Building Analog in the 2010s

Bruce E. Hofer Chairman & Co-Founder Audio Precision, Inc.

Copyright 2011 Audio Precision, Inc. Audio Precision is a registered trademark of Audio Precision, Inc.

Introduction
Based upon the typical classes now being taught in many engineering schools, it would appear that analog circuit design is in danger of becoming a lost art
Interviews of design engineer job applicants reveal a growing weakness in the comprehension of basic analog concepts Too much emphasis seems to be placed on simulation, and not enough on understanding circuit behavior at a more intuitive level

Even among experienced designers there is a tendency to overlook some key factors that limit performance It need not be this wayall it really takes is careful attention to detail and the practical application of some fundamental concepts

Introduction, continued
In this seminar we will examine some selected topics that are important to the analog designer in the 2010s
Time constraints will limit us to cover only a few key topics However, I will endeavor to share some of the accumulated lessons that have been learned throughout my 41-year career in the design of high performance and state-of-the-art measurement equipment

Let us also recognize that professional differences of opinion existmy own are not necessarily definitive, and they lean heavily towards the objective side due to my background (Indeed, I do not have golden ears)
Civil comments and questions are welcome during seminar breaks I kindly ask those with a more self-serving agenda to avoid being disruptivego conduct your own seminar!

What are the Factors that Determine High Performance Analog Design?
Objective (quantitative measurements)
Wide dynamic range (low residual noise floor) Very low levels of non-linearity (e.g. THD+N, IMD) Excellent frequency response and/or time domain response Stability versus time, temperature, and humidity

Business Related (we live in a real world)

Manufacturing cost Reliability (estimated warranty expense)

Subjective (what sometimes really sells a product!)

How does it look, feel, sound?

Selected Topics to be Covered Today

Models of Non-Linearity
Estimation of 2H & 3H distortion

Passive Component Quality

Perhaps one of the most significant factors in analog design

Op-Amp Selection, circa 2011 Noise in Analog Circuits Circuit Layout Considerations

A Non-Linearity Model that Enables Estimation of 2H and 3H Distortion

Use a Taylor Series to model non-linear behavior
The instantaneous value of circuit gain is modeled as having a voltage dependence: A(Vs) = Ao * (Vs + k2* Vs ^2 + k3* Vs ^3 )

2HD and 3HD can be estimated with surprising accuracy using only 3 values for dynamic gain at the positive peak (Ap), negative peak (An) and zero (Ao) points of an assumed sine-wave signal:
2HD |Ap An| / (8*Ao) 3HD |Ap + An 2*Ao| / (24*Ao)

Higher orders exist but there is usually little additional insight to be gained in going beyond the third order

Example: Emitter Follower Distortion

A simple emitter follower was constructed using a MPSA18 transistor with RL = 4.02k wired to -15V and the collector to +15V. Performance with a 5Vp (10Vpp) signal is to be estimated at +21.8C (295K) The dynamic emitter impedance (Re) and follower gain are calculated at Vout = -5.0, 0, and +5.0 V:
-5.0 V: Re = kT/qIe = 11.153 An = 0.99723 0.0 V: Re = kT/qIe = 7.125 Ao = 0.99823 +5.0 V: Re = kT/qIe = 5.234 Ap = 0.99870

Thus the estimated distortion is -74.8 dB (0.018%) at 2H and -93.2 dB (0.0022%) at 3H

Emitter Follower Circuit

Note: Re = kT/qIe

FFT of Follower Output, Vin=10 Vpp

Measured distortion factors are -75.1 dB and -93.4 dB versus the estimates of -74.8 dB and -93.2 dBnote only 0.2-0.3 dB discrepancy

Component Non-Linearity Model

Although a Taylor series model is quite successful for estimating distortion when semiconductor nonlinearity dominates, it is not as accurate in dealing with passive component non-linearity Resistor non-linearity is usually best modeled as having a simple dependence upon the absolute value of voltage: R(Vs) = Ro * (1 kv* |Vs |)
kv has units of ppm per Volt, or fractional change per Volt 2HD 0 (due to the symmetry of assumed non-linearity) 3HD kv* Vs / 5.9 (derived from FFT of full-wave rectified sine) At low frequencies this model can be extended to include thermal modulation effects due to the resistors temperature coefficient

Component Non-Linearity, contd

When assessing the effect of a resistors non-linearity, the circuit sensitivity to the resistor value must also be taken into consideration
Resistors in the signal path that directly affect circuit gain will usually have a sensitivity factor that is close to 1.0 unless they are part of a series or parallel combination Indeed, using a series resistor combination is typically one of the best ways to minimize the effect of voltage coefficient

Capacitors also have voltage coefficient effects, but these are much more difficult to analyze due to their inherent frequency dependence
Will not be covered in this seminar

Passive Component Quality

There is an old saying among chefs and bakers that the quality of a meal (or dessert) depends largely upon the quality of the ingredients
The same is true with analog circuit design

Resistors, capacitors, and inductors come in many different types, having different sizes, voltage ratings, power ratings, temperature coefficients, voltage coefficients, sensitivity to humidity, etc. Understanding some of these differences is a good first step towards achieving higher performance in analog design

Resistors

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Basic Resistor Technologies

Composition Thick Film (perhaps the most popular today) Thin Film Metal Film Metal Foil Wire-Wound Other (e.g. Thermistors, Metal Oxide Varistors)

Composition Resistors
The resistive element is a compacted mixture of carbon and ceramic held together in a resin base
Very popular prior to the 1970s, less popular today Useful in applications requiring high peak power capability or super low series inductance

Unimpressive performance by todays standards

Tolerances from 5-20% Temperature coefficient is typically 150 ppm /C but can exceed 1500 ppm /C at low values Relatively high noise in comparison to other types

Not recommended for high performance analog or audio designs!

Thick Film Resistors

The resistive element is a conductive film sputtered onto the surface of a cylindrical or rectangular base
Resistance is determined by film and etching pattern Very wide variety of sizes and power ratings available

Very popular in general purpose applications

Tolerances of 0.1% to 2% (usually laser trimmed when <1%) Temperature coefficient is so-so, typically 100 to 250 ppm /C Noise can be relatively high compared to thin film and foil Voltage coefficient is rarely specified, and can vary considerably from brand to brand, and also by value

MELF (Metal Electrode Leadless Face) versions are available for higher peak power dissipation

Thin Film Resistors

The resistive element is a conductive film sputtered onto the surface of a cylindrical or rectangular base; however the thickness is typically 1000 times thinner than thick film, and it has a different composition
Resistance is determined by the etching pattern and trimming Wide variety of sizes and power ratings available

Much better, but more expensive than thick film

Tolerances of 0.1% to 1% (usually laser trimmed when <1%) Temperature coefficients as low as 5 to 25 ppm /C Excellent (low) noise Usually much lower voltage coefficient than thick film

Metal Film Resistors

The resistive element is a metallic film (commonly nichrome) deposited or sputtered on the surface of a cylindrical base
Very similar to thin-film, however the resistance is determined by physically cutting (not etching) a helix pattern in the film

Acceptable for many analog applications

Tolerances of 0.5% to 2% are common Temperature coefficient is typically 50 to 100 ppm /C Very low noise and voltage coefficient

MELF (Metal Electrode Leadless Face) versions are available for higher peak power dissipation

Metal Foil Resistors

The resistive element is composed of a special alloy metal foil mounted on an inert substrate
Resistance is determined by the foil characteristics and pattern Trimming is usually accomplished by opening links in a carefully designed patternvastly more stable than L cut trimming

Quite simply the best and highest performance of all resistor technologies
Tolerances to 0.001% Temperature coefficient as low as 0.2 ppm /C (!!!) Ultra stable particularly when hermetically sealed Extremely low noise and thermal EMF Voltage coefficient typically <0.1ppm /Volt (!!!)

Wire-Wound Resistors
The resistive element is wire having a low temperature coefficient (often nichrome) wound on a substrate
Typically appropriate only for lower resistance values Very high peak and average power ratings are possible

Winding Patterns #1 / #3 - Coil #2 - Bifilar #4 - Ayrton-Perry

Resistor Networks
Resistor networks are especially useful in applications that benefit from ratio matching
Ratio accuracies can be as good as 0.01% with thin film, and 0.001% with metal foil Extremely low differential temperature coefficients are possible

Avoid large ratios (e.g. 50:1 or higher) which can result in poorer thermal tracking performance
Best performance is achieved if all resistors can be of equal value

The small size of resistor networks (typically SOIC-8 or SOIC-16) offers an advantage in challenging layout situations where large temperature gradients exist

A Bad Experience (True Story) with a Resistor NetworkBeware!

About 11 years ago a certain manufacturer decided to switch their network substrate material from ceramic to passivated silicon without notifying its customers
Ceramic is more expensive to process and to cut to size

Although the resistor DC parameters were unchanged, the AC behavior was a total disaster!
The stray C between each resistor and the substrate was not only higher, but NON-LINEAR It is believed that PIN diodes were formed between each resistor and the semi-conducting substrate, thus causing the voltage drop in one resistor to generate distortion products in the other resistors The manufacturer quickly added the option of specifying the original ceramic substrate when told they were being disqualified

Recommendations for Audio Circuits

When cost is no object, the only resistor type to use in critical signal path locations is metal foil When more realistic cost targets are important, use thin film (not thick film) resistors
Thick film resistors will likely yield higher noise in the presence of dc biasing currents, and higher distortion overall

The 1206 size SMD is still a relative sweet spot in terms of price and availability for precision resistors
For the same value and applied voltage, using a smaller resistor size will likely result in significantly higher distortion Limit the maximum signal voltage to about 3-5 Vrms for best performanceuse series combinations for higher voltages

Capacitors

Copyright 2011 Audio Precision, Inc. Audio Precision is a registered trademark of Audio Precision, Inc.

Dielectric Materials, circa 2011

Ceramic (a generic term embracing a wide range of compositions and characteristics)
Examples include Z5U, X7R, NP0, Hi-K

Mica (rapidly declining in popularity) Glass Polymer Film (another generic term)
Examples include polyester (PE), polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) aka Teflon

Electrolytic

Ceramic Capacitors
Except for power supply decoupling, there is only one ceramic composition that should ever be specified in high performance analog design: NP0 (aka COG)
Now available in values up to 100 nF with standard tolerances of 1-5% and voltage ratings to 1 kV (500V SMD) Consider paralleling multiple caps to get higher values Very low dissipation factor and frequency dependence Ultra-low temperature coefficient, typically 30 ppm /C (!!!) Excellent stability, virtually immune to humidity

Avoid the lowest 25V rating in critical audio designs

50V and 100V rated caps are not that much larger (perhaps 1206 versus 0603), but they will give superior distortion performance

Mica Capacitors
30 years ago mica capacitors were highly regarded in the analog design community
Commonly available in values to >3 nF with tolerances to 1% Temperature coefficient typically 90 ppm /C Good stability, but micas brittleness can sometimes result in unexpected and abrupt value shifts with physical stress

Unfortunately mica is a product of nature, and some of its better sources have now been depleted With the ready availability and lower temperature coefficient of NP0 / COG ceramic caps, there is not much reason to specify mica capacitors anymore

Glass Capacitors
Glass is among the most stable and inert of dielectrics
Typical values available up to >2 nF Extremely stable with almost zero aging characteristic Some sensitivity to frequency, perhaps a bit worse than NP0 ceramics and polypropylene (PP) film capacitors Temperature coefficient typically +140 ppm /C, not as good as other types but glass caps can operate up to +200C Extremely low, almost non-existent voltage coefficient Highest immunity to radiationthe best choice for the survivalist with golden-ears preparing for the post-apocalyptic world

Unfortunately molten glass is not so easy to form with precise dimensions

5% tolerance typical, 1-2% available but hyper-expensive

Polymer Film Capacitors

Films that are widely available from many sources
Polyester (PE), aka Mylar Polyphenylene-sulfide (PPS), a relatively new film becoming more popular as an alternative to polyester with better characteristics Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS)

More limited availability films

Polycarbonate (PC), not much to favor it today, very hygroscopic and must be hermetically sealed for acceptable stability Teflon or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) has excellent electrical properties but can be difficult to use as a film with good reliability Kapton (polyimide), used in very high temperature applications

Polymer Film Construction Techniques

Metalized Film
The dielectric film is pre-coated with a conductive surface that is connected to one of the capacitor terminals Has higher equivalent series resistance, hence higher dissipation factor (tan )

Metal Foil Film

The dielectric film is interleaved with real metal foils that are connected to the capacitor terminals Lower equivalent resistance than metalized film

If possible, avoid metalized film and use only the Foil Film type if a polymer film capacitor is the best choice

Polymer Film Dielectrics for Audio

In the world of high performance analog design only three dielectric films are recommended:
Polystyrene (PS) offers excellent long term stability (when in a hermetically sealed package) and very low dissipation factor; but it has a temperature coefficient of about -100 ppm /C and can be easily damaged by soldering since the film melts at +85C Polypropylene (PE) is a much lower cost alternative with very low dissipation factor and a higher melting point (+105C); but it also has a much higher temperature coefficient up to -250 ppm /C Teflon (PTFE) has many superlative electrical properties and is popular among audiophiles who believe it just sounds better; but vendors are few and far between--can you afford it?

Depending upon the electrical value required, consider using NP0 or COG ceramic capacitors

An Insidious Distortion Mechanism in Metalized-Film and Foil-Film Caps

Although all polymer films have varying degrees of voltage coefficient, and should never be used with AC potentials above about 5-10% of their voltage rating, there is yet another distortion mechanism to beware
The metalized surfaces or foils must be electrically connected to the external component leads Many of these connections are often physical in nature, and they can exhibit diode action and/or series resistance non-linearity

You are at the mercy of the component manufacturer!

This effect can not be measured using conventional LCR meters Ask the manufacturer if they can fabricate the capacitor using a spot weld operation to electrically connect the foils to the leads (may not be possible)

Electrolytic Capacitors
Polarized electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two conducting metal terminals, one of which has an insulating layer of oxide (the cathode), both being separated from the other by a liquid electrolyte
The two most popular electrode metals are aluminum and tantalum however niobium is beginning to appear The electrolyte can be of many different chemistries including both aqueous and non-aqueous (indeed, some old generation caps used sulfuric acid! ) Non-polarized caps are possible by using two oxidized cathodes

Electrolytic capacitors must be formed during their manufacture by applying a current limited potential across the terminals to stabilize the oxide layer

Electrolytic Capacitors, continued

Electrolytics offer the largest C per unit volume
But that is about their only advantage; electrolytics are inferior in almost every other respect compared to other capacitors Typical applications are power supply decoupling and DC blocking in analog circuits where large values are required Should never be used in applications where the value is critical such as frequency equalization or precision active filters Value varies considerably versus frequencydifficult to model

Electrolytic capacitors can introduce interesting forms of low frequency distortion caused by their sensitivity to both voltage and frequency
Non-linear modeling is almost hopeless due to process differences from manufacturer to manufacturer, and normal batch variations

Microphonic Effect in Capacitors

In any capacitor: d(Q) = d(C*V)
The above equation if often simplified as d(Q) = C*d(V) from whence the common equation I = d/dt(Q) = C*d/dt(V) is derived

However, C itself is not necessarily constant

C is not only a function of voltage V (non-linearity), but it can also vary with mechanical stress/vibration thus acting as a microphone The total derivative is really d(Q) = d(C*V) = C*d(V) + V*d(C), thus giving I = d/dt(Q) = C*d/dt(V) + V*d/dt(C)

Minimize the dc potential across capacitors in series with the signal path
The AC coupling caps in phantom powered microphone input circuits should be as small as possible, and matched in value

Piezoelectric Effect in Some Capacitors

Certain junk grades of ceramic dielectric exhibit a piezoelectric effect in which unwanted voltages are generated by physical stresses within the cap
Z5U and Y5V ceramics often include barium titanate (BaTiO3) which shows a very strong piezoelectric effect Even when used only for power supply decoupling the designer should verify that the circuit will not be sensitive to potentials generated within these caps Never use these grades of ceramic in voltage reference filters, or as AC blocking capacitors in series with the audio signal path

Ceramic NP0 & COG capacitors are OK

Glass capacitors are reported to be the very best; but I have had very limited experience with them and cannot verify this claim

Inductors

Copyright 2011 Audio Precision, Inc. Audio Precision is a registered trademark of Audio Precision, Inc.

Inductors in Audio Design

There are only a few applications requiring inductors in high performance analog design
RF suppression on sensitive, low noise input circuits Emitter degeneration compensation in discrete amplifiers Filters in Class-D amplifier output stages to attenuate high frequency switching artifacts, and to suppress EMI By far, the most common use is in passive crossover networks inside loudspeakers

Typical values range from 3.3 H to perhaps 100 H

Usually too large for an air-core design except in loudspeaker crossover applications Thus, many practical inductors tend to have ferrite or some other non-linear ferromagnetic core material

Minimizing Inductor Non-Linearity

Large value inductors should be designed with the lowest loss core material possible
Avoid common forms of silicon-steel used for power transformers High nickel content alloys (e.g. Permalloy) are OK Ferrites are so-so depending upon the inductor design

Air core inductors should be mounted away from steel chassis parts or other ferromagnetic materials
The flux pattern surrounding a coil should not flow through such non-linear materials A thin sheet of aluminum can be an effective magnetic shield above about 10 kHz due to skin effect

Air-Core Inductor Experiment

Op-Amp Selection, circa 2011

Copyright 2011 Audio Precision, Inc. Audio Precision is a registered trademark of Audio Precision, Inc.

Major Categories of Op-Amps

Op-amps are ubiquitous in analog design
They are a fundamental building block enabling high performance amplification, mixing, and frequency contouring of audio signals They are also useful in signal analysis and generation applications

Op-amps are commonly divided into categories depending upon their intended application
Precision, optimized for low DC offset and bias current General purpose, usually dominant-pole compensated, but many newer designs now insert a pole-zero pair into the open loop response to get a higher GBW (gain-bandwidth product) High speed, higher slew rate, not necessarily stable under unity gain situations Really high speed and slew rate, typically for video signals

A More Useful Classification

Advances in IC processes and circuit techniques now blur these more traditional categories
Indeed, there are a number of op-amps that feature both excellent DC performance and decent slew rate and GBW characteristics, e.g. OPA1611, OPA827, LT1468 (my apologies if your favorite is not in this brief list)

A much more useful distinction to the analog circuit designer is input device technology: Bipolar vs. JFET
Both can offer input voltage offset performance to below 200 V However, JFET op-amps have the strong advantage of near-zero input bias current which can be a more significant factor than input offset voltage depending upon circuit impedances An interesting example of a hybrid design (using both bipolar and JFET devices) is the Butler Amplifier in the dual OP275

Bipolar vs. JFET Noise Performance

Bipolar op-amps can offer the lowest noise voltage rating (eN), typically 0.9 nV/Hz with the AD797
0.9 nV/Hz is equivalent to the noise of a 49 resistor! But super low eN usually comes with the penalty of much higher current noise iN typically 2.0 pA/Hz for the AD797

Todays better JFET op-amps can have eN as low as 3.8-6.0 nV/Hz

Comparable with the older bipolar NE5534 and NE5532 However JFET op-amp current noise is vanishingly small, typically only 0.001-0.003 pA/Hz or even lower

Bipolar input op-amps also have a slight advantage in terms of lower 1/f noise below 1 kHz

Distortion Mechanisms in Op-Amps

Input stage trans-conductance non-linearity
Iinput = Ccomp * d/dt(Vout), [part of Ccomp may be external] Typically 3HD and proportional to F^3 in dominant pole designs

Output stage or crossover non-linearity

Caused by the non-linear output impedance variation as the output current changes in response to the output voltage Some op-amps use a cancellation scheme (e.g. AD797)

Common mode input non-linearity

Caused by input capacitance variation with common mode signals Can be avoided by using only inverting configurations Bipolar op-amps are usually better than JFET op-amps when a non-inverting configuration must be used

Some Distortion Reduction Tricks

Output stage non-linearity can often be significantly reduced by forcing the output to behave more like a class-A amplifier by adding a resistor or a biasing dc current source to one of the supplies
Watch out for increased power dissipation in the op-amp!

Op-amps needing an external compensation capacitor can usually benefit from either 2-pole compensation or feed-forward compensation
Instead of using the classic 22 pF between pins 5-8 of a NE5534, use a pair of 47 pF connected in series with a 499-1k resistor connected between the two capacitors and the positive supply For inverting NE5534 configurations, try connecting a capacitor having a value of about 6.8-12pF between the input and pin 8

Two-Pole Compensation

Feed-Forward

More Tricks to Minimize Distortion

Use inverting topologies whenever possible
Input capacitance is usually higher and more non-linear with common mode signals in JFET op-amps Most op-amps will show dramatically lower THD (particularly 2HD above 5 kHz) when operated with a gain of -1 versus +1.

If an op-amp must be used in a non-inverting topology (for example in a Sallen-Key active low-pass filter), arrange for both of its inputs to feel the same source impedance
This usually means adding a complicated RC network in series with the + input to match the impedance seen looking outward from the input Try it--the distortion reduction can be quite significant with JFET op-amps!

Common-Mode Distortion Reduction

Noise in Analog Circuits

Copyright 2011 Audio Precision, Inc. Audio Precision is a registered trademark of Audio Precision, Inc.

Sources of Noise
Thermal noise of resistors: VN = (4*k*T*R*BW) Shot noise of biasing currents: IN = (2*q*Idc*BW) Op-Amp noise, usually eN and iN in datasheets 1/f and Popcorn noise in op-amps
Mechanisms still not well understood, but under controlusually not a significant factor in most audio designs

Modulation noise in resistors

Caused by component material imperfections usually resulting in AM noise sidebands surrounding a pure tone Thick film is so-so, thin film is OK, wire and metal foil are best

Noise Estimation in Circuits

The residual noise floor of many analog circuits can also be estimated with surprising accuracy using only a well designed spreadsheet!
List all noise sources including resistors, op-amps, bias currents Calculate the transfer function either from the input or output depending upon the desired result Express all entries in the same unit (recommend nV/Hz) Perform a root-mean-square (rms) summation of all sources Convert the final result to Volts by multiplying by BW where BW is the desired measurement bandwidth (e.g. 20 kHz for audio)

The following slide shows an example spreadsheet for a prototype AP analyzer design: noise estimates are shown in blue, actual measurements are in red

Range Vmin = Range Vmax =

24.04 85.3

7.60 26.99

2.40 8.53

0.760 2.699

0.240 0.853

0 0.270

source resistance input dampers input current limiters MBUF en, ie=146 uA MBUF in post MBUF attenuator atten Rout * in preamp en preamp in preamp Rg preamp Rf sum stage en sum stage in sum stage Ri sum stage Rf inv stage en inv stage in inv stage Ri inv stage Rf A/D driver en A/D driver in A/D driver Ri A/D driver Rf A/D 0dBFS A/D noise floor A/D headroom Tambient, C measurement BW

374 442 698 2.178 0.25 162

173.524 3.524

173.524 3.524

2.855 3.524 3.897 3.091 0.311 15.253 5.217 4.938 2.188 9.876 17.013 7.182 18.443 18.443 8.507 5.028 7.715 7.715 13.952 7.631 9.221 19.887 76.569

30.912 31.919 152.528 52.172 49.377 21.881 98.755 170.132 71.822 184.425 184.425 85.066 50.275 77.151 77.151 139.520 76.311 92.213 198.871 765.689

30.912 31.919 23.473 3.909 15.615 6.919 31.229 53.800 22.712 58.320 58.320 26.900 15.898 24.397 24.397 44.120 24.132 29.160 62.888 242.132

2.855 3.524 3.897 0.395 3.091 0.311 2.347 0.391 1.561 0.692 3.123 5.380 2.271 5.832 5.832 2.690 1.590 2.440 2.440 4.412 2.413 2.916 6.289 24.213

2.855 3.524 3.897 0.395 3.091 0.311 2.347 0.391 1.561 0.763 2.983 1.844 1.701 0.718 1.844 1.844 0.851 0.503 0.772 0.772 1.395 0.763 0.922 1.989 7.657

2.855 3.524 3.897 0.395 3.091 0.311 2.347 0.391 1.561 0.241 1.750 0.583 0.538 0.227 0.583 0.583 0.269 0.159 0.244 0.244 0.441 0.241 0.292 0.629 2.421

1.10 1.70 1000 402 2.68 1.60 1000 1000 2.68 1.60 1400 1400 1.10 1.70 1000 215 3.961 -121.55 3.33 23.0 20.00

924.214

335.071

90.918

29.109

12.037

8.060

predicted uV noise = measured noise =

130.0 129.9

47.1 47.1

12.79 12.80

4.10 4.10

1.694 1.697

1.134 1.134

Noise Measurements
Noise measurements should be heavily averaged to reduce random fluctuations and insure repeatability
Noise is noisy, may require averaging over 30-60 seconds Beware that noise measurements may also include the effects of non-noise signals such as AC mains interference

Resistor noise is proportional to T (T in K)

The temperature of each resistor must be considered Temperatures on an exposed prototype board may be significantly lower than those when the board is mounted in its package

Be cautious of the results from only one prototype

Op-Amp and semiconductor noise can easily vary by 10% from unit to unit, and from their datasheet specs

Designing for Low Noise

Resistor noise voltage is proportional to R
Use the lowest possible resistor values that are consistent with power dissipation and distortion requirements Choose circuit topologies that inherently minimize the value of resistors in the signal path A good design rule is to avoid resistor values >2.0 k in the signal path of audio signals (exceptions include power amplifier feedback resistors where higher signal voltages are present) Series resistor combinations may be good for lower distortion because they reduce the voltage drop across any given resistor; but they do not result in lower noise

Use only thin-film or metal foil resistors when they must pass significant dc bias currents

Designing for Low Noise, continued

Watch out for unwanted leakage currents
Input overload protection diodes should be low leakage types (consider using a diode-connected transistors or JFETs instead of discrete diodes) The leakage current of a reverse biased diode can be incredibly sensitive to light depending upon the opacity of its package Surface leakage on a circuit board can usually be eliminated with the addition of guard traces or guard rings around critical nodes Leakage in AC coupling caps is usually inversely proportional to its voltage rating, but directly proportional to its C value

Choose your op-amps carefully

Total noise performance in a circuit is often a delicate tradeoff between voltage (eN) and current (iN) noise parameters The lowest eN op-amps may not be the best due to high iN

Circuit Layout Considerations

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Circuit Layout is Important

Poor circuit layout can cause many electrical problems
Excessive stray capacitance around op-amp inputs will exacerbate feedback instability Excessive stray capacitance can adversely affect circuit response Excessive stray capacitance can degrade crosstalk Excessively long traces can add unwanted inductance Routing of power supply busses near sensitive circuit nodes (especially on outer layers) will increase the likelihood of surface leakage problems caused by dust and air pollution accumulation

Poor circuit layout can also degrade performance due to thermal considerations
Inferior cooling due to poor location of taller components Gradient effects on matched resistors and transistor pairs

Lenzs Law and Magnetic Pickup

The presence of a time varying current in a loop will cause the induction of potentials in other nearby loops
Mutual inductance The classic example is the induction of unwanted hum or AC mains interference caused by a nearby power transformer Testing for circuit susceptibility can easily be accomplished in a controlled manner using an external coil fixture and oscillator

Mutual inductance between power supply busses and signal path loops can cause unexpected distortion
The current waveform in most power supplies is typically very non-linear with very high harmonic content When coupling occurs into feedback paths, it can become the dominant distortion mechanism above 5 kHz!

Minimizing Mutual Inductance

Simple layout guidelines that can greatly reduce the unwanted effects of mutual inductance
Arrange for the positive and negative supplies to run parallel to each other so that loop area is minimized Consider differential decoupling (i.e. a large capacitor between the positive and negative rail) for any circuit that can cause significant non-linear currents in the power suppliesthe cap needs to be close to the offending generator to minimize loop area

Pay particular attention to loop areas of signal paths to minimize the pickup of stray magnetic fields from unintended sources
Signal path loops can sometimes be difficult to identify in more complicated circuits such as active filters

Layout of Output Termination

Layout of Preamp with Gain Switching

Other Suggestions for Good Layout

Try to arrange the circuit in closely clustered islands during the initial layout
Leave space for low loop area signal routing Leave space for the inevitable additions and circuit growth that always seem to occur during evaluation Consider ground plane cutouts if necessary to minimize stray C

Exploit multi-layer circuit board design

Sometimes it is easier to arrange differential traces to be on top of each other in different layers (watch out for different stray C) Use power busses, not power planes, for analog suppliesthe current paths within power planes are generally unpredictable Carefully locate and route power supply busses for minimum mutual inductance with critical signal paths

In Conclusion
Today we have discussed some selected topics that influence the performance of analog circuits Hopefully you have gained a better awareness for some of the imperfections and tradeoffs the analog design engineer faces in the 2010s Many of these issues can be overcome through careful attention to detail and clever circuit design; others will continue to challenge engineers well into the future Analog design engineering can be a very rewarding career--let us never allow it to become a lost art

If you want a copy of todays slides

Please send your email address to BruceH@ap.com or TomW@ap.com

Building Analog in the 2010s

Bruce E. Hofer Chairman & Co-Founder Audio Precision, Inc.

Copyright 2011 Audio Precision, Inc. Audio Precision is a registered trademark of Audio Precision, Inc.