N|a kryse| Cruz 8S 8|o|ogy III 8|k2

arameter a numerlcal quanLlLy measurlng some aspecL of a populaLlon of scores lor example Lhe mean ls a
measure of cenLral Lendency
Stat|st|cs 1he word sLaLlsLlcs ls used ln several dlfferenL senses ln Lhe broadesL sense sLaLlsLlcs refers Lo a range
of Lechnlques and procedures for analyzlng daLa lnLerpreLlng daLa dlsplaylng daLa and maklng declslons based on
daLa 1hls ls whaL courses ln sLaLlsLlcs generally cover
Data refers Lo quallLaLlve or quanLlLaLlve aLLrlbuLes of a varlable or seL of varlables
, econdary uaLa reexlsLlng daLa noL gaLhered for purposes of Lhe currenL research
*advanLages resource lmpllcaLlons usually easler Lo gaLher Lhan prlmary daLa unobLruslve already
collecLed longlLudlnal sLudy may be posslble quallLy and permanence of daLa eg CovernmenL surveys

*dlsadvanLages sulLablllLy cosL and access may sLlll be dlfflculL ln splLe of resource advanLages valldlLy of
some secondary daLa (eg lnLerneL sources)

- rlmary uaLa uaLa never gaLhered before
*advanLage flnd daLa you need Lo sulL your purpose

*dlsadvanLage usually more cosLly and Llme consumlng Lhan collecLlng secondary daLa

Iar|ab|e any measured characLerlsLlc or aLLrlbuLe LhaL dlffers for dlfferenL sub[ecLs
Independent and Dependent
When an experlmenL ls conducLed some varlables are manlpulaLed by Lhe experlmenLer and oLhers are measured
from Lhe sub[ecLs 1he former varlables are called lndependenL varlables or facLors whereas Lhe laLLer are called
dependenL varlables or dependenL measures

uant|tat|ve and ua||tat|ve
varlables can be quanLlLaLlve or quallLaLlve (CuallLaLlve varlables are someLlmes called caLegorlcal varlables)
CuanLlLaLlve varlables are measured on an ordlnallnLerval or raLlo scale quallLaLlve varlables are measured on
a nomlnal scale lf flveyear old sub[ecLs were asked Lo name Lhelr favorlLe color Lhen Lhe varlable would be
quallLaLlve lf Lhe Llme lL Look Lhem Lo respond were measured Lhen Lhe varlable would be quanLlLaLlve

D|screte and Cont|nuous Data or var|ab|e
varlables can be dlscreLe (Laklng values from a flnlLe or counLable seL) conLlnuous (havlng a conLlnuous dlsLrlbuLlon
funcLlon) or nelLher 1emperaLure ls a conLlnuous varlable whlle Lhe number of legs of an anlmal ls a dlscreLe
varlable
Sca|e 1ype erm|ss|b|e Stat|st|cs
Adm|ss|b|e Sca|e
1ransformat|on
Mathemat|ca|
structure
nom|na| (a|so
mode Chlsquared
Cne Lo Cne sLandard seL
denoted as
categor|ca|)
NAML
(equallLy ()) sLrucLure
(unordered)
Crd|na|
CkDLk
medlan percenLlle
MonoLonlc
lncreaslng
(order ())
LoLally ordered
seL
Interva|
mean sLandard devlaLlon correlaLlon regresslon analysls
of varlance
oslLlve llnear
(afflne)
afflne llne
kat|o
All sLaLlsLlcs permlLLed for lnLerval scales plus Lhe
followlng geomeLrlc mean harmonlc meancoefflclenL of
varlaLlon logarlLhms
oslLlve slmllarlLles
(mulLlpllcaLlon)
fleld


Data co||ect|on ls a Lerm used Lo descrlbe a process of preparlng and collecLlng daLa for example as parL of a process
lmprovemenL or slmllar pro[ecL 1he purpose of daLa collecLlon ls Lo obLaln lnformaLlon Lo keep on record Lo make
declslons abouL lmporLanL lssues Lo pass lnformaLlon on Lo oLhers

Interv|ews
lnLervlews are more expenslve Lhan quesLlonnalres as a meLhod of daLa collecLlon because of Lhe labor lnvolved 1he
Lradeoff ls LhaL an lnLervlew can conLaln more complex quesLlons lnLervlews are more useful wlLh lower llLeracy
raLes and less cooperaLlve parLlclpanLs 1he followlng flelds Lend Lo use Lhe lnLervlew meLhod of daLa collecLlon as a
maln resource
O CovernmenL agencles such as Lhe l8 or Welfare ueparLmenL
O Census Lakers
O aw enforcemenL


uest|onna|res
1hls Lype of daLa collecLlon meLhod ls one of Lhe lnexpenslve ways Lo galn lnformaLlon MosL of Lhe lnformaLlon
gaLhered ls from cooperaLlve and hlghly llLeraLe people such as college graduaLes or people ln professlonal flelds
Many Llmes quesLlonnalres wlll be used by servlce provlders Lo galn needed lnformaLlon uch provlders would
lnclude
O Medlcal urveys
O lnsurance AppllcaLlons
O lgher paylng [ob appllcaLlons
O clenLlflc 8esearch



keg|strat|on
8eglsLraLlon ls a daLa collecLlon meLhod malnly used Lo gaLher lnformaLlon abouL a cerLaln group or demographlc
populaLlon 1hls meLhod ls prlmarlly used ln Lhe followlng ways
O urlvers llcenses
O Welfare programs
O chool programs
O voLer records

D|rect Cbservat|on
1hls Lype of daLa collecLlon meLhod ls Lhe mosL accuraLe way of gaLherlng lnformaLlon and can be Lhe mosL cosL
effecLlve over a long Llme frame 1hls meLhod ls malnly used ln lnsLlLuLlonal and professlonal seLLlngs such as
O Medlcal analysls
O CorrecLlons laclllLles
O sychology and oclology cllnlcal seLLlngs
O lndlrecL research

Lxper|ment An experlmenL ls a conLrolled sLudy ln whlch Lhe researcher aLLempLs Lo undersLand causeandeffecL
relaLlonshlps 1he sLudy ls conLrolled ln Lhe sense LhaL Lhe researcher conLrols (1) how sub[ecLs are asslgned Lo
groups and (2) whlch LreaLmenLs each group recelves

54MPLlN6 1cnNlu5

S|mp|e random samp|e ls a subseL of lndlvlduals (a sample) chosen from a larger seL (a populaLlon) Lach lndlvldual ls
chosen randomly and enLlrely by chance such LhaL each lndlvldual has Lhe same probablllLy of belng chosen aL any
sLage durlng Lhe sampllng process and each subseL of lndlvlduals has Lhe same probablllLy of belng chosen for Lhe
sample as any oLher subseL of lndlvlduals


Strat|f|ed samp||ng ls a meLhod of sampllng from a populaLlon ln sLaLlsLlcal surveys when subpopulaLlons wlLhln an
overall populaLlon vary lL ls advanLageous Lo sample each subpopulaLlon (sLraLum) lndependenLly Strat|f|cat|on ls
Lhe process of dlvldlng members of Lhe populaLlon lnLo homogeneous subgroups before sampllng

C|uster Samp||ng ls a sampllng Lechnlque used when naLural grouplngs are evldenL ln a sLaLlsLlcal populaLlon lL ls
ofLen used ln markeLlng research ln Lhls Lechnlque Lhe LoLal populaLlon ls dlvlded lnLo Lhese groups (or clusLers) and
a sample of Lhe groups ls selecLed

Mu|t|stage sampllng ls a klnd of complex sample deslgn ln whlch Lwo or more levels of unlLs are lmbedded one ln
Lhe oLher lor example geographlc areas (prlmary unlLs) facLorles (secondary unlLs) employees (LerLlary unlLs) AL
each sLage a sample of Lhe correspondlng unlLs ls selecLed AL flrsL a sample of prlmary unlLs ls selecLed Lhen ln
each of Lhose selecLed a sample of secondary unlLs ls selecLed and so on All ulLlmaLe unlLs (lndlvlduals for lnsLance)
selecLed aL Lhe lasL sLep of Lhls procedure are Lhen surveyed

Nonprobab|||ty samp||ng]Nonrandom samp||ng ls any sampllng meLhod where some elemenLs of Lhe populaLlon
have chance of selecLlon (Lhese are someLlmes referred Lo as ouL of coverage/undercovered) or where Lhe
probablllLy of selecLlon canL be accuraLely deLermlned

A purpos|ve samp|e ls a nonrepresenLaLlve subseL of some larger populaLlon and ls consLrucLed Lo serve a very
speclflc need or purpose A researcher may have a speclflc group ln mlnd such as hlgh level buslness execuLlves lL
may noL be posslble Lo speclfy Lhe populaLlon Lhey would noL all be known and access wlll be dlfflculL 1he
researcher wlll aLLempL Lo zero ln on Lhe LargeL group lnLervlewlng whomever ls avallable

uota samp||ng ls a meLhod for selecLlng survey parLlclpanLs ln quoLa sampllng a populaLlon ls flrsL segmenLed
lnLo muLually excluslve subgroups [usL as ln sLraLlfled sampllng 1hen [udgmenL ls used Lo selecL Lhe sub[ecLs or unlLs
from each segmenL based on a speclfled proporLlon lor example an lnLervlewer may be Lold Lo sample 200 females
and 300 males beLween Lhe age of 43 and 60 1hls means LhaL lndlvlduals can puL a demand on who Lhey wanL Lo
sample (LargeLlng)

Conven|ence samp||ng (someLlmes known as grab or opportun|ty samp||ng) ls a Lype of nonprobablllLy sampllng
whlch lnvolves Lhe sample belng drawn from LhaL parL of Lhe populaLlon whlch ls close Lo hand 1haL ls a populaLlon
ls selecLed because lL ls readlly avallable and convenlenL


ML1nCDS CI kLSLN1ING DA1A

1extua|
1hls ls acLually Lhe presenLaLlon of Lhe lnformaLlon LhaL you have gaLhered 1herefore you can presenL your flndlngs
ln a varleLy of formaLs such as ln graphs Lables as a summary and ln Lables for example As such daLa ls Lhe basls by
whlch you can LexLually presenL your dlscoverles raLher Lhan Lhe Lhlng LhaL ls LexLuallzed

1abu|ar
LaLlsLlcal Lables are Lhe mosL common form of documenLaLlon used by Lhe quanLlLaLlve soclal sclenLlsL and he
should culLlvaLe sklll ln Lable consLrucLlon [usL as Lhe hlsLorlan learns Lo evaluaLe and clLe documenLs or Lhe
geographer learns carLography 1able maklng ls an arL (as ls Lable readlng) and one should never forgeL LhaL a Lable ls
a form of communlcaLlona way Lo convey lnformaLlon Lo a reader 1he prlnclples of Lable maklng lnvolve maLLers of
LasLe convenLlon Lypography aesLheLlcs and honesLy ln addlLlon Lo Lhe prlnclples of quanLlflcaLlon

Graph|ca|
A graph refers Lo Lhe ploLLlng of dlfferenL valves of Lhe varlables on a graph paper whlch glves Lhe movemenL or a
change ln Lhe varlable over a perlod of Llme ulagrams can presenL Lhe daLa ln an aLLracLlve sLyle buL sLlll Lhere ls a
meLhod more rellable Lhan Lhls ulagrams are ofLen used for publlclLy purposes buL are noL of much use ln sLaLlsLlcal
analysls ence graphlc presenLaLlon ls more effecLlve and resulL orlenLed