Lrlk Wahlberg

ChapLer 2 1heory and 8esearch

l 8aslc 1heoreLlcal lssues
a SclenLlflc Lheory seL of loglcally relaLed concepLs or sLaLemenLs LhaL seek ln Lhls fleld
Lo descrlbe and explaln developmenL and Lo predlcL whaL klnds of behavlor mlghL occur
under cerLaln condlLlons
b PypoLhesls LenLaLlve explanaLlons or predlcLlons LhaL can be LesLed by furLher research
c 1heory ls based on cerLaln assumpLlons LhaL may or may nor Lurn ouL Lo be Lrue
d lssue 1 ls developmenL AcLlve or 8eacLlve
l !ohn Locke belleved Labula rasa on whlch socleLy wrlLes
1 1abula rasa blank slaLe
ll !ean !acques 8ousseau belleved chlldren are born noble savages" who develop
accordlng Lo Lhelr on poslLlve naLural Lendencles of noL corrupLed by socleLy
lll 8oLh vlews Loo slmpllsLlc
1 Chlldren have lnLernal drlves LhaL lnfluence developmenL chlldren are
also soclal anlmals who cannoL develop opLlmally ln lsolaLlon
lv MechanlsLlc Model vlews human developmenL as a serles of predlcLable
responses Lo sLlmull
1 Conslder people llke machlnes LhaL reacL Lo envlronmenLal lnpuL
2 8eacL auLomaLlcally Lo physlcal forces or lnpuLs
3 Puman behavlor resulLs from operaLlon of blologlcal parLs ln response
Lo exLernal/lnLernal sLlmull
4 MechanlsL research seeks Lo ldenLlfy Lhe facLors LhaL make people
behave as Lhey do
v Crganlsmlc Model See people as acLlve growlng organlsms LhaL seL Lhelr own
developmenL ln moLlon
1 eople lnlLlaLe evenLs Lhey do noL [usL reacL
a 1hus drlvlng force for change ls lnLernal
b LnvlronmenLal lnfluences do noL cause developmenL Lhough
Lhey can speed or slow lL down
2 Puman behavlor ls vlewed as an organlc whole and cannoL be predlcLed
by breaklng lL down lnLo slmple responses Lo envlronmenLal slLuaLlons
3 uevelopmenL has an underlylng orderly sLrucLure Lhough lL may noL be
obvlous from momenL Lo momenL
e lssue 2 ls developmenL ConLlnuous or ulsconLlnuous
l ConLlnuous uevelopmenL ls gradual and lncremenLal
ll ulsconLlnuous AbrupL and uneven
lll MechanlsLs see developmenL as conLlnuous
lv MechanlsLs deal wlLh CuanLlLaLlve changes
1 Changes ln number or amounL such as helghL welghL slze of
vocabulary or frequency of communlcaLlon
2 May measure how much a person can remember raLher Lhan whaL
memory ls or how lL operaLes
v Crganlsmlc LheorlsLs emphaslze quallLaLlve change
1 Changes ln klnd sLrucLure or organlzaLlon
2 vlew change as dlsconLlnuous
3 uevelopmenL occurs ln a serles of dlsLlncL sLages
ll 1heoreLlcal erspecLlves
a 1o evaluaLe and lnLerpreL research lL ls lmporLanL Lo recognlze Lhe LheoreLlcal
perspecLlve on whlch lL ls based
b 3 ma[or perspecLlves underllne much lnfluenLlal Lheory an research on human
developmenL
l sychoanalyLlc
ll Learnlng
lll CognlLlve
lv ConLexLual
v LvoluLlonary/Socloblologlcal
c erspecLlve 1 sychoanalyLlc
l sychoanalyLlc perspecLlve vlews developmenL as shaped by unconsclous
forces LhaL moLlvaLe human behavlor
ll Slgmund lreud sychosexual uevelopmenL
1 eople are born wlLh blologlcal drlves LhaL musL be redlrecLed Lo make
lL posslble Lo llve ln socleLy
2 newborns are governed by ld whlch operaLed under pleasure prlnclple
3 Lgo whlch represenLs reason develops gradually durlng Lhe flrsL year of
llfe or so and operaLes under Lhe reallLy prlnclple
a Alm Lo flnd reallsLlc ways Lo graLlfy Lhe ld LhaL are accepLable Lo
Lhe superego
4 Superego lncludes Lhe consclence and lncorporaLes soclally approved
should" and should noLs" lnLo Lhe chlld's value sysLem
a uevelops abouL age 36
3 ersonallLy forms Lhrough unconsclous chlldhood confllcLs beLween Lhe
lnborn urges of Lhe ld and Lhe requlremenLs of clvlllzed llfe
6 ConfllcLs occur ln an unvarylng sequence of 3 naLuraLlonally based
sLages of psychologlcal developmenL
7 llxaLlon an arresL ln developmenL LhaL can show up ln adulL personallLy
a 8aslcally problems ln a sLage ln developmenL LhaL lead Lo effecLs
ln personallLy
8 SLages of uevelopmenL accordlng Lo lreud
a Cral (8lrLh Lo 1218 monLhs) feedlng maln source of sensual
pleasure
b Anal ( 1218 moLhs Lo 3 years) Sensual pleasure from
wlLhholdlng expelllng feces
l Zone graLlflcaLlon ls anal
c halllc ( 3 Lo 6 years) Chlld becomes aLLached Lo parenLs of
oLher sex and laLer ldenLlfles wlLh samesex parenL
l Superego develops
ll Zone of graLlflcaLlon shlfLs Lo genlLal reglon
lll Cedlpus and LlecLra Complexes
d LaLency (6 years Lo puberLy) 1lme of relaLlve calm beLween
more LurbulenL sLages
e CenlLal (puberLy Lhrough adulLhood) 8eemergence of sexual
lmpulses of phalllc sLage channeled lnLo maLure adulL sexuallLy
lll Lrlk Lrlkson sychosoclal uevelopmenL
1 Lmphaslzed lnfluences of socleLy on developlng personallLy
2 sychosoclal developmenL covers 8 sLages across Lhe llfe span
3 Lach sLage lnvolves a crlsls ln personallLy
a lssues musL be saLlsfacLorlly resolves for healLhy ego
developmenL
4 Lach sLage requlres a balanclng of Lhe poslLlve Lendency and a
correspondlng Lendency
a oslLlve Lendency should be predomlnanL buL some degree of
negaLlve ls needed as well
d erspecLlve 2 Learnlng
l Learnlng perspecLlve malnLalns LhaL developmenL resulLs from learnlng
ll 2 lmporLanL Lheorles are behavlorlalslm and soclal learnlng Lheory
lll 8ehavlorlsm ls a mechanlsLlc Lheory LhaL descrlbes observed behavlor as a
predlcLable response Lo experlence
lv locuses on assoclaLlve learnlng
1 A MenLal llnk ls formed beLween Lwo evenLs
2 1wo klnds of assoclaLlve learnlng are classlcal condlLlonlng and operanL
condlLlonlng
v Classlcal CondlLlonlng 8esponse Lo a sLlmulus ls evoked afLer repeaLed
assoclaLlon wlLh a sLlmulus LhaL normally ellclLs Lhe response
1 lvan avlov Lheorlzed Lhls
2 !ohn 8 WaLson applled Lhls Lo LlLLle AlberL" LxperlmenL
a Chlld exposed Lo loud nolse when peL raL Lhus became afrald of
furry whlLe ob[ecLs
vl CperanL CondlLlonlng lndlvldual learns from consequences of operaLlng" on
Lhe envlronmenL
1 1he assoclaLlon ls beLween a behavlor and lLs consequences
2 8elnforcemenL Lhe process by whlch a behavlor ls sLrengLhened Lhus
lncreaslng Lhe llkleyhood LhaL Lhe behavlor wlll be repeaLed
a MosL effecLlve when lL lmmedlaLely follows a behavlor
3 unlshmenL rocess by whlch a behavlor ls weakened decreaslng Lhe
llkellhood of repeLlLlon
vll Soclal Learnlng (Soclal CognlLlve 1heory)
1 AlberL 8andura developed many prlnclples of soclal learnlng Lheory
a 8ehavlorlsLs see Lhe envlronmenL acLlng on Lhe person as Lhe
chlef lmpeLus for developmenL
b SuggesLs developmenL ls bldlrecLlonal
c 8eclprocal ueLermlnlsm person acLs on Lhe world as Lhe world
acLs on Lhe person
d CbservaLlonal learnlng (modellng) Learnlnlng Lhrough waLchlng
Lhe behavlor of oLhers
e updaLed verslon of soclal learnlng Lheory ls Soclal CognlLlve
1heory
l 8eflecLs greaLer emphasls on cognlLlve processes as
cenLral Lo developmenL
f 1hrough feedback on behavlor chlldren gradually form
sLandards for [udglng Lhelr acLlons more selecLlve ln chooslng
models who exempllfy Lhose sLandards and develop a sense of
self efflclency whlch ls Lhe confldence Lhey have whaL lL Lakes
Lo succeed
e erspecLlve 3 CognlLlve
l CognlLlve erspecLlve focuses on LhoughL processes and Lhe behavlor LhaL
reflecLs Lhose processes
ll Lncompasses boLh organlsmlc and mechanlsLlcally lnfluenced Lheorles
1 lncludes cognlLlvesLage Lheory of lageL and vygoLsky's socloculLural
Lheory of cognlLlve developmenL
2 Also lncludes lnformaLlonprocesslng approach and neolageLlan
Lheorles whlch comblnes elemenLs of lnformaLlonprocesslng Lheory
and lageLlan Lheory
lll !ean lageL's CognlLlveSLage 1heory
1 CognlLlveSLage 1heory Lmphasls on menLal processes
a vlewed developmenL organlsmlcally as Lhe producL of
chlldren's efforLs Lo undersLand and acL on Lhelr world
b Cllnlcal meLhod comblned observaLlon wlLh flexlble quesLlonlng
c SuggesLed LhaL cognlLlve developmenL beglns wlLh an lnborn
ablllLy Lo adapL Lo Lhe envlronmenL
d CognlLlve growLh occurs Lhrough 3 lnLerrelaLed processes
l CrganlzaLlon 1endency Lo creaLe caLegorles
1 eople creaLe lncreaslngly complex cognlLlve
sLrucLures called schemes
a Schemes Ways of organlzlng
lnformaLlon abouL Lhe world LhaL
govern Lhe way Lhe chlld Lhlnks and
behaves ln a parLlcular slLuaLlon
l More lnformaLlon more
complex schemes
ll AdapLaLlon 1erm for how chlldren handle new
lnformaLlon ln llghL of whaL Lhey already know
1 Cccurs Lhrough 2 complemenLary processes
a AsslmllaLlon Laklng ln new lnformaLlon
and lncorporaLlon lnLo exlsLlng
cognlLlve sLrucLures
b AccommodaLlon ad[usLlng one's
cognlLlve sLrucLures Lo flL Lhe new
lnformaLlon
lll Lqulllbrlum ConsLanL sLrlvlng for a sLable balance
dlcLaLes Lhe shlfL from asslmllaLlon Lo accommodaLlon
e AsslmllaLlon and accommodaLlon work LogeLher Lo produce
equlllbrlum
f CuesL for equlllbrlum ls Lhe drlvlng force behlnd cognlLlve
growLh
g CognlLlve developmenL occurs ln 4 unlversal quallLaLlvely
dlfferenL sLages
lv Lev vygoLsky's SocloculLural 1heory
1 SocloculLural Lheory Pow conLexLual facLors affecL chlldren's
developmenL
2 locuses on Lhe soclal and culLural process LhaL gulde chlldren's cognlLlve
developmenL
3 SLresses chlldren's acLlve engagemenL wlLh Lhelr envlronmenL
4 CognlLlve growLh as a collaboraLlve process
3 laces speclal emphasls on language noL merely as an expresslon of
knowledge and LhoughL buL also an essenLlal means Lo learnlng and
Lhlnklng abouL Lhe world
6 Zone of proxlmal developmenL (Zu) gap beLween whaL Lhey already
able Lo do and whaL Lhey are noL qulLe ready Lo accompllsh
a Chlldren ln Lhe Zu for a parLlcular Lask can almosL buL noL
qulLe perform Lhe Lask on Lhelr own
l CorrecL guldance leads Lhem Lo do lL successfully
7 Scaffoldlng Lhe Lemporary supporL Lhe parenLs Leachers or oLhers glve
a chlld ln dolng a Lask unLll Lhe chlld can do lL alone
v 1he lnformaLlonrocesslng Approach
1 Seeks Lo explaln cognlLlve developmenL by analyzlng Lhe processes
lnvolved ln maklng sense of lncomlng lnformaLlon and performlng Lasks
effecLlvely such process as aLLenLlon memory plannlng sLraLegles
declslon maklng and goal seLLlng
2 noL a slngle Lheory buL a framework LhaL supporLs wlde range of
Lheorles and research
3 Compare Lhe braln Lo a compuLer Sensory lmpresslons go ln
8ehavlor comes ouL 8uL whaL happens lnbeLween?
4 8esearchers lnfer whaL goes on beLween a sLlmulus and a response
3 See people as acLlve Lhlnkers abouL Lhelr world
6 Cenerally do noL propose sLages of developmenL Lhey vlew
developmenL as conLlnuous
7 sychologlsLs use lnformaLlonprocesslng models Lo LesL dlagnose and
LreaL learnlng problems
vl neolageLlan 1heorles
1 lnLegraLe elemenLs of lageLs Lheory lnLo wlLh Lhe lnformaLlon
processlng approach
2 locuses on speclflc concepLs sLraLegles and skllls such as number
concepLs and comparlsons of more" and less"
3 SuggesL LhaL chlldren develop cognlLlvely by becomlng more efflclenL aL
processlng lnformaLlon
4 neolageLlan approach helps accounL for lndlvldual dlfferences ln
cognlLlve ablllLy and for uneven developmenL ln varlous domalns
f erspecLlve 4 ConLexLual
l ConLexLual perspecLlve developmenL can only be undersLood ln lLs soclal
conLexL
1 See Lhe lndlvldual noL as a separaLe enLlLy lnLeracLlng wlLh Lhe
envlronmenL buL as an lnseparable parL of lL
ll 8lo ecologlcal Lheory 8ronfenbrenner's approach Lo undersLandlng process and
conLexLs of human developmenL LhaL ldenLlfles 3 levels of envlronmenLal
lnfluence
1 1hese levels of envlronmenLal lnfluence range from very lnLlmaLe Lo
very broad
2 MlcrosysLem Lveryday envlronmenL of home school work or
nelghborhood lncludes faceLoface relaLlonshlps wlLh spouse chlldren
parenLs frlends classmaLes Leachers employers or colleagues
3 MesosysLem lnLerlocklng of varlous mlcrosysLems (Llnklng beLween
home and school work and nelghborhood)
4 LxosysLem Llnkages beLween a mlcrosysLem and ouLslde sysLems or
lnsLlLuLlons LhaL affecL a person dlrecLly
a Lx 1 Pow does a communlLy's LranslL sysLem affecL [ob
opporLunlLles?
b Lx 2 uoes 1v rogrammlng LhaL may encourage crlmlnal
behavlor make people less secure ln Lhelr homes?
3 MacrosysLem ConslsLs of overarchlng culLural paLLers such as
domlnanL bellefs ldeologles and economlc and pollLlcal sysLems
6 ChronosysLem Adds dlmenslon of Llme change or consLancy ln Lhe
person ln Lhe envlronmenL
a Lx 1 Changes ln famlly sLrucLure place of resldence or
employmenL as well as larger culLural changes such as wars and
economlc cycles
lll A person ls noL merely an ouLcome of developmenL buL also Lhe shaper of lL
lv 1hls blologlcal approach helps us Lo see Lhe varleLy of lnfluences on
developmenL
g erspecLlve 3 LvoluLlonary/Socloblologlcal
l LvoluLlonary/Socloblologlcal perspecLlve focuses on evoluLlonary and blologlcal
bases of behavlor
ll lnfluenced by uarwln's Lheory of evoluLlon
lll 1hrough reproducLlon more adapLlve characLerlsLlcs are selecLed Lo be passed
on Lo fuLure generaLlons and less adapLlve characLerlsLlc dle ouL
lv Lvolved mechanlsms are behavlors LhaL develop Lo solve problems ln adapLlng
Lo an earller envlronmenL
v LLhology Lhe sLudy of Lhe dlsLlncL adapLlve behavlors of anlmal specles
1 8ehavlors have evolved Lo lncrease Lhe odds of survlval
2 LLhologlsLs seek Lo ldenLlfy whlch behavlors are unlversal and whaL are
speclflc Lo a parLlcular specles or are modlfled by culLure
vl LvoluLlonary sychology people unconsclously sLrlve noL only for personal
survlval buL also Lhe perpeLuaLe Lhelr geneLlc legacy
1 laces greaL welghL on Lhe envlronmenL Lo whlch a person musL adapL
vll uevelopmenLal sysLem approach vlews human developmenL as Lhe ouLcome of
a dynamlc process of bldlrecLlonal lnLeracLlon beLween person and envlronmenL
vlll LvoluLlonary developmenLal psychologlsLs apply evoluLlonary prlnclples Lo chlld
developmenL
h A ShlfLlng 8alance
l no one Lheory unlversally accepLed
ll MechanlsLlc and Crganlsmlc models have shlfLed ln lnfluence
lll 1oday much aLLenLlon focused on blologlcal and evoluLlonary basls of behavlor
lv ln Lrylng Lo undersLand how a chlld develops a sense of rlghL and wrong a
behavlorlsL would examlne Lhe way Lhe parenLs respond Lo Lhe chlld's behavlor
whaL klnds of behavlor Lhey punlsh or pralse A soclal learnlng LheorlsL would
focus on lmlLaLlon of moral examples posslbly ln sLorles or ln movles An
lnformaLlonprocesslng researcher mlghL do a Lask analysls Lo ldenLlfy Lhe sLeps
a chlld goes Lhrough ln deLermlnlng Lhe range of moral opLlons avallable and
Lhen ln decldlng whlch opLlon Lo pursue
lll 8esearch MeLhods
a CuanLlLlve research deals wlLh measurable daLa
b CuallLaLlve 8esearch lnvolves lnLerpreLaLlon of nonnumerlc daLa
c SclenLlflc MeLhod
l ldenLlfy a problem
ll lormulaLlng hypoLhesls
lll CollecLlng daLa
lv Analyzlng daLa
v lormlng LenLaLlve concluslons
vl ulssemlnaLlng flndlngs
d Sampllng
l SLudylng an enLlre populaLlon may be Loo cosLly and Llmeconsumlng so a
sample of a smaller group wlLhln Lhe populaLlon ls selecLed
1 Sample should adequaLely represenL Lhe LargeL populaLlon
ll 8andom selecLlon each person ln a populaLlon has an equal and lndependenL
chance of belng chosen
e lorms of uaLa CollecLlon
l Self8eporLs ularles lnLervlews CuesLlonnalres
ll naLurallsLlc and LaboraLory CbservaLlon
1 2 lorms naLurallsLlc observaLlon and laboraLory observaLlon
a naLurallsLlc researchers look aL people ln realllfe seLLlngs
b LaboraLory 8esearchers observe and record behavlor ln a
conLrolled envlronmenL
lll 8ehavloral and erformance Measure
1 1esLs can be meanlngful and useful only lf Lhey are boLh valld and
rellable
a valld 1he LesL measures Lhe ablllLles lL clalms Lo measure
b 8ellable Lhe resulLs are reasonably conslsLenL from one Llme Lo
anoLher
l uoes noL mean Lhe LesL ls Lrue you can geL
conLlnuously wrong resulLs
2 CperaLlonal ueflnlLlon a deflnlLlon sLaLed solely ln Lerms of Lhe
operaLlons or procedures used Lo produce or measure a phenomenon
3 CognlLlve neurosclence llnklng our undersLandlng of cognlLlve
funcLlonlng wlLh whaL happens ln Lhe braln
f 8aslc 8esearch ueslgns
l Case SLudles SLudy of an lndlvldual sub[ecL
1 May use behavloral or physlologlcal measures and blographlcal
auLoblographlcal or documenLary maLerlals
ll LLhnographlc SLudles Seek Lo descrlbe Lhe paLLern of relaLlonshlps cusLoms
bellefs Lechnology arLs and LradlLlons LhaL make up a socleLy's way of llfe
1 arLlclpanL CbservaLlon a form of naLurallsLlc observaLlon ln whlch
researchers llve or parLlclpaLe ln Lhe socleLles or smaller groups Lhey
observe ofLen for long perlods of Llme
lll CorrelaLlonal SLudles Seek Lo deLermlne wheLher a correlaLlon exlsLs beLween
varlables
1 Lnables us Lo predlcL one varlable relaLlon Lo anoLher
lv LxperlmenL a conLrolled procedure ln whlch Lhe experlmenLer manlpulaLes
varlables Lo learn how one affecLs anoLher
v Croups and varlables
1 LxperlmenLal group ConslsLs of people who are Lo be exposed Lo Lhe
experlmenLal manlpulaLlon
2 ConLrol group ConslsLs of people who are slmllar Lo Lhe experlmenLal
group buL do noL recelve Lhe experlmenLal LreaLmenL or may recelve a
dlfferenL LreaLmenL
3 lndependenL varlable SomeLhlng whlch experlmenLer has dlrecL
conLrol over
4 uependenL varlable SomeLhlng LhaL may or may noL change as a resulL
of changes ln Lhe lndependenL varlable
a 1he dependenL varlable depends on Lhe lndependenL varlable
(1he ouLcome)
vl 8andom AsslgnmenL Asslgnlng Lhe parLlclpanLs Lo groups so LhaL each person
has an equal chance of belng placed ln any group
1 lf asslgnmenL ls random sample large enough dlfferences ln facLors llke
age gender and eLhnlclLy wlll be evenly dlsLrlbuLed so LhaL Lhe groups
lnlLlally are allke a posslble ln every respecL excepL for Lhe varlable Lo be
LesLed
vll LaboraLory lleld and naLural LxperlmenLs
1 lleld experlmenL ls a correlaLlonal sLudy conducLed ln an everyday
seLLlng
2 LaboraLory and fleld experlmenLs dlffer ln 2 lmporLanL respecLs
a uegree of conLrol exerLed by Lhe experlmenLer
b 1he degree Lo whlch flndlngs can be generallzed beyond Lhe
sLudy seLLlngs
3 naLural experlmenL compares people who have been accldenLally
asslgned Lo separaLe groups by clrcumsLances of llfe
a naLural experlmenLs are used when lL ls lmposslble Lo conducL a
Lrue experlmenL due Lo pracLlcal or eLhlcal reasons
b naLural experlmenLs ls a correlaLlonal sLudy because conLrolled
manlpulaLlon of varlables and random asslgnmenL Lo LreaLmenL
groups are noL posslble
4 LxperlmenLs have 2 advanLages over oLher research deslgns
a 1hey can esLabllsh a causeandeffecL relaLlonshlp
b ermlL repllcaLlon
g uevelopmenLal 8esearch ueslgns
l 2 mosL common research sLraLegles are CrosssecLlonal and LonglLude SLudles
ll CrossSecLlonal sLudles Show slmllarlLles and dlfferences among age groups
1 eople of dlfferenL ages are assessed aL one polnL ln Llme
2 AdvanLages lnclude speed and economy
a uaLa can be gaLhered qulckly from large # of people
3 urawback ls LhaL Lhey may obscure lndlvldual dlfferences by focuslng on
group averages alone
a Ma[or dlsadvanLage ls resulLs may be affecLed by cohorL
dlfferences (Lhe dlfferlng experlences of people born aL
dlfferenL Llmes)
l Lx eople born before lnLerneL emerged and afLer
lll LonglLudlnal sLudles reveal how people change or sLay Lhe same as Lhey grow
older
1 8esearchers sLudy Lhe same person or group of people more Lhan once
someLlmes years aparL
2 Cenerally more Llme consumlng and expenslve
3 1end Lo be blased LhaL parLlclpanLs who sLay wlLh Lhe sLudy Lend Lo be
above average ln lnLelllgence and socloeconomlc sLaLus
4 8esulLs can be affecLed by repeaLed LesLlng (parLlclpanLs do beLLer on
laLer LesLs because of famlllarlLy wlLh LesL procedures)
lv SequenLlal sLudy A complex sLraLegy deslgned Lo overcome Lhe drawbacks of
boLh crosssecLlonal and longlLudlnal research
1 Comblnes boLh crosssecLlonal and longlLudlnal Lechnlques
2 Ma[or drawback relaLes Lo Llme efforL and complexlLy
lv LLhlcs of 8esearch
a Culdellnes of Lhe Amerlcan sychologlcal AssoclaLlon (AA)
l lnformed consenL
ll Avoldance of uecepLlon
lll Parm and loss of dlgnlLy
lv rlvacy and confldenLlally
v 1he rlghL Lo decllne or wlLhdraw
vl 8esponslblllLy of lnvesLlgaLors Lo correcL any undeslrable effecL
b 8esearchers expecLed Lo be gulded by 3 prlnclples
l 8eneflcence CbllgaLlon Lo maxlmlze poLenLlal beneflLs Lo parLlclpanLs and
mlnlmlze posslble harm
ll 8especL 8especL Lhe ablllLles/lack of ablllLles Lhe parLlclpanLs posses
lll !usLlce lncluslon of dlverse groups LogeLher wlLh senslLlvlLy Lo any speclal
lmpacL Lhe research may have on Lhem