it as significance level of 0.05  there are less than 5 times out
of 100 times that we make erroneous decisions (reject the null
hypothesis when it is true/correct).

Univariate Statistical Method

1. T-test: used when n is small (n ≤ 30), S.D. is not given

Z-test: used when n is large (n > 30), S.D. may or may not be given

To compare “mean” or “average” with hypothetical value in the null

hypothesis

2. Chi-square test for goodness of fit (χ 2)

To compare “distribution” of a variable between two or more groups of
respondents/ or to test a difference in frequency distribution (frequency table)

3. Z-test of a proportion

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To compare “proportion” with hypothetical value in the null
hypothesis

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Steps to test hypothesis
one-tailed  other cases
1. Set Ho and Ha two-tailed  Ho = (equal), Ha ≠ (always this one case)
2. Calculate “test statistics” value  look in Hand-out about “SPSS output”
3. Find “critical value” (from the table)
4. Compare test statistics and critical values
5. If computed value is more than table value  we reject Ho
(test statistics) (critical value)

Formula to calculate “test statistics”

X −µ X −µ
T value = or  
S/ n  S 
 X 
X −µ
Z value =
S/ n

∑ (O − E)
2
 O2 
χ 2
value = or ∑   − n
E  E 
p -π
Z value =
pq
n

Note: - Chapter 21-24  Read Hand-out about:-

“Statistics for Data Analysis in Business Research – Chapter

21-24”

***Please read Text Book***

- Chapter 24  Only “overview” of what is the Multivariate

Analysis

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 Example of Statistical Analysis and Hypothesis (EGV)
1. Univariate AnalysisHypothesis about “one” variable (one question)
- Chi-square test for goodness of fit choice data
q.1 Attitude on seeing movies at theatre __ like __ dislike

- One-sample T-test scale data or mean

q.8.1 Speed of ticket service fast __: __: __: __: __: slow

2. Bivariate Analysis  Hypothesis about “two” variables (2 questions)

- Chi-square test of independence choice  choice
for contingency table

q.17 Age  Frequency of seeing movies q.5

- Independent sample T test choice  scale

(2 groups, e.g. gender)
q.16 Gender  Attitude about seeing movies at EGV q.11.1

- One-way ANOVA choice  scale

(3 groups or more, e.g. age groups)
q.17 Age  Attitude about seeing movies at EGV q.11.1

- Simple regression scale  scale

q.8.1 Speed of ticket service  Attitude about seeing movies at EGV

q.11.1
3. Multivariate Analysis  Hypothesis related to “three or more”
variables (3 questions or more)
scale
- Multiple regression scale scale
Scale
q.8.1, 8.2, 8.4
Speed of ticket service +
+ Attitude about
Cleanliness of restroom “Liking” to see q.11.1
movies at EGV
Comfort of seat +

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 Example of Hypothesis : Univariate Analysis (One variable)

(q.1) Most respondents “like” to see movies at theatre.

(q.3) Most respondents buy tickets “over the counter”.
(q.8.1) Most respondents rate ticket service as “fast” (>3)
(Test value = 3)
(q.9.1) Most respondents rate security of EGV as “reliable” (>3)
(Test value = 3)

Choice
Attitude on seeing movies at theatre __ like __ dislike
data
Method of buying ticket __ over counter
__ by phone
__ via internet

Speed of ticket service fast __: __: __: __: __: slow
Scale 5 4 3 2 1
data
Efficiency of security very reliable 5 4 3 2 1 very unreliable

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Example of Hypothesis : Multivariate Analysis (More than two

variables)

Attitude about “liking to see movies at EGV” can be predicted by

“speed of ticket service”, “cleanliness of restroom”, and “comfort of
seat”. q.8.1, 8.2, 8.4  q.11.1

Speed of ticket service +

+ Attitude about
Cleanliness of restroom “Liking” to see
+ movies at EGV
Comfort of seat

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Example of Hypothesis : Bivariate Analysis (Two variables)

Test of Relationship (Test of Association)

- The faster the speed of ticket service, the higher efficiency of security.
(q.8.1  q.9.1)

Speed of ticket service  Efficiency of security

- The higher the income of respondents the higher efficiency of

security. (q.18  q.9.1)

Income  Efficiency of security

Test of Difference Between “two groups”: e.g. gender group

- Female respondents like to see movies at EGV theatre more than

male group. (q.16  q.11.1)

There is a difference in attitude of seeing movies at EGV theatre

between male and female people.

Gender  Attitude seeing movies at EGV

- Female respondents rate the speed of ticket service differently than

male group. (q.16  q.8.1)

There is a difference in attitude about speed of ticket service between

male and female people.

Gender  Speed of ticket service

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Test of Difference Between “more than two groups”: e.g. age groups

- Respondents at age of “more than 30” rate the efficiency of security

of EGV differently than other age groups. (There are total of five age
groups) (q.17  q.9.1)

There is a difference in attitude about efficiency of security of EGV

between people with different age groups.

Age  Efficiency of security

- Respondents at age of “more than 30” like to see movies at EGV

theatre differently than the other age groups. (q.17  q.11.1)

There is a difference in attitude of seeing movies at EGV theatre

between people with different age groups.

Age  Attitude on seeing movies at EGV

Test of Difference Between Crosstabs

Respondents at age of “more than 30” see movies at theatre less

frequently than the other age groups. (q.17  q.5)

There is a difference in crosstabs between frequency of seeing

movies at theatre and people with different age groups.

Age  Frequency on seeing movies at theatre

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 Chapter 25
Written Report Format
1. Title page
2. Letter of Transmitted - researcher  client
3. Letter of Authorization - client  researcher
4. Table of Contents
5. Executive Summary:- Objectives
(should be written last) Results (in numbers, percentage)
Conclusions
Recommendations
focus group
in-depth interview
6. Body or Main Part of Report *** secondary data
observation
- Introduction: - Background  data from literature review and
exploratory study
- Research Problem (or Problem Statement): -
Research Objectives + hypotheses + research
questions and Conceptual Framework/Model
- Methodology: - Research Design  exploratory? descriptive? or
causal study?
- Data Collection Method / Technique
- Sampling Design
(-Scale and Measurement) level & type of scale
- Field Work(skip)
- Data Analysis (skip)

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 - Limitations of Study (skip)
- Results or Findings – Summary of results (from questionnaire)
Results in tables – frequency tables
contingency tables

- Conclusion  explanation the meaning of results

- Recommendation  suggestions based on results (what should

be done to help solve managerial
problems)
7. Appendix
- Data Collection Form e.g. questionnaire
- Detailed Calculations  Example of Statistical Analysis
- Tables and Graphs
- Bibliography or References
- Other Supporting Materials e.g. pictures, word cards, brochures,
copies of secondary data, etc.

Oral Report

- should adapt data and language to suit the type of audience

- avoid using technical terms or statistical terms
- presenting information that could help solve managerial problems
- don’t read a report word by word
- use visual aids while making presentation of project’s results
- tell them what you are going to tell them and tell them what you have
just told them
- allow time for Q & A session

Research Follow-up: re-contacting the clients after the project is

finished by asking whether they need some additional clarification of
research findings. It is considered as “after-sales service”.

- Researchers should submit the written report “before” making

appointment for the oral report or presentation

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- Researchers must analyze research findings/results honestly and
accurately, and present them as they are (never change the results to
please or satisfy the client)
The End

98