Extrusion

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Jump to: navigation, search For the process that creates volcanic rock, see Extrusive (geology).

Extruded aluminium with several hollow cavities; slots allow bars to be joined with special connectors. Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex crosssections and work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellent surface finish.[1] Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semicontinuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete and foodstuffs. Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the center barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported from the back of the die.

Contents
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1 History 2 Process o 2.1 Hot extrusion o 2.2 Cold extrusion o 2.3 Warm extrusion o 2.4 Equipment 2.4.1 Forming internal cavities 2.4.2 Direct extrusion 2.4.3 Indirect extrusion 2.4.4 Hydrostatic extrusion 2.4.5 Drives o 2.5 Extrusion defects

3 Materials o 3.1 Metal o 3.2 Plastic o 3.3 Ceramic o 3.4 Food o 3.5 Drug carriers o 3.6 Biomass briquettes 4 Design 5 See also 6 References o 6.1 Notes o 6.2 Bibliography 7 External links

[edit] History
In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making lead pipe. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand driven plunger. The process wasn't developed until 1820 when Thomas Burr constructed the first hydraulic powered press. At this time the process was called squirting. In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys.[2]

[edit] Process

Extrusion of a round blank through a die. The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses

on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be heat treated or cold worked.[2] The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the crosssectional area of the final extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very large while still producing quality parts.

[edit] Hot extrusion

Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the material's recrystallization temperature to keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,000 short tons). Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to 100,000 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.[1] Hot extrusion temperature for various metals[1] Material Temperature [C (F)] Magnesium 350-450 (650-850) Aluminium 350-500 (650-900) Copper 600-1100 (1200-2000) Steel 1200-1300 (22002400) Titanium 700-1200 (1300-2100) Nickel 1000-1200 (19002200) Refractory alloys up to 2000 (4000) The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and many tons, depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll forming becomes more economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb).[2]

Aluminium hot extrusion die

Front side of a four family die. For reference, the die is 228 mm (9.0 in) in diameter.

Close up of the shape cut into the die. Notice that the walls are drafted and that the back wall thickness varies.

Back side of die. The wall thickness of the extrusion is 3 mm (0.12 in).

[edit] Cold extrusion

Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, good surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.[1] Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel. Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock absorber cylinders, automotive pistons, and gear blanks.

[edit] Warm extrusion

Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of the material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 F (424 to 975 C). It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties.[3]

[edit] Equipment

A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum extrusion (loose dies and scrap visible in foreground) There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics:[1]

1. Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and the ram moves towards it then its called "direct extrusion". If the ram is held stationary and the die moves towards the ram its called "indirect extrusion". 2. The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal. 3. The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical. 4. The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic. A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure (often used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminum), or in other specialized processes such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material. Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, whereas dies can cost up to $2000. [edit] Forming internal cavities

Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown separated.) The male part (at right) is for forming the internal cavity in the resulting round tube extrusion. There are several methods for forming internal cavities in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow billet and then use a fixed or floating mandrel. A fixed mandrel, also known as a German type, means it is integrated into the dummy block and stem. A floating mandrel, also known as a French type, floats in slots in the dummy block and aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet is used as the feed material then it must first be pierced by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram.[1] The solid billet could also be used with a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and have "legs" that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides and flows around the legs, leaving weld lines in the final product.[4] [edit] Direct extrusion

Plot of forces required by various extrusion processes. Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion process. It works by placing the billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or screw. There is a reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated. The major disadvantage of this process is that the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that need in the indirect extrusion process because of the frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to travel the entire length of the container. Because of this the greatest force required is at the beginning of process and slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end of the billet the force greatly increases because the billet is thin and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end of the billet (called the butt end) is not used for this reason.[5] [edit] Indirect extrusion In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move together while the die is stationary. The die is held in place by a "stem" which has to be longer than the container length. The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem. Because the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the following advantages:[6]

A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger billets, increasing speed, and an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no heat formed from friction The container liner will last longer due to less wear The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals zones are less likely.

The disadvantages are:[6]

Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion. These defects ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics are important. In order to get around this the billets may be wire brushed, machined or chemically cleaned before being used.

This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-sectional area is limited by the maximum size of the stem.

[edit] Hydrostatic extrusion In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the die. This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature is limited by the stability of the fluid used. The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic medium. The fluid can be pressurized two ways:[6] 1. Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the fluid inside the container. 2. Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possibly with a pressure intensifier, to pressurize the fluid, which is then pumped to the container. The advantages of this process include:[6]

No friction between the container and the billet reduces force requirements. This ultimately allows for faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower billet temperatures. Usually the ductility of the material increases when high pressures are applied. An even flow of material. Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded. No billet residue is left on the container walls.

The disadvantages are:[6]

The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry angle. This is needed to form a seal at the beginning of the cycle. Usually the entire billet needs to be machined to remove any surface defects. Containing the fluid under high pressures can be difficult.

[edit] Drives Most modern direct or indirect extrusion presses are hydraulically driven, but there are some small mechanical presses still used. Of the hydraulic presses there are two types: direct-drive oil presses and accumulator water drives. Direct-drive oil presses are the most common because they are reliable and robust. They can deliver over 35 MPa (5000 psi). They supply a constant pressure throughout the whole billet. The disadvantage is that they are slow, between 50 and 200 mm/s (28 ips).[7] Accumulator water drives are more expensive and larger than direct-drive oil presses, and they lose about 10% of their pressure over the stroke, but they are much faster, up to 380 mm/s (15 ips). Because of this they are used when extruding steel. They are also used on materials that must be heated to very hot temperatures for safety reasons.[7] Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use castor oil at pressure up to 1400 MPa (200 ksi). Castor oil is used because it has good lubricity and high pressure properties.[8]

[edit] Extrusion defects

Surface cracking - When the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die. Pipe - A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of the product. Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of the billet. Internal cracking - When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the deformation zone in the die. (A similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress specimen) Surface lines - When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This depends heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained, as some residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the embossed lines.

[edit] Materials
[edit] Metal
Metals that are commonly extruded include:[9]

Aluminium is the most commonly extruded material. Aluminium can be hot or cold extruded. If it is hot extruded it is heated to 575 to 1100 F (300 to 600 C). Examples of products include profiles for tracks, frames, rails, mullions, and heat sinks. Copper (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars, tubes, and welding electrodes. Often more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to extrude copper. Lead and tin (maximum 575 F (300 C)) pipes, wire, tubes, and cable sheathing. Molten lead may also be used in place of billets on vertical extrusion presses. Magnesium (575 to 1100 F (300 to 600 C)) aircraft parts and nuclear industry parts. Magnesium is about as extrudable as aluminum. Zinc (400 to 650 F (200 to 350 C)) rods, bar, tubes, hardware components, fitting, and handrails. Steel (1825 to 2375 F (1000 to 1300 C)) rods and tracks. Usually plain carbon steel is extruded, but alloy steel and stainless steel can also be extruded. Titanium (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) aircraft components including seat tracks, engine rings, and other structural parts.

Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually have a 0.75 m (30 in) RMS or better surface finish. Titanium and steel can achieve a 3 micrometres (120 in) RMS.[1] In 1950, Ugine Sjournet, of France, invented a process which uses glass as a lubricant for extruding steel.[10] The Ugine-Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now used for other materials that have melting temperatures higher than steel or that require a narrow range of temperatures to extrude. The process starts by heating the materials to the extruding temperature and then rolling it in glass powder. The glass melts and forms a thin film, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in order to separate it from chamber walls and allow it to act as a lubricant. A thick solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6 to 18 mm) thick is placed in the

chamber on the die to lubricate the extrusion as it is forced through the die. A second advantage of this glass ring is its ability to insulate the heat of the billet from the die. The extrusion will have a 1 mil thick layer of glass, which can be easily removed once it cools.[3] Another breakthrough in lubrication is the use of phosphate coatings. With this process, in conjunction with glass lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass to offer even better lubricating properties.[3]

[edit] Plastic

Sectional view of a plastic extruder showing the components Main article: Plastics extrusion Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic chips or pellets, which are usually dried in a hopper before going to the feed screw. The polymer resin is heated to molten state by a combination of heating elements and shear heating from the extrusion screw. The screw forces the resin through a die, forming the resin into the desired shape. The extrudate is cooled and solidified as it is pulled through the die or water tank. In some cases (such as fibre-reinforced tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a very long die, in a process called pultrusion. A multitude of polymers are used in the production of plastic tubing, pipes, rods, rails, seals, and sheets or films.

[edit] Ceramic
Ceramic can also be formed into shapes via extrusion. Terracotta extrusion is used to produce pipes. Many modern bricks are also manufactured using a brick extrusion process.[11]

[edit] Food

Macaroni is an extruded hollow pasta. This section requires expansion.

Extrusion has application in food processing. Products such as certain pastas, many breakfast cereals, Fig Newtons, premade cookie dough, Murukku, Sevai, Idiappam, jalebi, some french fries, certain baby foods, dry pet food and ready-to-eat snacks are mostly manufactured by extrusion. In the extrusion process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size (usually the consistency of coarse flour). The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, where other ingredients are added (liquid sugar, fats, dyes, meats and water depending on the product being made), steam is injected to start the cooking process. The preconditioned mix is then passed through an extruder, and then forced through a die where it is cut to the desired length. The cooking process takes place within the extruder where the product produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (1020 bar). The process can induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization, depending on inputs and parameters. Extruders using this process have a capacity from 125 tonnes per hour depending on design. As with other forms of cooking, extrusion achieves the following nutritionally:

Inactivation of raw food enzymes Destruction of certain naturally occurring toxins Diminishing of microorganisms in the final product Slight increase of iron-bioavailability Creation of insulin-desensitizing starches, which are a risk-factor for developing diabetes[12][13] Loss of the essential amino: lysine, which is essential to developmental growth and nitrogen management[14][15] Simplification of complex starches, increasing rates of tooth decay[16][17] Marked increase of processed foods' glycemic indexes[18][19] Destruction of Vitamin A (beta-carotene)[20][21]

Extrusion is also used to modify starch and to pellet animal feed.

[edit] Drug carriers

This section requires expansion. Extrusion through nano-porous, polymeric filters is being used to manufacture suspensions of lipid vesicles liposomes or Transfersomes for use in pharmaceutical products. The anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for example.

[edit] Biomass briquettes

Main article: Biomass briquettes The extrusion production technology of fuel briquettes is the process of extrusion screw wastes (straw, sunflower husks, buckwheat, etc.) or finely shredded wood waste (sawdust) under high pressure when heated from 160 to 350 C. The resulting fuel briquettes do not include any of the binders, but one natural - the lignin contained in the cells of plant wastes. The temperature during compression, causes melting of the surface of bricks, making it more solid, which is important for the transportation of briquettes.

[edit] Design

The design of an extrusion profile has a large impact on how readily it can be extruded. The maximum size for an extrusion is determined by finding the smallest circle that will fit around the cross-section, this is called the circumscribing circle. This diameter, in turn, controls the size of the die required, which ultimately determines if the part will fit in a given press. For example, a larger press can handle 60 cm (24 in) diameter circumscribing circles for aluminium and 55 cm (22 in). diameter circles for steel and titanium.[1] The complexity of an extruded profile can be roughly quantified by calculating the shape factor, which is the amount of surface area generated per unit mass of extrusion. This affects the cost of tooling as well as the rate of production.[22] Thicker sections generally need an increased section size. In order for the material to flow properly legs should not be more than ten times longer than their thickness. If the crosssection is asymmetrical, adjacent sections should be as close to the same size as possible. Sharp corners should be avoided; for aluminium and magnesium the minimum radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for steel corners should be 0.75 mm (0.030 in) and fillets should be 3 mm (0.12 in). The following table lists the minimum cross-section and thickness for various materials.[1] Material Minimum cross-section [cm (sq. in.)] Minimum thickness [mm (in.)] Carbon steels 2.5 (0.40) 3.00 (0.120) Stainless steel 3.0-4.5 (0.45-0.70) 3.00-4.75 (0.120-0.187) Titanium 3.0 (0.50) 3.80 (0.150) Aluminium <2.5 (0.40) 1.00 (0.040) Magnesium <2.5 (0.40) 1.00 (0.040)

What is Aluminum Extrusion?

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Aluminum extrusion is a technique used to transform aluminum alloy into objects with a definitive cross-sectional profile for a wide range of uses. The extrusion process makes the most of aluminums unique combination of physical characteristics. Its malleability allows it to be easily machined and cast, and yet aluminum is one third the density and stiffness of steel so the resulting products offer strength and stability, particularly when alloyed with other metals. The Process of Aluminum Extrusion The process of aluminum extrusion consists of the following steps:

After designing and creating the shape of the die, a cylindrical billet of aluminum alloy is heated to 800F-925F. The aluminum billet is then transferred to a loader, where a lubricant is added to prevent it from sticking to the extrusion machine, the ram or the handle. Substantial pressure is applied to a dummy block using a ram, which pushes the aluminum billet into the container, forcing it through the die. To avoid the formation of oxides, nitrogen in liquid or gaseous form is introduced and allowed to flow through the sections of the die. This creates an inert atmosphere and increases the life of the die. The extruded part passes onto a run-out table as an elongated piece that is now the same shape as the die opening. It is then pulled to the cooling table where fans cool the newly created aluminum extrusion. When the cooling is completed, the extruded aluminum is moved to a stretcher, for straightening and work hardening. The hardened extrusions are brought to the saw table and cut according to the required lengths. The final step is to treat the extrusions with heat in age ovens, which hardens the aluminum by speeding the aging process.

Additional complexities may be applied during this process to further customize the extruded parts. For example, to create hollow sections, pins or piercing mandrels are placed inside the die. After the extrusion process, a variety of options are available to adjust the colour, texture and brightness of the aluminums finish. This may include aluminum anodizing or painting.

Today, aluminum extrusion is used for a wide range of purposes, including components of the International Space Station. These diverse applications are possible due to the advantageous attributes of aluminum, from its particular blend of strength and ductility to its conductivity, its non-magnetic properties and its ability to be recycled repeatedly without loss of integrity. All of these capabilities make aluminum extrusion a viable and adaptable solution for an growing number of manufacturing needs. Check this link for more information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion

ALUMINUM EXTRUSION OVERVIEWFACILITYDIE CATALOGUEPROCESS FACTS & FIGURES FULL COLOUR ANODIZING POLISHING & CUSTOM MECHANICAL FINISHING WET PAINT & POWDER COATING FABRICATION & ASSEMBLY ARTICLES

ALUMINUM EXTRUSION ARTICLES APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINUM EXTRUSIONALUMINUM

FINISHINGALUMINUM FABRICATIONALUMINUM EXTRUSION GLOSSARIES

THE SPECTRA ADVANTAGE

Waterproofing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "Waterproof" redirects here. For the town in Louisiana, USA, see Waterproof, Louisiana. This article does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2007)

Waterproof or water-resistant describes objects relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or under water to specified depths. Waterproofing describes making an object waterproof or water-resistant (such as a camera or watch). "Water resistant" and "waterproof" often refer to penetration of liquid water. Permeation of water vapor is reported as a water vapor transmission rate. Also, water from condensation is usually separate from "water resistant". The hulls of boats and ships were once waterproofed by applying tar or pitch. Modern items may be waterproofed by applying water-repellent coatings or by sealing seams with gaskets or O-rings. In construction, a building or structure is waterproofed with the use of membranes and coatings to protect contents underneath or within as well as protecting structural integrity. The waterproofing of the building envelope in construction specifications is listed under '07 Thermal and Moisture Protection' within MasterFormat 2004, by the Construction Specifications Institute, and includes roofing material as well as waterproofing materials[citation needed]. Waterproofing is used in reference to building structures (basements, decks, wet areas, etc.), watercraft, canvas, clothing (raincoat, waders) and paper (e.g., milk and juice cartons). Waterproofing should not be confused with roofing, as roofing cannot withstand hydrostatic head, and waterproofing can. The standards for waterproofing bathrooms in domestic construction have improved over the years, due in large part to the general tightening of building codes. A very small portion of the population believe that this is due in part to the Japanese custom of over-filling their baths - these people are wrong.

Contents
[hide]

1 Construction waterproofing o 1.1 Basement waterproofing 2 Standard

3 References 4 See also

[edit] Construction waterproofing

Main article: weatherization In building construction, a structure needs waterproofing since concrete itself will not be watertight on its own (but note concrete is easily waterproofed with additives). The conventional system of waterproofing involves 'membranes'. This relies on the application of one or more layers of membrane (available in various materials: e.g., bitumen, silicate, PVC, EPDM etc.) that act as a barrier between the water and the building structure, preventing the passage of water. However, the membrane system relies on exacting application, presenting difficulties. Problems with application or adherence to the substrate can lead to leakage. In the UK these membranes are rarely allowed below ground below the water table. Over the past two decades, the construction industry has had technological advances in waterproofing materials, including integral waterproofing systems as well as more advanced membrane materials. Integral systems work within the matrix of a concrete structure, giving the concrete itself a waterproof quality. There are two main types of integral waterproofing systems: the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic systems. A hydrophilic system typically uses a crystallization technology that replaces the water in the concrete with insoluble crystals. Various brands available in the market claim similar properties, but not all can react with a wide range of cement hydration by-products, and thus require caution. Hydrophobic systems use fatty acids to block pores within the concrete, preventing water passage. New membrane materials seek to overcome shortcomings in older methods like PVC and HDPE. Generally, new technology in waterproof membranes relies on polymer based materials that are extremely adhesive to create a seamless barrier around the outside of a structure.

[edit] Basement waterproofing

Basement waterproofing once completed becomes very difficult since the water pressure is from the negative side (from outside coming inside), the difficulty arises when a membrane cannot withstand hydrostatic pressure from within the substrate and therefore fails. Water may enter a basement through various means including through joints, walls, or floors. Various basement waterproofing systems address these problems. There are many systems available of varying cost, effectiveness, and installation invasiveness. Specially used membranes in this field are protection board sheets. Basement waterproofing may be done internally and externally. Because basement foundations can be brick, block, concrete, and even wood, it is important to pick the right waterproofing system for the right foundation. One effective way to waterproof cracks in poured concrete walls is by epoxy injection.[1]

Retaining wall
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A gravity-type stone retaining wall This article contains too much jargon and may need simplification or further explanation. Please discuss this issue on the talk page, and/or remove or explain jargon terms used in the article. Editing help is available. (January 2011) Retaining walls are built in order to hold back ground which would otherwise move downwards. Their purpose is to stabilise slopes and provide useful areas at different elevations, e.g. terraces for agriculture, buildings, roads and railways.

Contents
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1 Definition 2 Types o 2.1 Gravity o 2.2 Cantilevered o 2.3 Sheet piling o 2.4 Anchored 3 Alternative Retaining Techniques o 3.1 Soil nailing o 3.2 Soil-strengthened 3.2.1 Gabion meshes o 3.3 Mechanical stabilization 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

Definition
A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil when there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.[1] The basement wall is thus one form of retaining wall. However, the term is most often used to refer to a cantilever retaining wall, which is a freestanding structure without lateral support at its top.[2]

Typically retaining walls are cantilevered from a footing extending up beyond the grade on one side and retaining a higher level grade on the opposite side. The walls must resist the lateral pressures generated by loose soils or, in some cases, water pressures.[3] The most important consideration in proper design and installation of retaining walls is to recognize and counteract the fact that the retained material is attempting to move forward and downslope due to gravity. This creates lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on the angle of internal friction (phi) and the cohesive strength (c) of the retained material, as well as the direction and magnitude of movement the retaining structure undergoes. Lateral earth pressures are zero at the top of the wall and - in homogenous ground - increase proportionally to a maximum value at the lowest depth. Earth pressures will push the wall forward or overturn it if not properly addressed. Also, any groundwater behind the wall that is not dissipated by a drainage system causes hydrostatic pressure on the wall. The total pressure or thrust may be assumed to act at one-third from the lowest depth for lengthwise stretches of uniform height. [4] Unless the wall is designed to retain water, It is important to have proper drainage behind the wall in order to limit the pressure to the wall's design value. Drainage materials will reduce or eliminate the hydrostatic pressure and improve the stability of the material behind the wall. Drystone retaining walls are normally self-draining. As an example, the International Building Code requires retaining walls to be designed to ensure stability against overturning, sliding, excessive foundation pressure and water uplift; and that they be designed for a safety factor of 1.5 against lateral sliding and overturning.[5]

Types

Various types of retaining walls

Gravity

Construction types of gravity retaining walls Gravity walls depend on the weight of their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy material) to resist pressures from behind and will often have a slight 'batter' setback, to improve stability by leaning back into the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are often made from mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units).[6] Dry-stacked gravity walls are somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing in frost areas. Home owners who build larger gravity walls that do require a rigid concrete footing can make use of the services of a professional excavator, which will make digging a trench for the base of the gravity wall much easier. Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large masses of concrete or stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity walls such as: geosynthetic or with precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with soil); or soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods).[7]

Cantilevered

Conterfort/Buttress on Cantilevered Wall Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures from behind the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes cantilevered walls are butressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength resisting high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.

Sheet piling

Sheet pile wall Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are driven into the ground. For a quick estimate the material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered depending on the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or "dead-man" placed in the soil a distance behind the face of the wall, that is tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.

Anchored
See also: Tieback (geotechnical) An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also includes additional strength using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it.

Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the end of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this method is very useful where high loads are expected, or where the wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too weak.

Alternative Retaining Techniques

Soil nailing
Main article: Soil nailing Soil nailing is a technique in which soil slopes, excavations or retaining walls are reinforced by the insertion of relatively slender elements - normally steel reinforcing bars. The bars are usually installed into a pre-drilled hole and then grouted into place or drilled and grouted simultaneously. They are usually installed untensioned at a slight downward inclination. A rigid or flexible facing (often sprayed concrete) or isolated soil nail heads may be used at the surface.

Soil-strengthened
A number of systems exist that do not simply consist of the wall itself, but reduce the earth pressure acting on the wall itself. These are usually used in combination with one of the other wall types, though some may only use it as facing (i.e. for visual purposes). Gabion meshes Main article: Gabion This type of soil strengthening, often also used without an outside wall, consists of wire mesh 'boxes' into which roughly cut stone or other material is filled. The mesh cages reduce some internal movement/forces, and also reduce erosive forces.

Mechanical stabilization
Main article: Mechanically stabilized earth Mechanically stabilized earth, also called MSE, is soil constructed with artificial reinforcing via layered horizontal mats (geosynthetics) fixed at their ends. These mats provide added internal shear resistance beyond that of simple gravity wall structures. Other options include steel straps, also layered. This type of soil strengthening usually needs outer facing walls (S.R.W.'s - Segmental Retaining Walls) to affix the layers to and vice versa. [1] The wall face is often of precast concrete units[6] that can tolerate some differential movement. The reinforced soil's mass, along with the facing, then acts as an improved gravity wall. The reinforced mass must be built large enough to retain the pressures from the soil behind it. Gravity walls usually must be a minimum of 50 to 60 percent as deep or thick as the height of the wall, and may have to be larger if there is a slope or surcharge on the wall.j

Exterior Insulation Finishing System

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Exterior Insulation and Finishing System (EIFS) is a type of building exterior wall cladding system that provides exterior walls with an insulated finished surface and waterproofing in an integrated composite material system.

Contents
[hide]

1 Terminology 2 How EIFS is installed 3 Composition and types of EIFS 4 History of EIFS 5 Legal issues 6 Marketing of EIFS and The EIFS Industry 7 EIFS Architectural Details 8 References

[edit] Terminology
Although often called "synthetic stucco", EIFS is not stucco. Traditional stucco, otherwise known as Portland Cement Plaster, is a centuries-old non-insulating material. Stucco consists of sand, Portland Cement, and water, and is a hard, dense, thick, non-insulating material. EIFS is a lightweight synthetic wall cladding that includes foam plastic insulation and thin synthetic coatings. There are also specialty stuccos that use synthetic materials but no insulation, and these are also not EIFS either. A common example is what is called one-coat stucco, which is a thick, synthetic stucco applied in a single layer (traditional stucco is applied in 3 layers). There is also an EIFS-like product called a Direct-Applied Finish System (or DAFS), which is essentially an EIFS but without the insulation, and has quite different characteristics.[citation needed] EIFS are proprietary systems of a particular EIFS producer and consist of specific components. EIFS are not generic products made from common separate materials. To function properly, EIFS needs to be architecturally designed and installed as a system. There are a number of versions of EIFS. The most basic and common EIFS is called a barrier EIFS (also known as a traditional or conventional EIFS). Another type is called an

EIFS with Drainage, which is a barrier EIFS to which a water drainage capability has been added.[citation needed] A basic EIFS includes only the insulation and EIFS materials (coatings, adhesives, etc.). Other types of EIFS may also include plastic edge trim, water-resistive barriers, a drainage cavity, and other accessories. The technical definition of "an EIFS" does not include wall framing, sheathing, flashings, caulking, water barriers, windows, doors, and other wall components. However, as of recently, architects have begun specifying flashings, sealants, and wiring fasteners (such as Viperstrap) as being a part of the EIFS scope of work, essentially requiring EIFS contractors to carry out that work as well. The technical national consensus standard for the definition of an EIFS, as published by ASTM International organization, does not include flashing or sealants as part of the EIFS. Many of the EIFS manufacturers have their own standard details showing typical building conditions for window and door flashings, control joints, inside/outside corners, penetrations, and joints at dissimilar materials which should be followed for that manufacturers warranty. Most EIFS products are intended for use by qualified professional contractors and not the typical home consumer.

[edit] How EIFS is installed

EIFS is typically attached to the outside face of exterior walls with an adhesive (cementitious or acrylic based) or mechanical fasteners. Adhesives are commonly used to attach EIFS to gypsum board, cement board, or concrete substrates. EIFS is attached with mechanical fasteners (specially designed for this application) when installed over sheet-good weather barriers such as are commonly used over wood sheathings. The supporting wall surface should be continuous (not "open framing") and flat.

[edit] Composition and types of EIFS

EIFS consists of a number of layers that are installed in the following order. The most basic EIFS (a barrier EIFS) consists of 3 layers:

A layer of foam plastic insulation (also called simply "foam") that comes in the form of sheets 2' x 4'. If an adhesive is used to attach the insulation, the adhesive is applied to the foam with a trowel. Most EIFS use a type of insulation called Expanded Polystyrene, also known as EPS. EPS is 1 lb. density Expanded Polystyrene, similar to the white foam that coffee cups are made of. The usual range of thickness for EIFS insulation is 3/4" to 4", although thicker pieces are sometimes used for decoration accents - called foam shapes. A reinforced layer that is applied onto the face of the insulation with a trowel, consisting of a fiberglass reinforcing mesh ( or "mesh") embedded in a cementitous adhesive. The mesh has an open weave, somewhat like window screening but with opening about 1/4" square. It is made of fiberglass and can be cut with a utility knife. The mesh is available in various weights, the "heaviness" determines the impact strength of the surface (resistance to damage by being "hit"). The standard weight is 4oz, the high-impact mesh weight goes up to 15 or 20oz. This 2-part layer is called the Base Coat.

A final topcoat,or finish, which is a colored, textured paint-like material that is applied with a trowel or, very rarely, by spraying. A wide range of colors and textures are available as well as custom colors. Available textures include smooth surfaces, rough "stucco-like" textures, embedded stone chips, multi-color (granite-like mixtures,) and even brick-like treatments. This layer is called the finish. It is acquired by floating.

If an EIFS with Drainage, or water-managed EIFS is installed, a water resistive barrier (aka a WRB) is first installed over the substrate (generally DensGlas Gold, exterior-grade gypsum sheathing, OSB or plywood).[citation needed] The moisture barrier is applied to the entire wall surface with a mesh tape over joints and a liquid-applied membrane or a protective wrap like Tyvek or felt paper. Then a drainage cavity is created (usually by adding some sort of space between the foam and the WRB). Then the other 3 layers, described above, are added. This type of EIFS is required by many building codes areas on wood frame construction, and is intended to provide a path for incidental water that may get behind the EIFS with a safe route back to the outside. The purpose is to preclude water from damaging the supporting wall. Adhesives and Finishes are water-based, and thus must be installed at temperatures well above freezing. Two types of Adhesives are used with EIFS: those that contain Portland Cement ("cementitious"), or do not have any Portland Cement ("cementless"). Adhesives that contain Portland Cement harden by the chemical reaction of the cement with water. Adhesives and Finishes that are cementless harden by the evaporation of water - like house paint. Adhesives come in two forms. The most common is in a plastic pail as a paste, to which Portland Cement is added. Adhesives are also available as dry powders in sacks, to which water is added. Finishes come in a plastic pail, ready to use, like paint. EIFS insulation comes in individual pieces, usually 2' x 4', in large bags. The pieces are trimmed to fit the wall at the construction site.

[edit] History of EIFS

EIFS was developed in Europe after World War II and was initially used to retrofit solid masonry walls.[citation needed] EIFS started to be used in North America in the 1960s, and became very popular in the mid- 1970's due to the oil embargo and the resultant surge in interest in high energy efficiency wall systems (such as EIFS provides). The use of EIFS over stud-and-sheathing framing (instead of over solid walls) is a North American technique. EIFS is now used all over North America, and also in many other areas around the world, especially in Europe and the Pacific Rim.[citation needed] In North America, EIFS was initially used almost exclusively on commercial buildings. As the market grew, prices dropped to the point where its use became widespread on normal single family homes.[citation needed] In the late 1980s problems started developing due to water leakage in EIFS-clad homes. This created a national controversy and numerous lawsuits. While not inherently more prone to water penetration than other exterior finishes, critics argue that barrier-type EIFS systems (non-water-managed systems) do not allow water that may penetrate the building envelope to escape.[1]

The EIFS industry has consistently maintained that the EIFS itself was not leaking, but rather poor craftsmanship and bad architectural detailing at the perimeter of the EIFS was what was causing the problems. The building codes reacted by mandating EIFS with Drainage on wood frame building and additional on-site inspection. Most homeowner insurance policies cover EIFS and EIFS-like systems. Insurance companies like FM Global may not provide fire insurance coverage to clients who install EIFS exterior building systems, due to the lack of adequate fire-resistance inherent in the materials. Also, some facility owners have found that EIFS systems that are installed at lower building levels are subject to vandalism as the material is soft and can be chipped or carved resulting in significant damage.

[edit] Legal issues

EIFS systems have been the subject of several lawsuits, mostly related to the installation process and failure of the system causing moisture buildups and subsequent mold growth. The most notable case concerned the former San Martin, California courthouse. This case was settled for 12 million dollars.[1] The basic underlying problem behind EIFS litigation was that EIFS was marketed as a costeffective replacement for stucco. Stucco is expensive to install because it cracks over time. Stucco must be carefully applied by skilled craftsmen so that the cracks which will inevitably develop are subtle and not obvious. General contractors switched to EIFS because it was supposed to be easy to install with unskilled or semi-skilled labor and would not crack like traditional stucco. Although EIFS if properly installed according to the manufacturer's directions should not have water intrusion problems, many GCs cut corners by using unqualified labor. In turn, thousands of EIFS installations were noncompliant and suffered severe water intrusion and mold as a result. While the EIFS industry has consistently tried to shift the blame to GCs, the construction industry has retorted that using professional unionized journeymen carpenters in turn eliminates the cost advantage of EIFS over stucco, and that the EIFS industry should have anticipated this issue and engineered its products from the beginning to be installed by unskilled labor or semi-skilled labor (that is, it should have been a fault-tolerant design).

[edit] Marketing of EIFS and The EIFS Industry

EIFS accounts for about 10% of the US commercial wall cladding market.[citation needed] There are several dozen EIFS producers in North America. Some sell nationwide, and some are regional in their area of business operations. The EIFS producers sell the various system components (adhesives, coatings, etc.) through specialty building product distributors who in turn resell the components to local EIFS installers.[citation needed] The top 5 EIFS producers account for about 90% of the US market. These producers include Dryvit Systems, STO Corp., Senergy, Master Wall, and Parex.[citation needed] 100% of Russian market of ventilated rendering systems is taken by Stuccovent. The Canadian market includes most of the major U.S. EIFS manufacturers and a few other companies. These companies include Durabond Products, Durock Alfacing, Adex Architectural Coatings, Akrilon Industries, Plaston, Ispro, Preswitt and STEF Coatings.

[edit] EIFS Architectural Details

Another benefit of EIFS is the option to add architectural details that are composed of the same materials. EIFS mouldings or as they are commonly referred to, stucco mouldings, come in a large variety of shapes and sizes. They are widely used on residential/commercial projects in North America and are gaining popularity worldwide. Production methods have come a long way since their inception which allow manufacturers to create with great efficiency in a cost effective manner. The production of architectural foam mouldings was recently showcased on How It's Made airing on The Discovery Channel Network.

Portal frame
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Portal frame construction is a method of building and designing simple structures, primarily using steel or steel-reinforced precast concrete although they can also be constructed using laminated timber such as glulam. The connections between the columns and the rafters are designed to be moment-resistant, i.e. they can carry bending forces. Because of these very strong and rigid joints some of the bending moment in the rafters is transferred to the columns. This means that the size of the rafters can be reduced or the span can be increased for the same size rafters. This makes portal frames a very efficient construction technique to use for wide span buildings. Portal frame construction is therefore typically seen in warehouses, barns and other places where large, open spaces are required at low cost and a pitched roof is acceptable. Generally portal frames are used for single story buildings but they can be used for low rise buildings with several floors where they can be economic if the floors do not span right across the building (in these circumstances a skeleton frame, with internal columns, would be a more economic choice). A typical configuration might be where there is office space built against one wall of a warehouse. Portal frames can be clad with all sorts of material but the most popular solution, for reasons of economy and speed, is some form of lightweight insulated metal cladding with cavity masonry work to the bottom 2m of the wall to provide security and impact resistance. The lightweight cladding would be carried on sheeting rails spanning between the columns of the portal frames.

This article about a civil engineering topic is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal_frame" Categories: Structural system | Civil engineering stubs Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2009 | All articles lacking sources

Precast concrete
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A precast concrete walled house in construction Precast Concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or "form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into place. In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site. Precast stone is distinguished from precast concrete by using a fine aggregate in the mixture so the final product approaches the appearance of naturally occurring rock or stone. By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure and be closely monitored by plant employees. Utilizing a Precast Concrete system offers many potential advantages over site casting of concrete. The production process for Precast Concrete is performed on ground level which helps with safety throughout a project. There is a greater control of the quality of materials and workmanship in a precast plant rather than on a construction site. Financially, the forms used in a precast plant may be reused hundreds to thousands of times before they have to be replaced which allows cost of formwork per unit to be lower than for site-cast production.[1] Many states across the United States require a precast plant to be certified by either the Architectural Precast Association (APA), National Precast Concrete Association (NPCA) or Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) for a precast producer to supply their product to a construction site sponsored by State and Federal DOTs. There are many different types of precast concrete forming systems for architectural applications, differing in size, function and cost. Precast architectural panels are also used to clad all or part of a building facade free-standing walls used for landscaping, soundproofing and security walls and some can be Prestressed concrete structural elements. Stormwater drainage, water and sewage pipes and tunnels make use of precast concrete units. The New South Wales Government Railways made extensive use of precast concrete construction for its stations and similar buildings. Between 1917 and 1932, they erected 145 such buildings.[2]

Contents
[hide]

1 Brief history 2 Precast Concrete Products 3 Specialized Products 4 Reinforced Concrete Box 5 Double Wall Precast - Concrete Sandwich Panels 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit] Brief history

Ancient Roman builders made use of concrete and soon poured the material into moulds to build their complex network of aqueducts, culverts and tunnels. Modern uses for pre-cast technology include a variety of architectural and structural applications featuring parts of or an entire building system. In the modern world pre-cast panelled buildings were pioneered in Liverpool, England in 1905. A process was invented by city engineer John Alexander Brodie, whose inventive genius also had him inventing the football goal net. The tram stables at Walton in Liverpool followed in 1906. The idea was not taken up extensively in Britain, however was adopted all over the world, particularly in Eastern Europe.[3]

[edit] Precast Concrete Products

The following is a sampling of the numerous products that utilize precast/prestressed concrete. While this is not a complete list, the majority of precast/prestressed products can fall under one or more of the following categories: Agricultural Products Precast concrete products can withstand the most extreme weather conditions and will hold up for many decades of constant usage. Products include bunker silos, cattle feed bunks, cattle grid, agricultural fencing, H-bunks, J-bunks, livestock slats, livestock watering trough, feed troughs, concrete panels, slurry channels and more. Prestressed concrete panels are widely used in the UK for a variety of applications including agricultural buildings, grain stores, silage clamps, slurry stores, livestock walling and general retaining walls. Panels can either be used horizontally and placed either inside the webbings of RSJs (I-beam) or in front of them. Alternatively panels can be cast into a concrete foundation and used as a cantilever retaining wall. Building and Site Amenities

Precast concrete building components and site amenities are used architecturally as fireplace mantels, cladding, trim products, accessories, and curtain walls. Structural applications of precast concrete include foundations, beams, floors, walls and other structural components. It is essential that each structural component be design and tested to withstand both the tensile and compressive loads that the member will be subjected to over its lifespan.[1]

Precast concrete wall veneer formed to replicate brick. Building construction using precast concrete walls and floors Retaining Walls

An example of a precast concrete retaining wall. Precast concrete provides the manufacturers with the ability to produce a wide range of engineered earth retaining systems. Products include: commercial retaining wall, residential retaining walls, sea walls, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) panels, modular block systems, segmental retaining walls, etc. Retaining walls have 5 different types which include: gravity retaining wall, semigravity retaining wall, cantilever retaining wall, counterfort retaining wall, and buttress retaining wall.[4] Sanitary and Stormwater Sanitary and Stormwater management products are structures designed for underground installation that have been specifically engineered for the treatment and removal of pollutants from sanitary and stormwater run-off. These precast concrete products include stormwater detention vaults, catch basins and manholes.[5] Transportation and Traffic Related Products Precast concrete transportation products are used in the construction, safety and site protection of road, airport and railroad transportation systems. Products include: box culverts,

3-sided culverts, bridge systems, railroad crossings, railroad ties, sound walls/barriers, Jersey barriers, tunnel segments, precast concrete barriers, TVCBs, central reservation barriers and other transportation products. Used to make underpasses, surface-passes and pedestrian subways, so that traffic in cities is disturbed for less amount of time.[6] Utility Structures For communications, electrical, gas or steam systems, precast concrete utility structures protect the vital connections and controls for utility distribution. Precast concrete is nontoxic and environmentally safe. Products include: hand holes, hollowcore products, light pole bases, meter boxes, panel vaults, pull boxes, telecommunications structures, transformer pads, transformer vaults, trenches, utility buildings, utility vaults, utility poles, controlled environment vaults (CEVs) and other utility structures.[7] Water and Wastewater Products Precast water and wastewater products hold or contain water, oil or other liquids for the purpose of further processing into non-contaminating liquids and soil products. Products include: aeration systems, distribution boxes, dosing tanks, dry wells, grease interceptors, leaching pits, sand-oil/oil-water interceptors, septic tanks, water/sewage storage tanks, wetwells, fire cisterns and other water & wastewater products.[7]

[edit] Specialized Products

Cemetery Products Underground vaults or mausoleums - calls for quality watertight structures that withstand the tests of time and the forces of nature.

A precast concrete hazardous material storage container. Hazardous Materials Containment Storage of hazardous material, whether short-term or long-term, is an increasingly important environmental issue, calling for containers that not only seal in the materials, but are strong enough to stand up to natural disasters or terrorist attacks.[8] Marine Products

Floating docks, underwater infrastructure, decking, railings and a host of amenities are among the uses of precast along the waterfront. When designed with heavy weight in mind, precast products counteract the buoyant forces of water significantly better than most materials.[9] Modular Paving Available in a rainbow of colors, shapes, sizes and textures, these versatile precast concrete pieces can be designed to mimic brick, stone or wood.[10] Prestressed/Structural Products Prestressing is a technique of introducing stresses of a predetermined magnitude into a structural member to improve its behavior. This technique is usually found in concrete beams, spandrels, columns, single and double tees, wall panels, segmental bridge units, bulbtee girders, I-beam girders, and others. "Prestressed member are crack-free under working loads and, as a result, look better and more watertight, providing better corrosion protection for the steel." Many projects find that prestressed concrete provides the lowest overall cost, considering production and lifetime maintenance.[4]

[edit] Reinforced Concrete Box

a reinforced concrete box being used in a storm drain

RCC Magic Box, used to build an underpass at Madiwala at the junction of Hosur Road and Inner Ring Road, Bangalore City. A reinforced concrete box, referred to as a box culvert in the UK, is a square or rectangular "pipe" made of concrete with rebar or wire mesh fabric strewn throughout for the addition of

extra strength. Multiple such boxes are arranged sideways to make a pipe or tunnel like structure. It is often used for sanitary sewer trunks, storm drain spillways, pedestrian subways, utility tunnels, catch basins, and other similar underground passage ways. Due to the enormous strength of reinforced concrete, it is often used in sewers or tunnels that have little cover above them which means they will be subjected to the stress of the road atop them. In India, pre-cast concrete boxes known as "Magic Boxes"" are used for the construction of flyovers and underpasses.[11]

[edit] Double Wall Precast - Concrete Sandwich Panels

The double wall process has been in use in Europe for many years. The walls consist of two wythes of concrete separated by an insulated void. The most commonly specified thickness of the wall panels is 8 inches. The walls can also be built to 10 and 12 inches thick if desired. A typical 8-inch wall panel consists of two wythes (layers) of reinforced concrete (each wythe is 2-3/8 inches thick) sandwiched around 3-1/4 inches of high R-value insulating foam. The two wythes of the interior and exterior concrete layers are held together with steel trusses. Concrete sandwich panels held together with steel trusses are inferior to those held together with composite fibreglass connectors. This is because the steel creates a thermal bridge in the wall, significantly reducing the insulative performance and reducing the ability of the building to utilise its thermal mass for energy efficiency. There is also the risk that because steel does not have the same expansion coefficient as concrete, as the wall heats and cools, the steel will expand and contract at a different rate to the concrete, which can cause cracking and spalling (concrete "cancer). Fibreglass connectors that are specially developed to be compatible with concrete significantly reduce this problem.[12] The insulation is continuous throughout the wall section. The composite sandwich wall section has an R-value exceeding R-22. The wall panels can be made to any height desired, up to a limit of 12 feet. Many owners prefer a 9-foot clear height for the quality of look and feel it affords a building.

A single-family detached home being built up from precast concrete parts The walls can be produced with smooth surfaces on both sides because of the unique manufacturing process which form finishes both sides. The walls are simply painted or stained on the exterior surface to achieve the desired color or textured surface. When desired, the exterior surface can be manufactured to have a wide variety of brick, stone, wood or other formed and patterned appearances through the use of reusable, removable formliners. Interior surfaces of the double-wall panels are drywall quality in appearance right out of the plant,

requiring only the same prime and paint procedure as is common when completing conventional interior walls made of drywall and studs. Window and door openings are cast into the walls at the manufacturing plant as part of the fabrication process. Electrical and telecommunications conduit and boxes are flush mounted and cast directly in the panels in the specified locations. The carpenters, electricians and plumbers do need to make some slight adjustments when first becoming familiar with some of the unique aspects of the wall panels. However, they still perform most of their job duties in the manner to which they are accustomed. Double-wall precast concrete sandwich panels can be used on most every type of building including but not limited to: Multi-family, Townhouses, Condominiums, Apartments, Hotels/Motels, Dormitories/Schools and Single Family homes. Depending upon building function and layout, the double-wall panels can be easily designed to handle both the structural requirements for strength and safety, as well as the aesthetic and sound attenuation qualities the owner desires. Speed of construction, durability of finished structure and energyefficiency are all hallmarks of a building that utilizes the double-wall system.