A SEMINAR REPORT ON

FARADAY ROTATION
SUBMITTED BY AKASH SINGH (ROLL NO. 0812831011)

COORDINATOR: Mr. D.P.Yadav,Asst. Professor, Department of ECE Mr. Deepak Kumar,Asst. Professor, Department of ECE

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Bharat Institute of Technology Meerut-250001 (India) May, 2011

Acknowledgements

In the name of GOD, the most Gracious, the Most Merciful for giving me the determination and will to complete this study. I would like to express my gratitude towards the esteemed institution Bharat Institute of Technology (Meerut) for being such an enlightening source to me. I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors Mr. D. P Yadav,(Asst. Professor, Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering) and Mr. Deepak Kumar (Asst. Professor, Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering) for their inspiration, expert guidance and supervision during the research work to complete the dissertation in time. I would also like to thank the respected faculty members of Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BIT Meerut, for rewarding discussions and providing help when ideas and questions were needed to be discussed. My appreciation goes to all, who have directly or indirectly helped me in completing my thesis. They will always have a place in my fond memories. I would like to thank all my friends in BIT Meerut, for all the thoughtful discussions we had, which prompted us to think beyond the obvious. I would like to show my gratitude towards my beloved parents and family members for their moral and emotional support. I would like to share this moment of happiness with all of them.

TABLE OF CONTENT
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3.1 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

INTRODUCTION HISTORY RADIO WAVES PRPOGATION OF RADIO WAVES POLARIZATION IONOSPHERE LAYER WHAT IS FARADAY ROTATION FARADAY ROTATION ON IONOSPHERE FARADAY ROTATION IN SATELLITE

COMMUNICATION
1.9

SUNSPOT CYCLE SUNSPOT ACTIVITY CHANGING THE FREQUENCY NOTATION OF FARADAY ROTATION LOSSES IN FARADAY ROTATION

1.9.1 1.9.2
1.10 1.11

1.11.1 FORMULATION IN LOSSES 1.11.2 CONTROL ON LOSSES

1.12

CONCLUSION RECENT ACTIVITY REFERENCES

1.13
1.14

INTRODUCTION-

FARADAY rotation is a change in the polarization vector that occurs as electromagnetic waves propagate through the ionosphere. The magnitude of the change varies as 1/(frequency)2 and is an important consideration for remote sensing at the low-frequency end of the microwave spectrum. For example, at L-band (1.4 GHz), where remote sensing of soil moisture and sea surface salinity is performed, the rotation of the polarization vector can range from a few degrees to more than 15, depending on viewing angle and the solar cycle. A linearly polarized wave propagating through the ionosphere undergoes a progressive rotation of the plane of polarization. The axial ratio of an incident elliptically polarized wave may be increased or decreased upon reflection (particularly at small angles) since Faraday rotation varies the orientation of the principal polarization axis of the incident wave. This results from the difference in reflection coefficient to be expected between vertical and horizontal components in most multipath situations. The effects of Faraday rotation on wideband signals can be of significance to system performance. The differential rotation effects cannot be fully corrected at VHF by reorientation of the antenna axis of a linearly polarized antenna. On circularly polarized antennas, the effect is to introduced differential phase shifts of signal components across the band. Thus, signal components separated in frequency may be expected to be subject to frequency and phase selective distortion.

HISTORYThe Faraday rotation effect has been considered a powerful method for estimating the magnetic eld (weighted by the electron density) in Galactic and extragalactic sources. Values of the Faraday rotation measure ( RM) in the jets and toward the nuclei of quasars and active galaxies provide information about the physical condition. This article makes a further contribution, focusing on the role that relativistic motion and jet geometry in quasars and AGNs play in explaining the origin of unusual plasma characteristics observed in the radiation. The contribution of the bulk motion of the plasmons, which are believed to compose the relativistic jets in quasars and blazars, to the rotation of the electric vector polarization angle ( EVPA) of the radiation that is passing through a magnetized plasma. We ( Lopez 1996a, 1996b, 2004) have used recently derived expressions to describe the permissible electromagnetic modes that are able to propagate in a relativistically moving magnetoactive plasma. In this context, several analytic relations have been obtained in order to characterize the Faraday rotation effect in a moving medium. The results obtained are applied to quasars, for which the VLBI observations clearly show the spatial distribution of the RM values at the core and jets. In this paper we refer to the relativistically moving medium as he cold medium with a relativistic streaming motion, in contrast to the intrinsically relativistic medium (a medium composed of relativistic electrons.

RADIO WAVES A radio wave is a form of radiant energy (electromagnetic radiation) that Propagates at the speed of light (186,000 miles or 300,000,000 meters per Second. The following description of wave motion is based on FM 11-64, Transmission Lines, Wave Propagation, and Antennas. a. A wave can be defined as a disturbance (sound, light, radio waves) which moves through a medium (air, water, vacuum). To help you understand what this means, think of the following picture. You are standing in the middle of a wheat field. As the wind blows across the field toward you, you see the wheat stalks bending and rising as the force of the wind moves into and across them. The wheat appears to be moving toward you, but it is not. Instead, the stalks are actually moving back and forth. We can then say that the medium is the wheat, and the disturbance is the wind moving the stalks of wheat. b. Wave motion can be defined as a recurring disturbance advancing through space with or without the use of a physical medium. Therefore, it is a means of moving or transferring energy from one point to another point. For example, when sound waves strike a microphone, sound energy is converted into electrical energy. When light waves strike an antenna, they are likewise converted into electrical energy. Thus, sound, light, and radio waves are all forms of energy that are moved by wave motion. c. The analogy of wave motion in water helps to explain the basic concept of how a radio wave propagates. Dropping a stone into a pool of water

result in a disturbance of the water (the medium). From the point of impact, the disturbance is transmitted on the surface of the water as an expanding series of circular waves. PRPOGATION OF RADIO WAVESRadio propagation via the ionosphere is a fascinating and important means of long-distance radio communication. Thousands of hams and commercial operators use the ionosphere every day to make contacts over vast distances. To effectively use these propagation modes to their fullest,however, we must understand the physics behind the magic. Knowing when to listen, the best frequencies to use and where signals might come from enable experienced DXers to work stations when lessexperienced operators come up short. In fact, knowledge of propagation and a feel for conditions and what each band might produce are valuable commodities for any radio operator. For shortwave communication the ionosphere is the most important, although the troposphere plays a key role in VHF and UHF communication. The ionosphere crosses several meteorological layers and extends from about 50 to 650 km.

POLARIZATIONPulsar signals are generally weak (with average flux densities ranging from a few milli-Jansky to a few Jansky), with a high degree of linear polarization. The position angle of the linearly polarized component changes as a function of longitude within the pulse in a manner that depends on the geometry of the spin axis and magnetic poles of the pulsar relative to the observers line-of-sight (Radhakrishnan & Cooke 1969). At a given longitude, the average polarization seems to have a good long-

term stability in most cases, but the apparent plane of linear polarization rotates as function of frequency across the band due to Faraday rotation in the intervening medium. The extent of the rotation is given by = RM Where is the wavelength of observation and RM is the Rotation Measure

Fig-1 (Wave activity)

Polarization of a reflected wave from the ground for an incident circularly polarized wave for several incident angle

THE IONOSPHEREThe ionosphere is so named because it is a region in the atmosphere where ions exist. In most areas of the atmosphere molecules are in a combined state and remain electrically neutral. In the ionosphere, however, solar radiation (mainly ultraviolet light) is so intense that when it strikes gas molecules they split ionize and an electron is set free. What remains is a positive ion (a molecule that is missing an electron) and a free electron.

Although ions give their name to the region, free electrons actually affect radio waves. The number of electrons starts to increase at an altitude of about 30 km, but the electron density isnt sufficient to affect radio waves until about 60 km.

Fig-2 (Ionosphere layer)

We often think of the ionosphere as having a number of distinct layers. This is convenient for many explanations, but its not entirely accurate as the entire ionosphere contains ionized molecules (and free electrons). Instead, the layers are best thought of as peaks in ionization levels. To quickly identify the layers, peaks or regions, we refer to them by the letters D, E and F. (There is a C layer, but its level of ionization is so low that it has no effect on radio waves.)

SKIP DISTANCE AND THE SKIP ZONESkip distance, skip zone and dead zone are important terms associated with ionospheric propagation. The distance a signal travels along the surface of the Earth when it is reflected by the ionosphere is known as the skip distance, There is also a region known as the skip zone or dead zone.Ground-wave signals will be heard only at a certain distance from the transmitter because of signal attenuation. Signals traveling to the ionosphere may not be reflected until they reach distances well beyond that where ground-wave signals fade out. The result is an area or zone where no signals can be heard. This is known as the skip zone, or dead zone. This is particularly pronounced for high-frequency signals where ground waves fade away quickly and skip distances may be a thousand miles or more .

Fig: 3 (Radio waves & ionosphere layer)

FARADAY ROTATIONThe plane of polarization of microwave signals propagating from Earth through the ionosphere to a satellite is rotated by an angle . The amount of rotation depends on the direction and location of the ray path with respect to the Earth's geomagnetic field, and on the state of the ionosphere. To get a feeling for the magnitude of the polarization rotation, a mean daytime value of can be estimated from: = 17/F2 (F in GHz)

Hence, the average daytime rotation is found to be = 8.7 at 1.4 GHz.

Fig;-4 (Radiowaves sending to Satellite through antenna)

A more in-depth treatment of the Faraday rotation is found in [Svedhem, 1986]. From this, Figure 1 is taken, and it shows the worst case average rotation on 12.00 UTC March equinox. Incidence angle here and in the

following is 50. Daytime maximum average (monthly average) rotation is predicted to 28 whereas maximum averaged morning (6.00 AM) values are around 5. In addition, day to day variations can reach values within +100% to -50% of the averaged values due to the unpredictable nature of the ionosphere. SMOS will have a 6 AM orbit, so from these considerations it is clear that the radiometer system has to cope with at least 5, possibly up to 10, Faraday rotation. The polarization rotation will result in a slight mixing of the true vertical (TBV) and horizontal (TBH) brightness temperatures.

Fig;-5 (Rotation of wave in ionosphere)

A linearly polarized wave propagating through the ionosphere undergoes a progressive rotation of the plane of Polarization. The rotation of the plane of polarization of a plane-polarized light passing through a transparent isotropic medium or magnetic field undergoes Faraday rotation.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONThe performance of a mobile satellite communications link can be determined by the propagation path between a satellite and mobile users. Some of the most important factors are multipath propagation and vegetative shadowing. System designers should have the most reliable information about the statistics of fade duration in order to determine fade margin or to compensate for the fades using modulation and coding scheme. Faraday rotation is rotation of the orientation of the polarization angle of a polarized electric field. The Faraday rotation angle is inversely proportional to frequency squared, and it is significant at UHF and Lband, which are widely used in land mobile satellite communication. SUNSPOT CYCLE Changing the Frequency- During the day, medium-wave signals propagate only via ground wave because the D layer absorbs signals that reach the ionosphere. As frequency increases, attenuation falls to a point where signals pass through the D layer and on to the E layer. Here signals are reflected and pass back through the D layer and return to Earth a considerable distance from the transmitter. As frequency increases further, E-layer refraction becomes less efficient. Eventually, signals pass through to the F1 layer, where they may be reflected back through the D and E layers to reach Earth. Because the F1 layer is higher than the E layer, the distance traveled by signals reflected by the F layer will be greater.

As frequency increases still further, signals will eventually pass through the F1 layer to the F2 layer. Because this is the highest reflecting layer, the distance spanned by signals reflecting from it is the greatest. The maximum skip distance for the E layer is about 2000 km. For the F2 layer that increases to about 4000 kma significant gain.
The cycle is observed by counting the frequency and placement

ofsunspots visible on the Sun.

Fig;- 6 (Observation of sunspot of 400 years)

NOTATION OF FARADAY ROTATION Ionospheric effects are significant for frequencies up to about 10 GHz & purticularly significant for non-geostationory satellites ooperating below 3 GHz.
The total electron content(TEC) accumulated through the trans-

ionospheric transmission path result in roation of the linear

polarisation of the carrier & time dealy .The delay is known as Group dealy, while the rotation of the linear polarisation of the carrier is known as FARADAY ROTATION. Nt=s Ne(s)ds Where; Ne is the electron concentration (el/m3) and s is the propagation length. The Faraday rotation , is given by; =2.36 BNt Radian

Where b is the average earth magnetic field (Wb/m2) and f is the frequency (GHz).

LOSSES IN FARADAY ROTATION:Faraday Rotation The electrons in the ionosphere along with the Earth's magnetic field cause a rotation in the plane, which creates a crosspolarized component with linear polarization and a loss of circular polarization. On 432MHz and below, we all use linear polarization for EME. Yagi stations use the same polarization that we use for other kinds of VHF/UHF DX, which is usually horizontal. A big problem with VHF/UHF EME is that the transmitted polarization is usually rotated before it reaches the receiving station, so there can be very large losses in signal strength. Remember also that EME signals are always close to the noise, with rapid fading, so even a 1dB loss is noticeable.

Geometric rotation also depends on the moon's position, so it varies with time on each moon pass. The graph below shows how geometric rotation can typically change, for two stations with a 6-hour local time difference. Faraday rotation occurs when a linearly polarized signal passes through the ionosphere. When the electromagnetic wave interacts with the charged particles and the Earth's magnetic field, its plane of polarization is rotated. When the rotated signal has been reflected back from the moon and reenters the ionosphere, it will be rotated some more in the same direction Faraday rotation does not cancel out. Faraday rotation can not be predicted in advance, We have to accept whatever it is at the moment! Faraday rotation is proportional to 1/(frequency), so that when the ionosphere does change, the polarization angle changes 9 times more rapidly at 144MHz than it does at 432MHz. This can have many unfavourable consequences. At 144MHz in unstable conditions, Faraday rotation can change rapidly enough that We can lose a station before the QSO is complete; but when the ionosphere is stable, the polarization at 432MHz can remain 'stuck' at a bad angle for the whole day.

CONTROLLED

Faraday rotation can be minimized by employing circular polarization, and in fact, some satellite communication systems use circular polarization to avoid the problem.

Faraday rotation controlled varies by one order of magnitude between day and night as solar illumination exerts a major control on the level of ionospheric activity.

CONCLUSIONS:Because Mars has almost no intrinsic magnetic field, the solar wind can directly interact with the upper atmosphere. The height of the ionopause is controlled by the solar wind pressure. The dayside Martian ionosphere may be described using a simple Chapman layer model. The Martian dayside ionosphere has stable peak height and peak density. The peak height is between 120 and 130 km. On average, the Martian ionospheric plasma density is one order lower than Earths and its TEC value is 50 times lower than Earths ionospheric TEC. The Martian ionosphere is almost transparent to radio waves with frequencies above 450 MHz. For frequencies below 450 MHz, there is a progressive degradation of signal until the 4.5-MHz cut-off frequency where waves cannot pass through the ionosphere. Because the Martian ionosphere is similar to that of Earth in some aspects, we have used 0.5 dB for VHF-band signal and smaller losses for higher frequency bands. There is a comet-like structure to the nightside ionosphere extending several thousand kilometers in the antisolar direction. The plasma density in the nightside ionosphere is very low (5103 cm-3). The nightside ionospheric profile often shows no dominant density peak and has large variations. Recommendation: The Martian ionosphere may be used as a reflector for global communication. This is crucial for future Mars ground-to-ground communication. The Martian dayside ionosphere has a critical frequency of ~4.0 MHz for vertical incidence. This frequency is high enough to carry information. The stable condition in the dayside ionosphere also favors oblique incidence communication. Reflection off the Mars ionosphere can

also provide trans-horizon (or beyond line of sight) communication for future Martian colonies, rovers, vehicles, and robots released from Mars landers. However, because of low usable frequency and very unstable condition, the nightside ionosphere has serious limitations for global communication. Suggestions: We do not yet have any nightside ionosphere model. This is mainly because very few nightside ionospheric measurements are available. Thus, we suggest a detailed nightside ionosphere study. The MGS spacecraft is performing dayside ionospheric occultation and in-situ measurements. It will take some time to shift to the nightside. Previous occultation measurements showed that often no density peak was seen in the nightside ionosphere. We propose to drop a digital ionosonde to the Mars surface at a low latitude. The ionosonde will transfer daily ionospheric sounding data either to an orbiter or directly to Earth. We can have daily ionospheric data on peak height, critical frequency, etc. Through this study, we can assess stability of the nightside ionosphere for use as a radio wave reflector. Eventually, a model for the nightside ionosphere will be developed.

RECENT ACTIVITY:Today Haselgrove's equations are widely used in scientific investigations involving radio propagation in slowly varying plasmas, and therefore have found much applicability in exploration and utilization of the Earth's ionosphere. Here they have also been used to represent the radio propagation element of practical systems providing high frequency communication, direction finding and over-the-horizon radar. For a recent broad disccusion on ray tracing in the ionosphere see Bennett et al.

REFERENCES:www.scribd.com www.2dix.com www.sciencedaily.com www.wikipedia.com