1.

Code

CDMA
division multiple access (CDMA) is a form of

multiplexing (not a modulation scheme) and a method of multiple access that does not divide up the channel by time (as in TDMA), or frequency (as in FDMA), but instead encodes data with a certain code associated with a channel and uses the constructive interference properties of the signal medium to perform the multiplexing. CDMA also refers to digital cellular telephony systems that make use of this multiple access scheme, such as those pioneered by Qualcomm, or W-CDMA.

1.1

Usage in mobile telephony

A number of different terms are used to refer to CDMA implementations. The original standard spearheaded by QUALCOMM was known as IS-95, the IS referring to an Interim Standard of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA). IS-95 is often referred to as 2G or second generation cellular. The QUALCOMM brand name cdma One may also be used to refer to the 2G CDMA standard. After a couple of revisions, IS-95 was superseded by the IS2000 standard. This standard was introduced to meet some of the criteria laid out in the IMT-2000 specification for 3G, or third generation, cellular. It is also referred to as 1xRTT which simply means "1 times Radio Transmission Technology" and indicates that IS-2000 uses the same 1.25-MHz shared channel as the

original IS-95 standard. A related scheme called 3xRTT uses three 1.25-MHz carriers for a 3.75-MHz bandwidth that would allow higher data burst rates for an individual user, but the 3xRTT scheme has not been commercially deployed. More recently, QUALCOMM has led the creation of a new CDMA-based technology called 1xEV-DO, or IS-856, which provides the higher packet data transmission rates required by IMT-2000 and desired by wireless network operators. The QUALCOMM CDMA system includes highly accurate time signals (usually referenced to a GPS receiver in the cell base station), so cell phone CDMA-based clocks are an increasingly popular type of radio clock for use in computer networks. The main advantage of using CDMA cell phone signals for reference clock purposes is that they work better inside buildings, thus often eliminating the need to mount a GPS antenna on the outside of a building. Also frequently confused with CDMA is W-CDMA. The CDMA technique is used as the principle of the W-CDMA air interface, and the W-CDMA air interface is used in the global 3G standard UMTS and the Japanese 3G standard FOMA, by NTT DoCoMo and Vodafone; however, the CDMA family of standards (including cdmaOne and CDMA2000) are not compatible with the W-CDMA family of standards. Another important application of CDMApredating and entirely distinct from CDMA cellularis the Global Positioning System, GPS.
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1.2

Coverage

As CDMA is newer than GSM, it may not be available in some parts of the world. However, as the signal can be transmitted over greater distances, it may give reception in more remote or rural areas where a GSM phone does not pick up a signal.

1.3
CDMA

Mathematical foundation
exploits at its core mathematical properties of

orthogonality. Suppose we represent data signals as vectors. For example, the binary string "1011" would be represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). We may wish to give a vector a name, we may do so by using boldface letters, eg a. We also use an operation on vectors, known as the dot product, to "multiply" vectors, by summing the product of the components. For example, the dot product of (1, 0, 1, 1) and (1, -1, -1, 0) would be (1)(1)+(0)(-1)+(1)(-1)+(1)(0)=1+-1=0. Where the dot product of vectors a and b is 0, we say that the two vectors are orthogonal. The dot product has a number of properties, and one will aid us in understanding why CDMA works. For vectors a, b, c:

The square root of a.a is a real number, and is important. We write

Suppose vectors a and b are orthogonal. Then:

1.4

Implementation

An example of 4 orthogonal digital signals. Suppose now we have a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal to each other. Usually these vectors are specially constructed for ease of decoding -- they are columns or rows from Walsh matrices that are constructed from Walsh functions -- but strictly mathematically the only restriction on these vectors is that they are orthogonal. An example of orthogonal functions

is shown in the picture on the right. Now, associate with one sender a vector from this set, say v, which is called the chip code. Associate a zero digit with the vector -v, and a one digit with the vector v. For example, if v=(1,-1), then the binary vector (1, 0, 1, 1) would correspond to (1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1). For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the transmitted vector. Each sender has a different, unique vector chosen from that set, but the construction of the transmitted vector is identical. Now, the physical properties of interference say that if two signals at a point are in phase, they will "add up" to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they will "subtract" and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled simply by the addition of the transmission vectors, componentwise. So, if we have two senders, both sending simultaneously, one with the chip code (1, -1) and data vector (1, 0, 1, 1), and another with the chip code (1, 1), and data vector (0,0,1,1), the raw signal received would be the sum of the transmission vectors (1,-1,1,1,1,-1,1,-1)+(-1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,1,1)=(0,-2,-2,0,2,0,2,0). Suppose a receiver gets such a signal, and wants to detect what the transmitter with chip code (1, -1) is sending. The receiver will make use of the property described in the above foundation section, and take the dot product to the received vector in parts. Take the first two components of the received vector, that is, (0, -2). Now, (0, -2).(1, -1) = (0)(1)+(-2)(-1) = 2. Since this is

positive, we can deduce that a one digit was sent. Taking the next two components, (-2, 0), (-2, 0).(1,-1)=(-2)(1)+(0)(-1)=-2. Since this is negative, we can deduce that a zero digit was sent. Continuing in this fashion, we can successfully decode what the transmitter with chip code (1, -1) was sending: (1, 0, 1, 1).Likewise, applying the same process with chip code (1, 1): (1, 1).(0,-2) = -2 gives digit 0, (1, 1).(-2,0)=(1)(-2)+(1)(0)=-2 gives digit 0, and so on, to give us the data vector sent by the transmitter with chip code (1, 1): (0, 0, 1, 1). Now, there are certain issues where this mathematical process can be disrupted. Suppose that one sender transmits at a higher signal strength than another. Then the critical orthogonality property can be disrupted, and thus the system can fail. Thus controlling power strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A TDMA or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals on other time slots or frequency channels. This is not true for CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general requirement in any CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power. Suppose that noise present in a channel takes a zero bit to some other value. Then this will also disrupt the orthogonality

property, and thus adding an extra level of forward error correction (FEC) coding is also vital. So far, we have assumed that CDMA timing is absolutely exact, that is, transmitters exactly transmit at points in multiples of the length of the chip sequence. Of course, in reality, this is impractical to achieve, so all forms of CDMA use spread spectrum process gain to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals. Signals with the desired chip code and timing are received, while signals with different chip codes (or the same spreading code but a different timing offset) appear as wideband noise reduced by the process gain. CDMA's main advantage over TDMA and FDMA is that the number of available CDMA codes is essentially infinite. This makes CDMA ideally suited to large numbers of transmitters each generating a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals, as it avoids the overhead of continually allocating and deallocating a limited number of orthogonal time slots or frequency channels to individual transmitters. CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say, and go off the air when they don't.

1.5

CDMA features
Narrowband message signal multiplied by wideband

spreading signal or pseudo-noise code

Each user has his own pseudo-noise (PN) code Soft capacity limit: system performance degrades for all users as number of users increases Cell frequency reuse: no frequency planning needed Soft handoff increases capacity Near-far problem Interference limited: power control is required Wide bandwidth induces diversity: rake receiver is used It would take all the computers ever made as much time as humans have been on earth to crack or decode a single second of CDMA conversation

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2.

Capacitors

The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by an insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has fully charged. The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the microfarad ( 10 -6 F ), nanofarad ( 10 -9 F ), and picofarad (10 -12 F) are used. The capacitor has an insulator ( the dielectric ) between 2 sheets of electrodes. Different kinds of capacitors use different materials for the dielectric.

2.1 Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical capacitors)

Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane. Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity. They have a
13

positive and a negative electrode.[Polarised] This means that it is very important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous, because it can quite literally explode. Make absolutely no mistakes. Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1F to thousands of F. Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc. Because this type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use for highfrequency circuits. (It is said that the frequency characteristic is bad.) The photograph on the left is an example of the different values of electrolytic capacitors in which the capacitance and voltage differ. From the left to right: 1F (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm] 47F (16V) [diameter 6 mm, high 5 mm] 100F (25V) [diameter 5 mm, high 11 mm] 220F (25V) [diameter 8 mm, high 12 mm] 1000F (50V) [diameter 18 mm, high 40 mm] The size of the capacitor sometimes

14

depends on the manufacturer. So the sizes shown here on this page are just examples. In the photograph to the right, the mark indicating the negative lead of the component can be seen. You need to pay attention to the polarity indication so as not to make a mistake when you assemble the circuit.

2.2

Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as the dielectric. Internally, these
15

capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high frequency

applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency signals to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is comparatively small. The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3 mm.The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x 10 3 pF becomes 0.01 F. The diameter of the disk is about 6 mm. Ceramic capacitors have no polarity. Ceramic capacitors should not be used for analog circuits, because they can distort the signal. Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors The multilayer ceramic capacitor has a many-layered dielectric. These capacitors are small in size, and have good temperature and frequency characteristics. Square wave signals used in digital circuits can have a comparatively high frequency component included. This capacitor is used to bypass the high frequency to ground. In the photograph, the capacitance of the
16

component on the left is displayed as 104. So, the capacitance is 10 x 10 4 pF = 0.1 F. The thickness is 2 mm, the height is 3 mm, the width is 4 mm.The capacitor to the right has a capacitance of 103 (10 x 10 3 pF = 0.01 F). The height is 4 mm, the diameter of the round part is 2 mm. These capacitors are not polarized. That is, they have no polarity.

2.3

Polystyrene Film Capacitors

In these devices, polystyrene film is used as the dielectric. This type of capacitor is not for use in high frequency circuits, because they are constructed like a coil inside. They are used well in filter circuits or timing circuits which run at several hundred KHz or less. The component shown on the left has a red color due to the copper leaf used for the electrode. The silver color is due to the use of aluminum foil as the electrode. The device on the left has a height of 10 mm, is 5 mm thick, and is rated 100pF. The device in the middle has a height of 10 mm, 5.7 mm thickness, and is rated The device on the right has a height of 24 mm, is 10 mm thick, and is rated 10000pF. These devices have no polarity.

17

This capacitor is used when a higher tolerance is necessary than polyester capacitors offer. Polypropylene film is used for the dielectric. It is said that there is almost no change of capacitance in these devices if they are used with frequencies of 100KHz or less. The pictured capacitors have a tolerance of 1%. From the left in the photograph Capacitance: 0.01 F (printed with 103F) [the width 7mm, the height 7mm, the thickness 3mm]Capacitance: 0.022 F (printed with 223F) [the width 7mm, the height 10mm, the thickness 4mm]Capacitance: 0.1 F (printed with 104F) [the width 9mm, the height 11mm, the thickness 5mm] When I measured the capacitance of a 0.01 F capacitor with the meter which I have, the error was +0.2%. These capacitors have no polarity.

2.4

Variable Capacitors

Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly. On the left in the photograph is a "trimmer," which uses
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ceramic as the dielectric. Next to it on the right is one that uses polyester film for the dielectric. The pictured components are meant to be mounted on a printed circuit board. When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to be careful. One of the component's leads is connected to the adjustment screw of the capacitor. This means that the value of the capacitor can be affected by the capacitance of the screwdriver in your hand. It is better to use a special screwdriver to adjust these components. photograph are variable Pictured in the upper left with the following capacitors

specifications: Capacitance: 20pF (3pF - 27pF measured) [Thickness 6 mm, height 4.8 mm]Their are different colors, as well. Blue: 7pF (2 - 9), white: 10pF (3 - 15), green: 30pF (5 - 35), brown: 60pF (8 - 72). In the same photograph, the device on the right has the following specifications: Capacitance: 30pF (5pF 40pF measured) [The width (long) 6.8 mm, width (short) 4.9 mm, and the height 5 mm] The components in the photograph on the right are used for radio tuners, etc. They are called "Varicons" but this may be only in Japan. The variable capacitor on the left in the photograph, uses air as the dielectric. It combines three independent capacitors. For each one, the capacitance changed 2pF - 18pF. When the adjustment axis is turned, the capacitance of all 3 capacitors change simultaneously. Physically, the device has a depth of 29 mm, and 17 mm width and height. (Not including the adjustment rod.) There are various kinds of

19

variable capacitor, chosen in accordance with the purpose for which they are needed. The pictured components are very small. To the right in the photograph is a variable capacitor using polyester film as the dielectric. Two independent capacitors are combined. The capacitance of one side changes 12pF - 150pF, while the other side changes from 11pF - 70pF. Physically, it has a depth of 11mm, and 20mm width and height. (Not including the adjustment rod.) The pictured device also has a small trimmer built in to each capacitor to allow for precise adjustment up to 15pF.

3.

Coils
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A coil is nothing more than copper wire wound in a spiral. This symbol is used to indicate a coil in a circuit diagram. Inductance value is designated in units called the Henry(H). The more wire the coil contains, the stronger its characteristics become. The inductance value can become quite large. If a coil is wound around an iron rod, or ferrite core (strengthened with iron powder), the inductance of the coil will be greatly increased. Coils used in typical electric circuits varely widely in values, ranging from a few micro-henry (H) to many henry (H). Coils are sometimes called "inductors." Inductance is the measure of the strength of a coil. Capacitors have capacitance, resistors have resistance, and Inductors (coils) have inductance. When alternating current flows through a coil, the magnetic flux that occurs in the coil changes with the current. When a second coil is put close to the first coil (with the changing flux), alternating voltage is caused to flow in the second coil by an effect known as "mutual induction." Mutual inductance (inductance) is measured in units of the Henry. The changing magnetic flux in a coil affects itself as well as other coils. This is called self induction, the degree of this self induction is called Self Inductance. Self inductance is a measure of a coil's ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of a change in its current. Self inductance is commonly referred to as simply "inductance," and is symbolized by "L". The unit of inductance is the Henry (H).

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The definition of "Henry" is "When a current of 1 ampere flows through a given coil in 1 second such that 1 volt is induced to flow in a second coil, the mutual inductance between the coils is said to be 1 Henry." The definition of self inductance is the same, except that the 1 volt is induced in the first coil; there is no second coil.

Characteristic of coils When wire is coiled, it takes on various characteristics that are different from straight wire. Below I will explain some of the characteristics coils that I know. Current Stabilization Characteristic When current begins to flow in the coil, the coil resists the flow. When current decreases, the coil makes current continue to flow (briefly) at the previous rate. This is called " Lenz's law ".The direction of induced current in a coil is such that is opposes the change in the magnetic field that produced it.

This characteristic is used for the ripple filter circuit of a power supply where it transforms alternating current(AC) to direct current(DC).When a rectifier is used to make DC from AC, the output of the rectifier without a ripple filter circuit is ripple current. Ripple current is DC that has a large AC component. A ripple filter circuit often combines coil and capacitors. The coil resists the change of current and capacitors supplement the flow of current by discharging into the circuit if the input voltage drops. Thus, clear, ripple-free DC is obtained from the ripple
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filter circuit. Resistor is used instead of coil in simple ripple filter circuit. Mutual induction

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4.

Diodes

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here . A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply device. Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current. This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. (Cathode). Current Although all

The meaning of the symbol is (Anode)

flows from the anode side to the cathode side.

diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different types suited to different applications. For example, the following devices are best used for the applications noted.

4.1

Light emitting diode

.This type of diode emits light when current

The circuit symbol is

flows through it in the forward direction. (Forward biased.)

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4.2

Variable capacitance diode

.The current does not flow when

The circuit symbol is

applying the voltage of the opposite direction to the diode. In this condition, the diode has a capacitance like the capacitor. It is a very small capacitance. The capacitance of the diode changes when changing voltage. With the change of this capacitance, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed.

25

The graph on the right shows the electrical characteristics of a typical diode. When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction, current flows easily. Because the diode has a certain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop slightly as current flows through the diode. A typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (V F ) (In the case of silicon diode, almost 0.6V) This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of current passing through the diodes must be considered. When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a diode, the diode will have a great resistance to current flow. Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A given diode should be selected depending on how it will be used in the circuit. The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction will vary from several mA to just A, which is very small. The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a case by case basis. For example, when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to withstand a reverse voltage. If the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.

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4.3 Rectification/Switching/Regulation Diode

The stripe stamped on one end of the diode shows indicates the polarity of the diode. The stripe shows the cathode side. The top two devices shown in the picture are diodes used for rectification. They are made to handle relatively high currents. The device on top can handle as high as 6A, and the one below it can safely handle up to 1A. However, it is best used at about 70% of its rating because this current value is a maximum rating. The third device from the top (red color) has a part

27

number of 1S1588. This diode is used for switching, because it can switch on and off at very high speed. However, the maximum current it can handle is 120 mA. This makes it well suited to use within digital circuits. The maximum reverse voltage (reverse bias) this diode can handle is 30V. The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation diode with a rating of 6V. When this type of diode is reverse biased, it will resist changes in voltage. If the input voltage is increased, the output voltage will not change. (Or any change will be an insignificant amount.) While the output voltage does not increase with an increase in input voltage, the output current will. This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too much current does not flow. The rated current limit for the device is 30 mA.

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Generally, a 3-terminal voltage regulator is used for the stabilization of a power supply. Therefore, this diode is typically used to protect the circuit from momentary voltage spikes. 3 terminal regulators use voltage regulation diodes inside.

4.4

Diode bridge

Rectification diodes are used to make DC from AC. It is possible to do only 'half wave rectification' using 1 diode. When 4 diodes are combined, 'full wave rectification' occurrs. Devices that combine 4 diodes in one package are called diode bridges. They are used for full-wave rectification. Physically, it is 7 mm high, and 10 mm in diameter. The flat device on the left has a current

29

limit of 4A. It is has a thickness of 6 mm, is 16 mm in height, and 19 mm in width.The photograph on the right shows a large, highpower diode bridge. It has a current capacity of 15A. The peak reverse-bias voltage is 400V. Diode bridges with large current capacities like this one, require a heat sink. Typically, they are screwed to a piece of metal, or the chasis of device in which they are used. The heat sink allows the device to radiate excess heat. As for size, this one is 26 mm wide on each side, and the height of the module part is 10 mm.

4.5

Light Emitting Diode ( LED )

Light emitting diodes must be choosen according to how they will be used, because there are various kinds. The diodes are available in several colors. The most common colors are red and green, but there are even blue ones. The device on the far right

30

in the photograph combines a red LED and green LED in one package. The component lead in the middle is common to both LEDs. As for the remaing two leads, one side is for the green, the other for the red LED. When both are turned on simultaneously, it becomes orange. When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can be determined by looking at the leads. The longer lead is the Anode side, and the short one is the Cathode side. The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance meter, or even a 1.5 V battery. When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low resistance measurement range. Connect the probes of the meter to the LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow. If the LED does not glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In either case, the side of the diode which is connected to the black meter probe when the LED glows, is the Anode side. Positive voltage flows out of the black probe when the meter is set to measure resistance. It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage. The voltage drop (forward voltage, or V F ) of an LED is comparatively stable at just about 2V.

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5.

Transistors

The transistor's function is to amplify an electric current. Many different kinds of transistors are used in analog circuits, for different reasons. This is not the case for digital circuits. In a digital circuit, only two values matter; on or off. The amplification abilitiy of a transistor is not relevant in a digital circuit. In many cases, a circuit is built with integrated circuits(ICs). Transistors are often used in digital circuits as buffers to protect ICs. For example, when powering an electromagnetic switch (called a 'relay'), or when controlling a light emitting diode. (In my case.) Two different symbols are used for the transistor. and NPN type The name (standard part number) of the transistor, as well as the type and the way it is used is shown below. 2SAXXXX PNP type high frequency 2SBXXXX PNP type low frequency 2SCXXXX NPN type high frequency 2SDXXXX NPN type low frequency The direction of the current flow differs between the PNP and NPN type.When the power supply is the side of the positive (plus), the NPN type is easy to use. PNP type

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6.

Resistors

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic. Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ), and 1000 K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm ( megohm ). There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors . They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most common. The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important. The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistence value. For example, a 5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within 5% of the specified resistance value. The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. Just like you wouldn't use a 6 volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out light in your house, you wouldn't use a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be using a 1/2 watt resistor. The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts. Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I 2 ) x the resistance value ( R ) of the resistor. If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot, and even

33

burn. Resistors in electronic circuits are typicaly rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W. 1/8W is almost always used in signal circuit applications. When powering a light emitting diode, a comparatively large current flows through the resistor, so you need to consider the power rating of the resistor you choose.

6.1

Rating electric power

For example, to power a 5V circuit using a 12V supply, a threeterminal voltage regulator is usually used. However, if you try to drop the voltage from 12V to 5V using only a resistor, then you need to calculate the power rating of the resistor as well as the resistance value. At this time, the current consumed by the 5V circuit needs to be known. Here are a few ways to find out how much current the circuit demands. Assemble the circuit and measure the actual current used with a multi-meter. Check the component's current use against a standard table. Assume the current consumed is 100 mA (milliamps) in the following example. 7V must be dropped with the resistor. The resistance value of the resistor becomes 7V / 0.1A = 70(ohm). The consumption of electric power for this resistor becomes 0.1A x 0.1A x 70 ohm = 0.7W. Generally, it's safe to choose a resistor which has a power rating of about twice the power consumption needed.

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6.2

Resistance value

As for the standard resistance value, the values used can be divided like a logarithm. For example, in the case of E3, The values [1], [2.2], [4.7] and [10] are used. They divide 10 into three, like a logarithm. In the case of E6 : [1], [1.5], [2.2], [3.3], [4.7], [6.8], [10]. In the case of E12 : [1], [1.2], [1.5], [1.8], [2.2], [2.7], [3.3], [3.9], [4.7], [5.6], [6.8], [8.2], [10]. It is because of this that the resistance value is seen at a glance to be a discrete value. The resistance value is displayed using the color code ( the colored bars/the colored stripes ), because the average resistor is too small to have the value printed on it with numbers. You had better learn the color code, because almost all resistors of 1/2W or less use the color code to display the resistance value.

6.3

Fixed Resistors

A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.

6.4

Carbon film resistors

This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance value is 5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used. Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film
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resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have never experienced any problems with this noise. The physical size of the different resistors are as follows.

This resistor is called a Single-In-Line(SIL) resistor network. It is made with many resistors of the same value, all in one package. One side of each resistor is connected with one side of all the other resistors inside. One example of its use would be to control the current in a circuit powering many light emitting diodes (LEDs). In the photograph on the left, 8 resistors are housed in the package. Each of the leads on the package is one resistor. The ninth lead on the left side is the common lead. The face value of the resistance is printed. ( It depends on the supplier. ) Some resistor networks have a "4S" printed on the top of the resistor network. The 4S indicates that the package contains 4 independent resistors that are not wired together inside. The housing has eight leads instead of nine. The internal wiring of these typical resistor networks has been illustrated below. The size (black part) of the resistor network which I have

36

is as follows: For the type with 9 leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and the width 23 mm. For the types with 8 component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5 mm, and the width 20 mm.

6.5

Variable Resistors

There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many times to

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use the whole range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called "Potentiometers" or "Trimmer Potentiometers."

In the photograph to the left, the variable resistor typically used for volume controls can be seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to adjust. The four resistors at the center of the photograph are the semi-fixed type. These ones are mounted on the printed circuit board. The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers. This symbol diagram. is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit There are three ways in which a variable resistor's

value can change according to the rotation angle of its axis. When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance value changes slowly and then in the second half of its axis, it changes very quickly. The "A" type variable resistor is typically used for the volume control of a radio, for example. It is well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It suits the characteristics of
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the ear. The ear hears low sound changes well, but isn't as sensitive to small changes in loud sounds. A larger change is needed as the volume is increased. These "A" type variable resistors are sometimes called "audio taper" potentiometers. As for type "B", the rotation of the axis and the change of the resistance value are directly related. The rate of change is the same, or linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits a resistance value adjustment in a circuit, a balance circuit and so on. They are sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers. Type "C" changes exactly the opposite way to type "A". In the early stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance value changes rapidly, and in the second half, the change occurs more slowly. This type isn't too much used. It is a special use. As for the variable resistor, most are type "A" or type "B".

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7.

Soldering

The soldering is the basic work for electronic circuit engineering. I will introduce the tools for soldering below. The sufficient attention is necessary during work, because soldering handles a high temperature. Pay attention to the handling of the soldering iron sufficiently, because it becomes burn, fire more, carelessly.

7.1

Soldering iron

Soldering iron is a necessary instrument when you solder. Solder is hardening in a normal temperature, but solder can melt easily by using the soldering iron and the parts and wiring materials can be fixed to the printed wiring board(PWB).The important point is temperature of the soldering iron. For soldering, it needs to become the temperature of the object(PWB, parts, wire etc) to solder melting temperature. However, the temperature of soldering iron must not be too high. The electronic component gets damage with high temperature. So, you need to solder in a short time. Sometimes, the loose contact of soldering occurs. It is difficult to confirm only by looking at. When the temperature of the object is not enough, the loose contact will be occured. At the end of assembling of

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the electronic circuit, you need to check the soldered contact with circuit tester etc.

7.2

Electric power

There are various kind of soldering irons. I am using 3 kinds of soldering irons. 25W type, 80W type, 15W type

7.3

The tip of iron

The soldering is done at the tip of iron. So, the tip of iron is very important. There is the type that the tip of soldering iron is made of copper stick. But I don't recommend that type. Because, the copper stick rusts easily by heat and it becomes difficult to convey heat. Also the tip of copper stick melts with solder. It becomes difficult to solder. I recommend the one that is difficult to convey heat. There are many shape of tips. The tip which fit to the DIP type IC is used to remove the ICs. All of the solder on the pins can be melt at same time then it easy to remove the IC.I do not have such kind of soldering iron.

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Usually the soldering iron is heated by electricity. However, there is the soldering iron heated by gas. It is convenient to carry.

7.4

Soldering iron stand

The soldering iron becomes high temperature. Therefore it can't be placed on the desk directly. The stabilized soldering iron stand is necessary. When making the electronic circuit, sometime I forgot the existence of soldering iron, because I have devoted to the parts, wiring etc. It was serious when I noticed, desk was burning. You need to choose the iron stand with appropriate weight which can hold iron stably. Also you need to choose the iron stand that fit the form of iron. Usually I wipe the tip of iron with moistened sponge. Therefore I use the iron stand with the place for sponge. This is your taste.

7.5

Solder
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The solder is the alloy of lead and tin. As for good solder, the containment rate of tin is high. The finish of soldering is beautiful. The price is a little bit high. There are several kinds of solder, solder wire( thread form solder ) is convenient for electronic circuit making. This solder wire is doing the structure of the pipe and flux is included inside. Flux melts together with the solder and the solder becomes easy to attach to the component leads. There are some thicknesses of solder wire. I am usually using the one that diameter is 0.5 mm. The containment rate of the tin is 60%.

7.6

Solder sucker

The failure of soldering occurs often. In this case, the part or the wiring must be removed. I will introduce the instruments that can be used for desoldering

7.7

Solder pump

This is the tool that can be absorbed the melted solder with the repulsion power of the spring that was built in with the principle of the piston. The usage is shown below. Push down the knob of the upper part of the pump against to spring until it is locked. Melt the solder of the part that wants to absorb solder with iron. Apply the nozzle of the pump to the melted solder part. Push the release knob of pump. Then the plunger of the pump is pushed

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up with the power of spring and solder is absorbed inside the pump. You need to do this operation quickly, otherwise the part gets damage by the heat. A little practice is needed.

7.8

De-soldering wire

This is made of thin copper net wire like a screen cable in a coaxial cable. Like water inhales to cloth, the solder is absorbed to the net wire by a capillary tube phenomenon. The usage is shown below. Apply the de-soldering wire to the part that wants to take solder. Apply the soldering iron from the top and Melt the solder. The melted solder is absorbed to de-soldering wire with a capillary tube phenomenon. At this time you absorb solder while shifting de-soldering wire. When the solder can not be removed in the once, remove repeatedly while shifting the desoldering wire. There are several kinds of width of de-soldering wire. I am using the one with 2mm width.

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