LITERATURE REVIEW by Prof. Dr. Juhana Salim js@ftsm.ukm.

my Introduction Literature review is important in any research effort because without doing literature review, a researcher will not be able to understand the topic to be researched and know what had been studied, problems and issues and how past researchers did their investigation in the related area of interest. This chapter discusses several basic knowledge that need to be acquired in doing literature review mainly: definition, purpose and role of literature review, methodology in conducting literature search, analysing and organising and structuring ideas to enable researchers to write the literature review more systematically and effectively. Definition of Literature Review Literature review involves giving a summary of what had been written and published on a certain topic by scholars or researchers. It includes summary of past research which are related to the area studied. Literature review is also known as review of past research which explores issues, theories found in scholarly writings and provides explanations, summary and critical evaluation on researches that have been conducted by earlier researchers. There are several other definitions on literature review that will help researchers to understand literature review from wider perspectives, amongst which include: Summary of past research related to the research to be conducted. Bibliographic essay published in scholarly journal. For example articles entitled: Review Of Literature On Web Mining; Multimedia in Education: a decade of research; Past, present and future of mobile payments research:a literature review; Management control systems and strategy: A critical review A discussion on several questions/problems related to the research to be conducted. A publication/article that explore issues, theories in scholarly writings.

According to Uma Sekaran (2003), literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive i review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. Hart (2004) emphasized that literature review involves the following: The selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information; ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfil certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and Exploring how the research in a specific area of interest is to be investigated, The effective evaluation of the documents in relation to the research being proposed.

Apart from the points made by Hart, Taylor (http://www.utoronto.ca.writing/litrev.html), stated several things that a literature review must do: i. Be organized around and related directly to the research question you are developing. In the example (Figure 1) on an area of research entitled: Socialization of ICT among students, the areas which are related encompasses: ICT in teaching and learning,digital divide, research on socialization of ICT and impact of ICT.

IMPACT OF ICT

ICT IN TEACHING & LEARNING SOCIALIZATION OF ICT AMONG STUDENTS

RESEARCH ON SOCIALIZATION OF ICT

DIGITAL DIVIDE

Figure 1: Related area of study ii. Synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known

An example of synthesis of result is shown as follows: Research Topic: Public Protest Against the Government in Australia. W hile the early settlers and todays citizen both use public notices, supporters, public speeches, pamplets and appeals to the government authorities to protest actions they oppose, there are also distinct differences in their methods. The early settlers were more inclined to use physical force where as todays citizens use the media in actions that are less violent in nature. Based on the synthesized result, the following research questions can be raised: What is unknown? What is the nature of public protest against the government in other countries? How about the use of Information and communication technology (ICT) to express protest against the government From the questions generated above, a researcher can identify the gap in the related area of research in order to justify why the research is important to be embarked. In the above case, the researcher can justify that research on the use of ICT to show protest against the government is

an aspect that needs to be studied based on the critical analysis that was made on past research. Before synthesizing, several steps need to be undertaken and this involves applying the component of critical thinking i.e. attributing and comparing. Appendix I illustrates the steps in applying critical thinking skills in Attributing and Comparing and finally how to synthesize. iii. Identify areas of controversy in the literature

The following example shows how the researcher identified the areas of controversy. Topic: The use of information system development methodology in Malaysia (Yazrina 2003) Researchers have different views on SDM. For instance, by using the right methodology, the risk and uncertainty in the information system development process will be reduced (Avison, 1995; Floyd, 1987). Fitzgerald (1996a) cited that literature has traditionally seen that it will help to improve the process and product of system development while the general view was that methodologies were always troublesome and could use up resources and time, which were limited. However, despite the benefits, the usage of information system development methodology (ISDM) is still very unsatisfactory (Fitzgerald, 1996a; Ward, 1991; Chikofsky, 1989; Russo et al., 1995). The scarcity of empirical research in the extended nature of usage of ISDM prevents knowledge of how ISDM are used (Wynekoop & Russo, 1997). iv. Formulate questions that require further research

It is also important for researchers to generate questions that would help to trigger further research. Some questions that a researcher can generate to help to further develop and enhance the literature review in the area of research includes: What are the problems or questions that my literature review will help identify? What kind of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking for theories, methodologies, policy, quantitative or qualitative research or the effectiveness of certain new procedures ? What is the scope of my literature review? What kind of published sources have I managed to acquire? Have I found books, journals articles, thesis and dissertation, technical reports, research reports, government documents and possible sources of information on the subject of study? What are the related areas that I need to cover? Is my literature search comprehensive? Have I analyzed the literature that I have read, critically? Have I followed a set of concept and question, compared each items from another. Have I discussed the strength and weaknesses of past research? Have I referred to research that is contradictory from my perspectives? Are the readers going to find my literature review relevant and useful?

The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that the researcher is carrying out. W riting literature does not mean merely giving a summary of past research as it is also vital to evaluate the related work, show the relationships between different work, and show how it relates to ones work. In other words, one cannot simply give a concise description of, for example, an article. But rather one need to select what parts of the research to discuss (e.g. the methodology), and show how it relates to the other work (e.g. W hat

other methodologies have been used? How are they similar? How are they different?) and show how it relates to your work (what is its relationship to your methodology?). Purpose of doing literature review Literature review is a discursive prose and not merely explaining or summarising one type of literature from another. The literature review should be structured in parts that represent a theme or identify trend including relevant theories. In writing the literature review, it is important to understand that the researcher/writer is not suppose to report what had been written but synthesized and evaluate past research based on a conceptual framework or research questions. Therefore, it is vital that a researcher understands the purpose of doing literature, review amongst which includes: To provide explanation, summary and critical evaluation on previous research. To provide an account on what had been published on a certain topic by recognized and authoritative scholars/experts. To provide a critical analysis on a segment of a particular knowledge through classification, summary, comparison of past research , theoretical articles and literature. To explore issues, theories in scholarly writings and provide explanation, summary and critical evaluation on previous research. To know what has been known or unknown/researched. To develop explanation on certain phenomena and state-of- the art. To identify relationships between concepts and hypothesis. To learn how other researchers define words, concepts and identify hypothesis that can be studied. To identify sources of data used by earlier researchers. To develop alternative projects or projects that are related to the research done by other researchers.

Critical evaluation on published sources and past researches on the subject of study is very important and an effective way to analyse critically and review literature and theoretical articles is by generating questions. Some of the questions one can ask while developing the literature review are: What do you already know about the subject? Major works? Is there any gap in the knowledge of a particular subject? Has the author formulated any problem statements / issues? What is the orientation of the research? What is the theoretical framework of the author? Are there further researches by other researchers? Who are the personalities in the topic to be researched? Is the analysis accurate and relevant? What is the strength and weakness of the research? How is the article or book related to your research question? What is the methodology/ methods/ issues/problems that earlier researchers identified and how they can give impact to ones project.

Role of Literature Review

Literature review is one of the important sections commonly found in both a research proposal and report. By conducting a thorough literature search, it will enable one to show the aims, objectives, scope, rationale and design features of the research. The rationale is usually supported by references to other works which have already identified the broad nature of the problem. The role of literature review is to demonstrate that the researcher has the skills in literature searching apart from showing that one has a good command of the subject area, a better understanding of the problem and to justify the research topic, design and methodology. Hart (1998) had clearly shown the role of literature review in relation to the other parts of a thesis (Table 1). Reviewing existing literature not only leads to a better understanding of the state of the research in the field, but it also discerns patterns in the development of the field itself. A synthesis of existing findings allows researchers not to repeat similar work, and discover important gap. In other words, it closes areas where a plethora of research already exists, and at the same time uncovers those areas where research is lacking. Doing literature review should help one to find answers to some of the questions that are shown in Figure 2. Table 1: Some sections commonly found in both a research proposal and report Sumber: Hart, C. (2000)
Introduction To show the aims, objectives, scope, rationale and design features of the research. The rationale is usually supported by references to other works which have already identified the broad nature of the problem. To demonstrate skills in library searching : to show command of the subject area and understanding of the problem; to justify the research topic, design and methodology.

Literature review

Methodology

To show the appropriateness of the techniques used to gather data and the methodological approaches employed. Relevant references from the literature are often used to show an understanding of data-collection techniques and methodological implications, and to justify their use over alternative techniques.

What are the key sources? What are the major issues and debate about the topic?

What are the key theories concepts and ideas? What are the epistemological and ontological grounds for the discipline?

Literature search and review on your topic

What are the political standpoints? What are the origins and definitions of the topic? What are the main questions and problems that have been addressed to date? How is knowledge on the topic structured and organized?

How have approaches to these questions increased our understanding and knowledge?

Figure 2: Some questions that the review of literature can answer Here are some of the questions the literature review should answer given by Language Centre. Asian Institute of Technology (http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM). What do we already know in the immediate area concerned? What are the characteristics of the key concepts or the main factors or variables? What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or variables? What are the existing theories? Where are the inconsistencies or other shortcomings in our knowledge and understanding? What views need to be (further) tested? What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too limited? Why study (further) the research problem? What contribution can the present study be expected to make? What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?

The effort undertaken to find and read relevant sources that may help answer the above questions will enable the researcher to understand and develop knowledge in the subject area being studied. A thorough and effective search of the literature will ensure that the researcher: identifies important variables that has the probability of influencing the problem situations covered in the research; obtains a clearer idea in relation to the important variables that need to be addressed compared to the less important (parsimony) and why the variables are considered important;

discovers how the problems can be solved through the methods/approaches/models found in earlier researches; identify and generate accurate and clear problem statements; enhance the evaluation on research findings obtained from the research; avoid reinventing the wheel or duplicate earlier works; embarked on finding the solutions that can be accepted and found to be relevant and signicant by the scientific community in the area of study.

Hence, literature review helps researcher to develop the conceptual or theoritical framework and generate hypothesis for testing (Uma Sekaran 2003).

Literature Search
Before starting any research project it is most vital to do a comprehensive literature research as each research project builds on a body of prior work. The process of searching and locating earlier research projects that are related can be a tremendous challenge. It is a known fact in research processes that other researchers have to certain extend already explored and digested the older literature. Thus, it is strategic to locate articles that give a review of literature in the subject of interest, as such articles that provide a guide to earlier research. However, according to Zobel (2004) a complete exploration of the archives is rarely necessary but rather there is the need to carefully explore current work. In order to comprehensively explore relevant literature, it is advisable to follow several intertwined paths. Figure 3 shows the flow of doing literature research by Hart (1998) that can be used as a guide to locate relevant literature more systematically and comprehensively. Based on figure 3, at the initial stage, the researcher can try to locate the background knowledge on the topic by referring to encyclopedia, dictionary, books and library catalogues. Though there are numerous online information services that enable researcher to search and access full text sources online, it is still a relevant step to go to the library to search for relevant literature. This is because the simple strategy of having similar material shelved together often leads to unexpected discoveries, without the distraction that arise when we browse the web (Zobel 2004). The search result from this initial stage will enable researcher to identify main and related concepts on order to do concept mapping in the area of study. In the Focus topic and analyse information needs stage, there is a need to try and identify relevant sources that can be referred to locate literature relevant to the research project. The following titles will guide researchers to locate relevant literature. i. Guide to literatures ii. Some Online databases useful for research. In Sekaran, U. Research Methods for business: a skill building approach. 4th ed. Singapore: John Wiley, 2003: 75-78 iii. Academic Research on the Internet: Options for Scholars and Libraries. Internet for scholarly research. Laurence, H. & Miller, W (Penyunting) London: Haworth, 2000.

Choose topic Stages Background information and ideas search. Begin mapping topic. Sources
encyclopedias dictionaries text books library catalogue (OPAC)

Outcomes Initial mapping of the topic area. A search vocabulary of concepts. Identification of sources Provisional list of key of information and guides authors/works. to the literature. Identification of articles, reports, work in progress. Lists of monographs/text books/anthologies. Lists of dissertations, from theses and conference Identification of papers. reviews of items.

Focus topic and analyse information needs.

subject librarians guides to the literature abstracts indexes electronic sources bibliographies (BNB) dissertation abstracts conference proceedings

Detailed search of sources. Construct initial bibliographies.

Secondary evaluations of the literature.

review journals indexes to reviews citation indexes

Citation map of the topic. Figure 3: Flow chart of doing literature research (Hart 2000)

The Guides to literature enables one to identify the relevant indexes/abstracts to locate articles, research reports, journal articles and proceedings etc. The Guides to literature in the web environment is better known as Subject Gateway. The following list are some useful databases and online services one can access to locate literature in computer and information science. ACM BIBLIOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES FROM EARLIER PUBLICATIONS CSA, LISA CITESEER COLLECTION OF COMPUTER SCIENCE BIBLIOGRAPHIES INSPEC Lecture Notes in Computer Science PROQUEST SPRINGER THE LINK SCIENCE DIRECT WEB SITES OF AUTHORS WORLDWIDE LIST OF UNIVERSITIES

Formatted: French (France)

Formatted: French (France)

The next stage is the secondary evaluations of the literature, i.e. review articles. Review articles are critical to strengthening an area as a field of study. To identify review articles, researchers have to refer to Review Journal, indexes to review and Citation index such as Science Citation Index, Web Citation Index. Through such indexes, one can identify articles that give review on the area of study, published and unpublished literature, new findings etc. At this stage researcher can begin to do the citation map.
Literature searching can be enhanced by searching through the Internet. There are many gateways, databases and research reports that can be accessed through the web. One should acquire the skills and knowledge to use search tools and engines, including meta search engines and deepweb engines to ensure searching to be conducted effectively and comprehensively. Table 2 shows how one can develop skills in effective Internet searching (http://www.lib.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/Strategies.html). Besides the search techniques, it also presents information about characteristics of each type of search tools, as it is important for a researcher to know something about search tools before undertaking further steps to search the Internet. Zobel (2004) provided several paths to comprehensively explore relevant literature, some of which include: visiting websites of research groups working in similar areas as these sites would give several kinds of links to the wider literature and websites that list conference programmes and the papers to appear in the conference. This is another strategic way to another hint of relevance as within a conference, the papers are grouped by topic. Zobel recommended that the researcher should discuss his or her work with as many people as possible as some of them may know relevant work that a researcher may not have encountered.

Table 2: Examples of How One Can Develop Skills in Internet searching.

YOURS TOPICS FEATURES: Vital information on search tools SEARCH TOOLS Search Engines & Meta-search Engines for searching the World Wide Web Search full-text of selected Web pages. Search by keyword, by browsing, no subject categories. Meta-Search Engines quickly and superficially search several individual search engines at once and return results compiled into a convenient format. Google, Alta Vista Advanced Search, Northern Light Power Search, Alltheweb Meta_Search engines such as Vivisimo,Metacrawler, Ixquick, Copernic, Webferret and others. Enclose phrases in Human resource management or Personnel management Test run your word or phrase in Google or Copernic/Webferret. Use search engines that let you combine terms using AND or + e.g.: Use Advance Search in Alta Vista and Google. If use Excite: AND, OR, AND NOT (must be capitalized) : e.g. Islamic law AND labor Used field limiting: Title: human resource planning or Other fields: url: host: domain In Webferret, Choose exact phrase. Northern Lights folders; or Alta Vistas search in results. In Webferret, Choose, AND, OR and exact phrase. Choose search engines with Boolean OR (IN Northern Light & Fast Search enclose terms in ( ). E.G. ( human relation) (public relation) For truncation ( In Alta Vista use*)

Recommended tools

Distinctive or word or phrase? e.g. Human resource management No distinctive words or phrases

Online public access catalogues (OPAC) Most OPACs allow one to search the collections found in particular library or group of libraries. One can Search by author, title, keyword and by subject. One can get access to OPAC by typing the URL address of the library and hyperlink into Library Catalogue. For subject approach, refer LCSH, e.g. Human resource management USE Personnel management E.g.: Islamic law on labour, Look for broad subject first, under. Islamic law, look for Labor laws and legislation (Islamic law) For overview of book on human resource planning, look under broad subject heading: Personnel management For cases in personnel management, use Personnel management case studies. Look for human relation from LCSH. You will be referred to the terms used. e.g. human relation USE Interpersonal relations SEARCH TOOLS Subject Directories & Gateway Pages Selected sites picked by editors or experts in a subject) Usually organized into hierarchical subject categories. Often annotated. Can browse subject categories or search using broad, general terms No full-text of documents. Librarians Index, Yahoo! Or Academic Info;

Seek an overview?

Narrow aspects of broad or common topic? Use subsearching approach Synonyms, equivalent terms, variants

YOUR TOPICS FEATURES: Vital information on search tools.

Recommended tools

Specialized Databases Invincible Web (defined below) The Invincible Web provides access through a search box into the contents of data base in a search box into the contents of a database in a computer somewhere. Can be on any topic, can be trivial, commercial, task-specific, or a rich treasure devoted to your topic. Locate specialized databases by looking for them in good Subject Directories like the in Librarians Index, Yahoo!, or Academic Info; special guides to searchable databases, and sometimes by keyword searching in general search engines. Complete Planet, Copernic

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Researchers may be able to show command on the subject being studied from a wider perspective by locating relevant sources and reading analytically the related literature. The wide knowledge explored in the area of research is needed to justify that the research is important and to identify the gap and anomaly from past research. Further questions can be triggered to finally assist the research in determining the research questions that need to be answered. Prior research related to the area of study need to be analysed as they are vital in determining the parameters, dimensions and scope of the research. Excerpts from the research on methodology for System Development in Malaysia (Yazrina Yahya et al. 2002) are shown below to demonstrate how a researcher can introduce the literature review by identifying key sources, explained how his research filled the gap and approaches and methods used in prior work. Excerpt 1 Example of Identify key landmark studies: key sources and authors There are various types of research being carried out in the field of information system development methodology. It ranges from the application of methodologies (Sakthivel, 1992; Avison et al, 1992), movement of methodologies (Fitzgerald, 1999; Avgerou C, 1993; Lycett et al., 1997), the use of methodologies (Westrup, 1993), application of in-house software development methodologies (SDMs) and commercial SDMs (Hardy et al., 1995; Jenkins et al, 1984) and issues in methodologies (i.e. the influences, problems, unanswered questions) (Fitzgerald, 1995; Livari, 1998; Wynekoop et al., 1995). There are also researches being carried out concerning the methodology itself and the changes in methodology (Wynekoop et al., 1997). Excerpt 2 Example of Filling the research gap Although literature abounds with the focus on the development of new methodologies and framework for the selection and comparison of methodologies, methodologies are still extensively untested, despite their growth (Russo et al., 1995). Nevertheless, there are a handful of research which consolidate on the empirical study of the use of methodologies in specific countries (Rahim et al., 1997; Edward, 1989a; Edward, 1989b; Edward, 1989c; Selamat et al., 1994; Fitzgerald, 1997; Fitzgerald, 1996b, Russo et al., 1995). However, all of these researches tend to focus on the usage of methodologies outside of Asia. Most of these researches were carried out in the UK and US region, while only one was carried out in Brunei. Excerpt 3 Example of Previous approaches and methodologies Research accomplished by Edward (1989a, b, c) had emphasised on the usage of SSADM in the private and public sectors in UK. The research concentrated on discovering whether the users of SSADM feel that the requirements of the methodology had been fulfilled. It had also determined whether the practitioners of methodology had welcome SSADM. As a result it was found that SSADM is a methodology that provides guidelines and rule for the development of systems and it had been used in a few of the public and private sectors in UK.

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Mapping and analysing ideas

As an outcome of literature research undertaken, the reports and literature would encompass varied perspectives and there is the need to organize those ideas discovered. This would mean that the researcher need to elicit from the literature the core ideas and concepts, methods and approaches, issues raised and how all those constructs had been operationalized for emphirical research. Such processes seem to be part of the review analysis elements and are very much needed if the core ideas and concepts have to be identified from the literature acquired. The analysis on aspects identified as relevant to the study will be used to design a concept map on certain phenomena, topic or problem. Hart (1998) stated that the purpose of mapping the ideas gathered from literature are: to acquire sufficient knowledge of the subject so as to develop the necessary understanding of the methodology and research techniques; To comprehend the history and diffusion of interest in the topic, to undertake an analytical evaluation of the main arguments, concepts and theories relevant to the topic in order to synthesize from the analysis an approach or a thesis that is unique, that is your work. Mapping basically involves organizing the content of the literature into sections and subsections that will enable one to make connections between ideas contained in different sources (articles, books, proceedings, or other published work) over a period of time. An important critical component that can be incorporated in mapping and analysing ideas is Classification. According to Hart, classification is a necessary part of the analytical stage of a review. Without the use of classification, large amount of information cannot be processed in a way that is both systematic and progressive. Classification involves sorting, organizaing ideas into categories and labelling those categories. Appendix 2 illustrate the steps that can be undertaken to classify. The skills in classifying is very usefull in helping researcher to analyse and synthesize ideas more accurately and at the same time critically evaluate and make connections between the concepts that are identified relevant to a research. From the steps shown in the classification processes in Appendix 2, the sections and subsections to explain the related literature can be structured as such: Topic and sub-topics in reviewing the literature on Information sources used by managers 2.0 Overview of information sources that managers use 2.1. Printed sources 2.1.1 Internal basesprinted sources 2.1.2 External Printed sources 2.2 Electronic sources 2.2.1 Online databases 2.2.2 Internet 2.2.3 Intranet 2.2.4 Real time information services 2.3 Personal sources 2.3.1 Superiors

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2.3.2 Subordinates 2.3.3 Supervisers 2.3.4 Members in associations 2.3.5 Ventors, suppliers, clients Types of maps Mapping can be used to show the development of knowledge in a particular topic and requires one to use figures and tables to represent knowledge in terms of the relationships between the ideas and the arguments discovered by the researcher. Mapping is an effective method to obtain the overall picture within a topic. Mapping of ideas in doing literature review requires one to organize ideas in certain structure. By arranging those ideas, the researcher will be able to identify core concepts, theory and method used by other researchers in the field of study. Mapping can help the researcher to think more analytically and at the same time learn to see relationship and how to design a new and interesting scheme. There are many ways that can be used to map knowledge in a particular topic; some of the common mapping techniques are shown as follows: Table 2: Feature Map
Prior work (Author/researcher Theory/view Evidence Arguments Main reference

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Figure 4: Mapping and forming relationships between concepts involving ontology

Conceptual Framework :Use of Online Information * Type of Managers task Types of company Information needs Information source

Information needs
Information source inrernal external

Methods in acquiring internal external information Electronic media Online Personal sources Videotext

printed

E-mail NSTP

INTERNET MASTIC

Sibexlink

Others

Figure 5: Conceptual framework on the Use of Online Informarion Services among Managers

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Figure 6: Concept Map on Human Exploration

How to write a good literature review? In order to write a good literature review one must avoid writing a literature review just to tell your readers what other researchers have done. The aim should be to show why th research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the research already carried out, etc. Other guidelines that one can follow in order to wirte a good literature review are as follows: Read with a purpose: you need to summarize the work you read but you must also decide which ideas or information are important to your research (so you can emphasize them), and which are less important and can be covered briefly or left out of your review. You should also look for the major concepts, conclusions, theories, arguments etc. that underlie the work, and look for similarities and differences with closely related work. This

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is difficult when you first start reading, but should become easier the more you read in your area. Write with a purpose: your aim should be to evaluate and show relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's theory more convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own. In order to do this effectively you should carefully plan how you are going to organize your work.

There are some websites that give guidance on writing good literature review such as The Basics of Good Writing (Language Centre. Asian Institute of Technology) Structuring Literature review Having mapped the ideas gathered from the literature, especially past research that are related, the researcher needs to structure the literature review systematically. At this stage, the researcher needs to define the purpose of doing the review and consequently choose suitable structure to provide explanation on concepts, issues, gap and approaches that will help justify why the research is necessary and important to be undertaken. In defining the purpose of doing the literature, the researcher would need to explain what he needs to achieve from the literature review by providing statements clarifying the purpose of the review as introduction to the literature review. Pre-writing In pre-writing, it is advisable to arrange the literature that were read and analysed into 3 blocks: Summary of existing work on the topic. In this block. the researcher accumulate all the relevant information elicited from analytically reading the past research. The aspects related to the research such as core ideas, methods and issues addressed by different authors are gathered in this block. This block also include different terms and concepts used to explain why things are the way they are. Critical evaluation of previous work. In this block, the researcher gathers all methods used by past researchers related to the topic being studied. These include assessing the methodologies employed, strengths and weaknesses of past researches. By looking at the methodology and the strength and weakness of past research , it will assist in mapping the approach used by past researchers related to the topic being studied. General and specific conclusion about work done to date on the topic: In this block, conclusion made on the overall direction of the work related to the area being studied are gathered to enable researcher in identify gaps, fallacies and failures in previous work in order to show the legitimacy of your own approach

Formatted: Malay (Malaysia)

Choosing suitable structure

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If one has a structure, it can be used as a guide for the researher to start writing the review. According to Hart (1998) several structures can be used by the researcher to arrange the ideas and discussions that basically covers the following: Discussions on the existing problems relating to the topic being studied. Proposals to solve the problem.. Suggestion on benefits that will be obtained if the proposal are accepted. Give attention to the possible criticisms on the proposals made. Ensure that the researcher use evidence from past researches to show the weaknesses of past research to help researcher in formulating solutions to the problem. Therefore, the suggested proposal by the researher would be based on the sources of information gathered from prior research and it is important to use the right and relevant information. information related to the research.

There are three structures that can be used as a guide in structuring the literature review.

Problem awareness pattern Describe nature of problem. Give examples & evidence that the problem exist. Develop a definition of the problem. Provide evidence /arguments of negative effect. Explain the consequences if nothing is done. Outline an approach for tackling the problem Source: Hart (1998)

Cause & effect Establish the existence of the problem. Propose possible causes. Show the main factors underpinning the proposed causes. Clarify any confusing areas and eliminate irrelevant causes. Provide evidence for causes. Provide evidence for proposed cause and provide recommendations.

Possible solution pattern Consider definiton & solution already tried. Give relevant examples of the solutions tried. Show why they failed and causes for failure. Provide summaries of possible effects of alternatives. Make a chioce from alternatives and give evidence.Summ-arise problem. & give solution

The three structure can be used as a guide to present your literature review in the area of research to show how the researcher can arrange the ideas systematically. Literature review can also be presented i the following ways: Chronological arrangement- use to show the historical arrangement of work on a topic. Familiar to unfamiliar ordering Both chronological and familiar-to unfamiliar arrangement can be incorporated in: - inductive/or - deductive structure The researcher can also used authoritative model to structure the literature as shown in figure 7.

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Introduce your framework as an effort to build your knowledge taxonomy

Category 1 Explain the researches in this category + how + why they are important to the area being studied Category II -- Explain the researches in this category + how + why they are important to the area being studied Explain your research and how it can improve and be of impact to the above researches

Figure 7: An Authoritive model for structuring literature. Conclusion

Having completed writing the literature review, it is most important that the researcher check whether the review had shown a clear understanding of the topic and that all key landmark studies have been cited and most discussed. As the researcher introduced the concepts relevant to a particular research, check whether those concepts have been clearly defined by various authors. It is also important to check if approaches to the topic area had been discussed and critically evaluated. The researcher should check if he or she had stated clear conclusion about previous research using appropriate evidence and had reached sound recommendations using coherent argument that is based on evidence and finally shown a gap in existing knowledge References

1. Hart, C. 1998. Doing a literature review: releasing the social science research imagination. London: SAGE Publications. 2. Basics of Good Writing. Basics of Good Writing. Language Centre. Asian Institute of Technology (http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM). 3. Sekaran, U. 1992. Research methods for business: a skill-building approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 4. Zobel, J. 2004. Writing for Computer Science. 2nd ed.London: Springer Verlag.

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Appendix 1

Comparing & Constrasting

STEPS Analyze item to be compared Identify difference & similarities Check consistencies

Sample activity: To write statement of findings on methods used to protest against logging in Australia. Protest by early citizens Protest by todays citizen Characteristics of protest: Violent/non-violent

Comparing & Constrasting

STEPS Analyze item to be compared Identify difference & similarities Check consistencies

Sample activity: To write statement of findings on methods used to protest against logging in Australia.
Differences Differences

Similarities

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Comparing & Constrasting

STEPS Analyze item to be compared Identify difference & similarities Check consistencies Early Settlers SIMILARITIES Sample activity: Todays Citizen Notices in Magazines Supporters Public Speeches Pamphlet Appeal to the government Public Notices Public Assembly Public Speeches Pamphlet Appeal to the government

Comparing & Constrasting

STEPS Analyze item to be compared Identify difference & similarities Check consistencies Early Settlers DIFFERENCES Sample activity: Todays Citizen Non Violent Car strickers Media Violence Demonstration War

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Comparing & Constrasting

STATEMENT OF FINDINGS. (SYNTHESIZE RESULTS INTO A SUMMARY OF WHAT IS AND IS NOT KNOWN)
While the early settlers and todays citizen both use public notices, supporters, publics speeches, pamphlets and appeals to the government authorities to protest actions they oppose, there are also distinguishing differences in their methods. The early settlers were more inclined to use physical force with riots and fighting , whereas todays citizen use the media and blockades in actions that are less violent in nature. WHAT IS NOT KNOWN ? WHAT IS THE NATURE OF PUBLIC PROTEST AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT IN OTHER COUNTRIES?

Appendix II

Classification
Classification involves sorting and organizing ideas into categories and labeling those categories.

Information needs

Information sources

Information styles

USE OF ONLINE INFORMATION SERVICES AMONG MANAGERS

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How do you categorize/classify

STEPS Collect the data Label similar item in a group Use pattern to add others

Sampel Activitity: Data on information sources used: Managers in manufacturing industry rely heavily on internal reports, minutes of meetings, technical reports, consumer reports, reports from marketing departments, supervisors, department heads and other subordinates. Managers in servicing companies such as legal, securities and financial institutions are very dependent on online information services and web sources. Scientist and engineers in science based companies more often refer to journals, proceedings, technical reports and from members in the IEEE.

Evaluate pattern

How do you categorize/classify

STEPS Collect the data Label similar item in a group Use pattern to add others Evaluate pattern supervisors, department heads other subordinates

online information services

internal report, minutes of meetings, consumer reports,

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How do you categorize/classify

STEPS Collect the data Label similar item in a group online information services Web resources, intranet

internal report, minutes of meetings, consumer reports, technical reports market report

Use pattern to add others Evaluate pattern supervisors, department heads other subordinates members of association

How do you categorize/classify

STEPS Collect the data Label similar item in a group online information services Web resources, intranet Electronic sources internal report, minutes of meetings, consumer reports, technical reports market report Printed sources supervisors, department heads other subordinates members of association

Use pattern to add others Evaluate pattern

Personal sources

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