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Dissertation for MA Degree

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years
Sardjawati Suleiman
Student No: 04052484 15 August 2005

MA in Electronic Media School of Humanities, Oxford Brookes University

Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................. 1 1. Computer icons in context .......................................................................... 2


1960s: command line interface ......................................................................... 3 1970s: a tale of the mouse ..................................................................................4 1980s: Apple introduces GUI ............................................................................ 5 2005: Which GUI do you use? ........................................................................... 5

3. Icons for the computer interface ................................................................ 6 4. Theory of icon creation ................................................................................ 8
What is an icon and why use them in HCI? ...................................................... 9 Why do icons work? ......................................................................................... 10 Symbol and icon types ......................................................................................11 Computer interface, icons and metaphor ....................................................... 12 Metaphors in icon creation ............................................................................. 13 Icons as visual language ..................................................................................15 The evolution of icons in computer interfaces ................................................ 16

5. Technical aspects of the icon creation process ...................................... 16


Icon size ............................................................................................................ 18

6. Aesthetics in icon creation and design .................................................... 18


Icon style and consistency ............................................................................... 18 Perspective, lighting and shadows.................................................................. 19 Colour use and transparency .......................................................................... 19 Materials, icon details and composition .........................................................20

7. Icon creation process ................................................................................ 21


Preparation ......................................................................................................22 Drawing ...........................................................................................................23 User feedback: professional and practical ..................................................... 23

10. Icon creation: things to avoid ................................................................. 24

11. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 25


Current and future development of icons ....................................................... 25 What will replace icons and when? ................................................................26

Appendix A: Abbreviations and acronym glossary .................................... 27 Appendix B: List of websites relating to icon creation............................... 28 Bibliography.................................................................................................... 28

List of Figures
Figure 1: Icons in context: this thesis seeks to focus on computer icons ....................... 2 Figure 2: oNLine System demonstration 1968: a hypertext system using a computer mouse (Wikipedia, 2005d photos used under Creative Commons License) 3 Figure 3: The original Xerox Star GUI, 1980, four years before the Macintosh (Wikipedia 2005d graphic used under Creative Commons License) ............ 4 Figure 4: From Mouse to Windows: time line of major developments relating to evolution of icons within GUI (based on Wichary, 2003) ................................. 5 Figure 5: OS market share as derived from Internet server access 2003, 2004, and 2005 to July (W3Schools 2005) ....................................................................... 6 Figure 6: The Icon Creation Wheel: a creative rubric for developing computer icons .... 7 Figure 7: Peircean Triad as applied to a Print icon (adapted from Barr et al 2003) .... 10 Figure 9: Ideas for metaphor use in creating icons by icon type .................................. 14 Figure 10: Examples of culturally dependent metaphor icons ...................................... 14 Figure 12: Maximum and Minimum icon resolutions for current major operating systems, 2005................................................................................................ 18 Figure 13: Macintosh OS X icons at varying colour depths and sizes ......................... 20 Figure 14: Example of materials: paper, plastic, metal and glass ................................ 21 Figure 15: Icons featuring multiple element compositions ........................................... 21 Figure 16: Summary of multiple recommended work ow ideas for icon creation (multiple sources) .......................................................................................... 22

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons evolved over 40 years


Sardjawati Suleiman

Keywords: Computer icons, human computer interaction (HCI), graphical user interface (GUI)

Abstract This dissertation seeks to explain how computer icons have come to be so widely used in HCI over the past 40 years. It presents a simple rubric of icon creation in the hope that this will aid understanding of the complexities of creating better icons. The thesis demonstrates that although the WIMP-GUI model is seen as less than ideal, an estimated 90 per cent of computers use it. With no clear alternatives at present, icon technology has been improved signicantly over time and some early weaknesses have been at least partly alleviated. Icons are now ubiquitous parts of the interface for almost all computer users and have signicant advantages in making computers relatively easier to use, particularly for novices. This conrms theories from cognitive psychology that show how human use and understanding of iconlike symbols predates HCI. I briey introduce some of the concepts and ideas likely to be most useful for creators of icons. This is followed by key points on the technicalities, aesthetics, and practical creation processes needed in order to create icons that work. While the past success of icons is dened purely in terms of diffusion within the marketplace, they now form an integral part of modern HCI.

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005.

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

1. Computer icons in context


The word icon originates from the Greek eikon, meaning image. Historically, an icon was a graphic symbol relating to religion (Wikipedia 2005a), but today icon means many things. This thesis is concerned with a particular kind: computer icons. For the purpose of this study an icon is dened as: A visual representation or symbol used as part of computer graphical user interfaces within the WIMP model. Icons are clickable and facilitate user interaction

Figure 1 illustrates the focus of the dissertation. It refers to the broad issue of human computer interaction (HCI; see Appendix A for full list of abbreviations) and user interfaces (UI). The body of research relating to HCI is large, but the subset that refers to icons has surprisingly little cohesion, particularly in tracing their 30 years of historical evolution. The thesis begins by considering this history in the context of computer interface evolution, but then presents a four part rubric as a guide to how icons can be understood and efciently created.

Human needs

require

Tasks to be performed
making use of

making use of

COMPUTER ICONS

WIMP interface model

Computer tools

commonly using a

Human Computer Interaction

needing

Figure 1: Icons in context: this thesis seeks to focus on computer icons

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

2. A brief history of icon use in computer interfaces


Icons are a fundamental part of the so-called Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointers (WIMP) model of the computer graphical user interface (GUI). This rst appeared on a commercially sold computer in the early 1980s after more than 10 years of research development. Icon evolution is tied to the development of the computer mouse. This was rst created by Douglas Englebart in 1963, coincidentally the same year that a very early GUI application called Sketchpad was demonstrated by Ivan Sutherland (Sutherland 2003). Together, icons and mouses provide a direct manipulation (pointand-click) interface that, while widely criticised, has become almost ubiquitous.

1960s: command line interface Before GUI, keyboard input was the usual method of HCI, using a command line interface (CLI). Keyboard input is still used in even the latest GUI and advanced computer users still argue that CLI is the fastest and most efcient UI as interaction is so precise. Consequently, professional programmers often use CLI. Although different again, Archy, a UI designed by Jef Raskin (Raskin 2005) also predominantly uses only the keyboard in order to speed interaction. However, CLI is difcult to learn. For all but the most basic operations, a user must learn commands, type them accurately, and interpret the computer response. This

Figure 2: oNLine System demonstration 1968: a hypertext system using a computer mouse (Wikipedia, 2005d photos used under Creative Commons License)

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

requires familiarity with a keyboard and high nger dexterity, creating difculties for novices, and the very young or elderly. As a result, before GUI, computers were used predominantly by experts, were difcult to commercialise, and were largely limited to text based operations. For these reasons other, more intuitive UI were sought.

1970s: a tale of the mouse In 1968 Englebart demonstrated the oNLine System (NLS) in which a mouse was used to click on words. Based on early work by Vannevar Bush (Wikipedia 2005c), this was one of the rst direct manipulation UI. The importance of this event for computing is so well recognised that it has been called the mother of all demonstrations (Wikipedia, 2005d). In 1970, the mouse was rened by Bill English at the Xerox PARC research labs, introducing the rollerball mechanism still common today. Led by Alan Kay, Xerox PARC went on to develop the rst GUI operating systems (OS) based on WIMP and the rst icons were born. This developed into the rst commercial GUI called Xerox Star (Figure 3). By the late 1970s, Apple had begun to adapt many Xerox PARC ideas for its own use (Pang 2001; Tuck 2001). For reasons of cost, Apple discarded some of the more sophisticated features of Xeroxs icons, such as names within icons and icons that

Figure 3: The original Xerox Star GUI, 1980, four years before the Macintosh (Wikipedia 2005d graphic used under Creative Commons License)

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

Amiga OS 3.5

BeOS Zeta GNOME 2.0 KDE 3.0

NeXTSTEP

Amiga OS TOS Windows 1.0 Apple Macintosh Apple Lisa

OS/2 2.0 Windows 3.1 Macintosh System 7 Windows 3.0 Windows 95 Mac OS 8

IRIX BeOS Mac OS 8.5 Rhapsody

Windows 2000

Windows Vista

Windows XP Mac OS X

On-Line System (Englebart)

1960

Figure 4: From Mouse to Windows: time line of major developments relating to evolution of icons within GUI (based on Wichary, 2003)

changed state (Kay 1990; Smith, Irby et al 1982). Some of these features are only now beginning to reappear (see Section 11 below).

1980s: Apple introduces GUI Apple introduced its own icons in the Lisa computer in 1983, and rened them further for the Macintosh OS in 1984. This was the rst computer using a WIMP-GUI to nd enduring success. The rest, so to speak, is history. Microsoft Windows 1.0 appeared in 1985 using the same principles developed by Xerox, and over the next 30 years numerous other WIMP-GUI have come and, mostly, gone (see Figure 4; Wichary 2003; Tuck 2001).

2005: Which GUI do you use? Today, it is difcult to estimate the exact proportion of computers that use WIMP-GUI, but we do know which OS are used when browsing the Internet and it is reasonable to assume that the proportions are similar for all computers (see Figure 5). In mid-2005, more than 90 per cent of all computers used a version of Microsoft Windows and 3 per cent used Macintosh. A further 3.5 per cent used Linux, which, while less certain,

Sketchpad (Sutherland)

Ball mouse (English)

Mouse (Englebart)

Xerox Star

Xerox Alto

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005.

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

100

80 % of internet users

60

40

20

0 2003
Windows

2004
Macintosh
Linux

2005
Unknown

Note: Windows includes WIndows XP, Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows NT and Windows 95 Macintosh includes Mac OS 9 and Mac OS 10

Figure 5: OS market share as derived from Internet server access 2003, 2004, and 2005 to July (W3Schools 2005)

probably means the GNOME or KDE GUI, so in total around 96.5 per cent of all computers probably use WIMP-GUI today. The WIMP-GUI rst appeared over 40 years ago and its market dominance grew over the last 30 years. Today icons are common in interfaces for mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), MP3 players, digital cameras and so on. People learn to recognise and interact with icons from an early age (Moyes 1994). While some hope for an improved HCI solution, icon use is intuitive and, clearly, successful.

3. Icons for the computer interface


Weve seen how icons rst appeared in HCI, but over the past 30 years, icons have changed and improved signicantly. Today, icons are created and designed both by professional HCI designers and by amateurs who simply enjoy icons for their own right. A Google exact phrase search for icon design returned about 66,200 hits in August 2005. Among these are a few increasingly famous design houses specialising in

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

icons (see Appendix B for some examples). This is a change from the past when icons and symbols were mostly developed by in-house designers (Marcus 2003; Pezzoni and Chavis 1996). Today even Microsoft and Apple outsource some of this work to consultants. Icons have become increasingly sophisticated and their creation has become a specialisation. However, creating professional level icons requires a multidisciplinary expertise that covers aspects of HCI, user experience, graphic design, and ideally even knowledge of some cognitive psychology theory. Figure 6 presents a rubric for the icon creation process, seeking to cover all of the most important aspects from understanding the

Figure 6: The Icon Creation Wheel: a creative rubric for developing computer icons

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

theory to actually producing icons. It has four core elements: 1. Theory 2. Technical aspects 3. Aesthetics 4. Processes Each of these is considered in turn. Together they present a systematic method for icon creation.

4. Theory of icon creation


Professional icon creators can gain a great deal from theory. Research relating to HCI, cognitive psychology, semiotics, visual languages, and even some philosophy can be helpful even in small doses (Hicks 2004; Marstall 2004). Such study helps provide a thoughtful understanding of how people interact with GUI. Space allows for a mere introduction in this dissertation. Since 1984, a host of research has considered the WIMP-GUI model. Much of this has been post hoc analysis, while some urges improvement or even replacement of the model entirely (for example Raskin 2000; Negroponte 1990; Norman 1990). Many researchers consider WIMP restrictive and static, forcing users to adapt to the interface rather than providing the exibility to adapt to users needs (see Norman 1990; Gentner and Nielsen 1996; Grudin 1990; Mandelkern 1993; McCormack 2002; Shneiderman 1982; van Dam 1997; Zanino et al 1994). Taken together, the research considers many aspects of WIMP-GUI, but not all studies relate to icon use. Those that do broadly cover: Reasons for icon use within HCI Icon use within the WIMP model Appropriate icon design

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

There appear to be few studies that have followed the evolution of icons over time. Even in research proposing so-called post-WIMP solutions, icons or similar representative graphics (not always called icons) are often still proposed (van Dam, 1997). Icons are part of WIMP, but non-WIMP interfaces do not preclude an evolved form of icons.

What is an icon and why use them in HCI? It is debatable which came rst, computer icons or research into computer icons. Icons were certainly not just a brainstormed idea. Alan Kay, generally recognised as the originator of icons in GUI, did considerable study on how to make HCI as humane as possible: The work of Papert convinced me that [...] interface design [should be] intertwined with learning. Bruner convinced me that [...] it is best to learn something kinesthetically, then iconically, and nally the intuitive knowledge will be in place [to] allow the more powerful [...] symbolic processes to work. (Kay 1990: p. 195)

Kays goal, however, was simply to make his revolutionary interface as useful and as easy to learn as possible. He summarises this goal as: Doing with Images makes Symbols. (Kay 1990: p. 196, original capitalisation)

The interface that Kays team devised, and which he later helped to implement in the Macintosh, remains fundamentally unchanged today. A multitude of studies have later reapplied aspects of cognitive psychology to explain icon use in the WIMP-GUI. While impossible to summarise all this work here, a little understanding can go a long way and the following areas provide signicant benecial understanding to anyone concerned with icon creation.

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005.

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

Why do icons work? Icons are, therefore, symbols, which leads us back to cognitive psychology and human understanding of, and afnity for, visual information. This is the eld of semiotics (Chandler 2002) which itself developed from the study of signs by Peirce (1931: in Barr et al 2003). Peirce described our understanding of symbols as three interacting relations that trigger semiosis to create meaning (Figure 7). The effect relation determines how users perceive the relation between the Object and the Interpretant (Barr et al 2003). Simultaneously, the representation relation requires the symbol to clearly convey the Objects meaning. Finally, the interpretation relation denes a users interaction with the representamen. A simplied explanation of this is that users should correctly perceive the meaning of an icon, the function it represents, and its perceived use. Again, Peirces work was mostly applied to computer icons in hindsight, but, whether knowingly or not, Susan Kare, the designer who created the rst icons for Macintosh and for Windows 3.0, summarises this theory when she says: An icon is successful if you can tell someone what it is once and they dont forget it. (Zuckerman 1996).

Figure 7: Peircean Triad as applied to a Print icon (adapted from Barr et al. 2003)

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

The goal of any icon designer is to create the relationships described by Peirce and, in doing so, full the succinct rule for success that Kare proposes.

Symbol and icon types In addition to this system of interpretation, Peirce developed numerous classications of signs, of which the following taxonomy is useful for icon creation: Iconic Signs represent meaning by resemblance. For example, a document icon visually resembles the document le it will represent when printed Indexical Signs represent function. For example, a printer toolbar icon represents the print function Symbolic Signs relate meaning purely through convention. For example, a triangle rotated 90 is widely recognised as Play, but only by convention. Furthermore, there are three commonly used icon types within WIMP-GUI and these can be related directly to Peirces taxonomy: Application icons: denote specic software programmes, and usually launch the programme by double clicking Toolbar icons: occur within software programmes (including the OS), on toolbars and in menus, and usually activate functions by single clicking Object icons or System icons: represent folders, documents, and objects other

Type of computer icon Application icon Examples Iconical Peirces taxonomy Indexical Symbolic Lo M M M Hi M Hi M Lo Toolbar icon Object icon

Key: Hi: highly appropriate M: moderately appropriate Lo: less appropriate Figure 8: Proposals for icon creation by type as related to Peirces taxonomy

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

than software programmes Understanding Peirces taxonomy provides a rough goal when creating icons of each type (Figure 8). Iconic symbols are less suitable for Application icons as these represent an intangible software function. Toolbar icons are most likely iconical (actual objects) or indexical (specic functions), but can also be symbolic (the undo command for instance). Object icons are generally tangible parts of the UI such as folders and therefore mostly recognisable iconical icons. These remain general ideas rather than rules, but are useful when conceptualising icons.

Computer interface, icons and metaphor Use of metaphors within the WIMP-GUI model form a major stream of research (see Draper 1996; Gentner and Nielson 1996; Hemenway 1982; Honeywell 1999b; Matsey 1996; Richards, Barker et al 1994; Rohrer 1995; Smilowitz 1996; Tarpey 2003). This is related to, but quite different from, using a metaphor when creating a symbol such as an icon (see below). Metaphors used in GUI are conceptual metaphors used to add a recognisable element to the UI for novice users. The so-called computer desktop is now a universal theme in modern GUI. Icons sit on top of this desktop and extend the metaphor by representing documents, folders, and waste paper baskets. Understandably, the computer desktop has been an easy target for criticism due to its over simplication (Gentner and Nielson 1996; Rohrer 1995). However, Kay (1990: pp. 199-202) dismissed the idea of this metaphor altogether. While a computer desktop may be a metaphor of a genuine desktop, Kay points out that the two are different entities simply employing the same label. A computer desktop is a far more powerful (or magic in Kays words) entity. He also notes: My main complaint is that metaphor is a poor metaphor for what needs to be done [through a computer interface]. (Kay 1990: p. 199)

This highlights a gap between post hoc research and the original HCI aims. Normans argument (1990; 2002) that any UI should be practically invisible, making apparent

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

only the task at hand, supports this view of UI metaphor research being diversionary. Draper (1996) also notes that metaphor merely acts on the users understanding of the interface: [Metaphors provide a] system for improving the guessability of a system by referring to its parts by names of entities in some other world [...] This can also be done in a command line language as well as in a mouse and icon interface. (Draper 1996)

The assumption is that users know a real desktop before they use an electronic one, but today, as computer use begins in primary school or before, that is not necessarily such a given assumption. As the WIMP-GUI is now so widely used and well tested, many of the original UI metaphors are taken for granted, and so take on their own meaning and, arguably, cease to be metaphors at all.

Metaphors in icon creation Conceptual metaphors within WIMP-GUI and icon graphic metaphors are related but not equivalent. Whether one accepts the desktop as a metaphor of a desk or simply as a computer term, using a postage stamp icon for an e-mail programme is undisputedly a metaphor for the applications function. Every user has a preexisting knowledge of real life objects and an innate understanding of signs and symbols, so using metaphors for icons leverages that knowledge. Both Apple and GNOME interface guidelines emphasise metaphor use for icons (Apple Computer 2005b; GNOME 2005), although Microsoft does not (Microsoft Corporation 2005). Apple advises: Take advantage of peoples knowledge of the world by using metaphors to convey concepts and features of your application. Metaphors are the building blocks in the users mental model of a task. Use metaphors that represent concrete, familiar ideas, and make the metaphors obvious. (Apple Computer 2005a)

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

Type of computer icon Application icon Examples of icon metaphors Metaphor Use M Lo Lo Key: Hi: highly appropriate M: moderately appropriate Lo: less appropriate Figure 9: Ideas for metaphor use in creating icons by icon type Toolbar icon Object icon

Metaphors are used for all icon types, and allow a greater range of design options particularly for application icons. They are less appropriate for toolbar and object icons since they could obscure understanding of function (Figure 9). However, Galitz (1997: p. 529) recommends traditional images rather than newer ones since they are more widely recognised. In this vein, modern GUIs have standardised some metaphors into established usage, for example the magnifying glass icon meaning search (Hicks 2004: p. 7; Marstall 2004). Use of metaphors can be problematic as many are culturally based and can cause confusion when software is used in international markets as most is nowadays. For example, Stop signs and post boxes (Figure 10) are different from country to country, although American versions are now so common in GUI that, again, they are widely understood. Metaphors based on body parts should be avoided so as not to cause offences (see Section 10). The American and Japanese ignorance of the British V sign is an example. In addition, metaphors can be needlessly obscure. In the Macintosh OS, users may not

Figure 10: Examples of culturally dependent metaphor icons

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

immediately notice the Compass metaphor for the Safari web-browser (its name is also a metaphor). As Marstall (2004) points out, metaphors allow icons to encapsulate almost any idea and stimulates standardised visual language. Moreover, while some traditional users and HCI experts worry about the excessive use of icons, the use of metaphors, rather than more direct iconical symbols alone, can also add a level of visual enjoyment to the experience of using a computer.

Icons as visual language Icons are widely recognised and accepted in many forms of UI. Many have become standardised and so contribute to a new form of visual language that computer users now take for granted (Hurford 2004; Marcus, 2003). This too relates back to theory. Written Chinese, which also originates from pictures, demonstrates the human ability to read pictures with semantic meaning in the same way we interpret icons (Honeywell 1999a; Kurnianwan et al 2001; Marcus 2003: p. 40-2; Marstall 2004). Romanscript language readers use the left (analytical) side of their brains, while speakers of Chinese-based languages are said to use the right (artistic) side of their brain. A consequence of this is that signicantly fewer Chinese and Japanese suffer problems such as dyslexia because symbol recognition is more intuitive (Spaeth 2003). We naturally understand symbols and there are many systems that use them (see International Organization for Standardization, 2005). There are at least two examples of visual languages developed based on our ability to recognise symbols. They are Charles K. Blisss Blissymbolics and Yukio Otas LoCos (Lovers Communication System) (see Marcus, 2003). Both employ sets of symbols that have been successfully shown to aid communication across cultures and by people unable to use more complex writing systems. Symbols are naturally intuitive and pervasive in all societies and elds. It is natural, therefore that icons should have been successful as a means of HCI.

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

The evolution of icons in computer interfaces However, since the 1984 Macintosh, both WIMP-GUI and icon use have been criticised. This criticism suggests that icons are: Too difcult/abstract/obscure/small to understand Not colourful enough/too colourful Culturally based Irrelevant due to text labels Over the past 30 years, however, icons have evolved markedly. Wichary (2003) showed how icons changed and improved, solving some, though not all, of these criticisms. Figure 11 illustrates icon evolution after 1980, from simple, black and white symbols, to 128 x 128 pixel, fully photo-realistic, scalable graphics. Now that icon use is ubiquitous and so widely understood, arguably icon interaction is often transparent, progressing towards what Norman (1990) required as an invisible interface. By the recent high standards, any icon that is not immediately understood clearly fails in its purpose and there are still many such examples, but on the whole, icons are today much better than they were even ve years ago. Icons will continue to improve, partly as their creators better understand the concepts described here. In addition to some basic theory, icon creators need to understand technical, aesthetic principles and to have a clear path for icon development. These are discussed in the following sections.

5. Technical aspects of the icon creation process


Today, technical requirements for icon creation are provided through HCI guidelines for the main OS (Apple Computer 2005b; GNOME 2005; Microsoft Corporation 2005). Each OS style is different, so creators need to consider them separately, and a lot of the guidelines relate to aesthetic requirements (see Section 6). The one aspect dependent

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Year 1-bit 1-bit 1-bit 1-bit 2-bit 1-bit 8-bit 4-bit 4-bit 4-bit 4-bit 8-bit 4-bit 8-bit 8-bit 4-bit 8-bit 24-bit 24-bit 32-bit 32-bit 8-bit 8-bit 8-bit Isometric Isometric Isometric Isometric Some isometric Isometric Isometric Isometric Some isometric Isometric, Front Front Front Some shading Some shadows, improved consistency Consistent use of shadows Highly consistent, 26 isometric slant Inconsistent, later 8-bit icons added Front Designed by Susan Kare Varied Varied Initially 1-bit, but colour introduced early on. Shading common Front Varied dimensions & states Front Highly inconsistent Front Many icons still in use Front Lisa used non-square pixels Front Document & folder icons still used today, icons change dependent on state of object represented

OS

Resolution

Colour

Transparency

Perspective

Comments

1981

Xerox Star

72 x 72

1983

Lisa

48 x 24

1984

Macintosh

32 x 32

1985

Windows

32 x 32

1985

Amiga

Various

Sardjawati Suleiman, August 2005

1985

TOS`

32 x 32

1989

NeXTSTEP

48 x 48

1990

Windows 3.0

32 x 32

1991

Mac OS 7

32 x 32

1992

Windows 3.1

32 x 32

1993

OS/2 2.0

32 x 32

The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

17

1994

Mac OS 8

32 x 32

1995

Windows 95

32 x 32

1996

Mac OS 8.5

32 x 32

1997

BeOS

32 x 32

Isometric grid non-symmetric, clear colour scheme used Mirror view of Mac OS 8 Heavy dithering Original designs, better shading Photo-realistic. Highly visible when scaled Clear colour scheme and strong icon design style Photo-realistic

1998

IRIX

Vector

1999

Amiga OS 3.5

48 x 48

2000

Windows 2000

32 x 32

2001

Max OS X

128 x 128

2001

Windows XP

48 x 48

2006

Windows Vista*

256 x 256

Note:

Figure 11: Evolution of icons (compiled and expanded from Wichary, 2003)

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

Mac OS X Min Application icons Toolbar icons Object icons 16 x 16 16 x 16 16 x 16 Max 128 x 128 32 x 32 128 x 128

Windows XP Min 16 x 16 16 x 16 16 x 16 Max 48 x 48 32 x 32 48 x 48

GNOME 2.0 Min 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 Max 48 x 48 48 x 48 96 x 96

Figure 12: Maximum and Minimum icon resolutions for current major operating systems, 2005

on OS architecture is icon size.

Icon size Icon size is determined by pixel resolution. This differs by OS and by icon type (see Figure 12), and it is important to understand how icon sizes change as users interact with the UI. If an icon is too small, for instance, it becomes difcult to use (Lee 2003). In addition, as monitor resolutions increase, actual icon size on screen is proportionately reduced. Until a UI is invented to replace WIMP entirely, icons will continue to increase in size as an aid to clarity, but creators need to be aware of current icon minimum and maximum required sizes.

6. Aesthetics in icon creation and design


One of the reasons icons are popular among general computer users is that they create an attractive visual experience. Aesthetic considerations in icon creation are, therefore, of increasing importance. Icons have come a long way from the low resolution, 1-bit (black and white) graphics used on the Xerox Star.

Icon style and consistency Icons should form a clear role in HCI, going well beyond simply looking pretty. With the exception of some application icons, almost all icons are created in sets with similar style and it is essential that the style provides a high level of consistency in order to aid

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

understanding and memorisation. Icon consistency was rightly criticised in early GUI designs, but it has gradually improved. As part of this, the production of stock icons is becoming a major business, providing software developers with off the shelf icon sets featuring consistent style. Style and consistency is apparent in three factors laid out in OS guidelines, and icon creators endeavour to make all three aspects consistent throughout an icon set: Perspective, lighting, and shadows Colour use and transparency Materials, icon details, and composition Perspective, lighting and shadows The earliest icons were simple, two-dimensional graphics. Modern icons are usually isometric, with Microsoft even providing a specic isometric grid in its guidelines. Apple recommends that application icons appear to be sitting in front of the user on a desk, while toolbar icons appear to be on a shelf. Equally, isometric icons have a recommended lighting angle and corresponding use of shadows. Since the introduction of Mac OS X, photo-realistic icons have became common too. Such details allow for more easily recognised and memorised icons, but remain only guidelines, with many application icons created with different perspectives. Once again, consistency of style within a particular icon set should be the overall goal, although a set that is too removed from the general style of an OS would look out of place.

Colour use and transparency Used correctly, colour helps convey meaning and aid learning of icon functions (Galitz 1997: p. 528). Colour icons appeared at a surprisingly early date, but it is only with the advance in hardware capabilities that 32-bit (16.7 million colours) icons have appeared, allowing enhanced contrast, shadows and lighting. Recent icons also include 8-bit transparency to further dene icons in relation to the background. Again, consistency is

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

Figure 13: Macintosh OS X icons at varying colour depths and sizes

vital, and some guidelines recommend specic colour palettes (Microsoft Corporation 2005). There remains a major problem with colour, however. In all major UI, too much colour can be distracting, especially when an icon is shrunk, so icon creators need to produce a single icon in various sizes and colour depths. Figure 13 illustrates this problem. It shows a fairly complex, decorative icon for OS X in its 13 forms. As the colour depth and icon size decreases, it becomes progressively more difcult to see. For the best results, each icon must be prepared individually in each size and colour depth. However, with the exception of the smaller toolbar icons, current guidelines encourage icon creation to begin with the largest resolutions and highest bit depths. This can cause problems, so icon creators must be aware of how their designs look at smaller resolutions and be prepared to adjust them individually to improve readability.

Materials, icon details and composition Icons are becoming increasingly sophisticated in their graphic representation. Apple recommends that icons should be realistic. Windows XP guidelines suggest a simpler, slightly cartoon-ish nish. But, as a point of style, creators can choose appearances

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Figure 14: Examples of materials: paper, plastic, metal and glass

based on any material such as glass, metal, wood and so on (Figure 14). In addition, icons are now large enough to include multiple elements. This offers the opportunity for metaphors and object realism, but, like colour, can become distracting and cluttered (see Figure 15). Hodgkinson and Bell (2000: p. 274) suggest a useful rule of thumb of no more than 3 to 5 elements in a 48 x 48 pixel icon. Again, simplicity and consistency are vital, with multiple elements only used where they clearly add to meaning and understanding (Horton 1996: p. 371-2; Galitz 1997: p. 524; Apple Computer 1996; PyrusMalus 2005).

7. Icon creation process


Once theory, technical aspects, and aesthetics are understood, icon creation can begin. Both Apple and Microsoft provide basic work ows for icon creation (Apple Computer, 2005a; Microsoft Corporation, 2005), and there are numerous hints and tutorials

Figure 15: Icons featuring multiple element compositions

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The Evolution of Icons: how computer icons have changed over 40 years

Figure 16: Summary of recommended work ow ideas for icon creation (multiple sources)

elsewhere (GNOME 2005; Hicks 2004; Hodgkinson and Bell, 2000; Horton 1996; Iconfactory, 2005; Marstall 2005; McCown 2005; Pezzoni and Chavis 1996). These are summarised in Figure 16.

Preparation Perhaps because some experts consider it too obvious to include, Hicks (2004: 6-7) is the only reference that notes the importance of prior research and of studying existing

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icons. A better understanding of existing icons helps with the initial brainstorming and concept drawings. At this point, the general design, scope, and composition of icons needs to be xed with the client.

Drawing The actual method for drawing icons depends largely on individual preference and choice of software tools, but the process shown in Figure 16 ts with that suggested by Apple, Microsoft and Hicks. Individual elements will each undergo the same process. After, ideally, receiving further feedback from the client, the designer can produce relevant resource les ready to be slotted into the software package.

User feedback: professional and practical Arguably, at this point we reach the most important stage: user testing and feedback. Something that has received much research attention (Eisen 1990; Christou and Jacob 2003; Moyes 1994; Seoul 1996). Recognised interface gurus are never shy of giving opinions about what is a good or bad icon (Gentner and Nielson 1996; Nielsen 1990; Raskin 2000: pp. 168-75), but, in the end, the users views are paramount. In addition to Kares show once, remember always rule (see page 10), if novice users can understand an icon, it will generally work well. One commentator even goes as far as saying: The [best] User Interface Guru is your mum. (Jones 2003)

For those lacking the testing budgets of large companies, this is excellent advice and a practice used by even famous designers on occasion. If beta users can safely interpret the icons and interact with them correctly, and the programmer is also happy, the nal icon versions can then be produced and an icon set is born.

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10. Icon creation: things to avoid


There are now more than three decades of past experience in icon creation to learn from. This is summed up in the GNOME interface guidelines (GNOME, 2005) in terms of what to avoid and form an excellent piece of additional advice: 1. Avoid name suggestive graphics Icons should suggest an applications function, not its name. Many software companies violate this rule by using logos. 2. Do not include meaningful text As icon resolutions increase, adding the application name becomes a temptation, but this makes icons difcult to translate and read. 3. Do not rely on information your users will not have All icons should be associated with their purpose. Icons based on puns or obscure metaphors are confusing. This is another argument against logos as icons, and, again, is violated frequently. 4. Do not include extraneous information Particularly as icons often need to display at varying sizes, overly complex, multi-element icons are difcult to interpret. 5. Do not include body parts in the icon Body parts can be easily misunderstood and should be avoided. Even a pointing nger can be misread and be seen as offensive in some cultures 6. Do not employ violent imagery Icons representing, for example, dynamite could be misinterpreted by novice users to mean a destructive process, and should be replaced by another metaphor. This concludes discussion of the Icon Creation Wheel (Figure 6, page 7). Icon creation should be a fun, rewarding activity, but it is also highly technical and worth doing well.

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11. Conclusion
Through the use of computers, icons have permeated our everyday lives. No longer just a tool for experts, computers appear in all kinds of electronic items, making difcult tasks easier and quicker. Since 1984, the Microsoft Windows and the Macintosh OS have become pervasive throughout personal computers, and both use WIMP-GUI, meaning that icons are now a standard feature of computer use everywhere. While WIMP-GUI continues to have its detractors, icons have become relatively sophisticated and, arguably, increasingly well designed. This thesis proposes a systematic rubric for the necessary knowledge for icon creation. There has been many previous studies of icons at a more micro level and practical guidelines for design are also common, but the detailed synopsis presented here is rather unique. Given greater space, a more detailed discussion of theory would be helpful for some, but at present, it is hoped that the rubric is practically useful.

Current and future development of icons Icons are a new visual language that has evolved in the age of new media. Although experts seek for a better solution, general users of GUI now accept icons as readily as they do road signs or even written words. Future generations will learn icons at an even earlier age and accept them with even less cognitive effort. In recent years, technical aspects of computer icons have advanced signicantly. Icons have become larger and more photo-realistic, and therefore capable of better expression of meaning. Icon creation has become more consistent and standardised even across different OS. This too is a process of learning that has occurred through the 40 years of history behind personal computing and GUI. As hardware becomes more powerful, ever more complex icon graphics become possible and as the market for PCs has concentrated into just a handful of OS, so marketing has promoted the standardisation of the GUI sometimes referred to as a process of being forced into a critical mass.

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Yet many would argue that this is not an ideal method of HCI. Indeed, it is signicant that advanced computer users often revert to keyboard input, spurning direct manipulation with the mouse wherever possible in order to speed up their interaction (Raskin 2000; Raskin 2005). Others may argue that a pretty interface may detract from completing the nal task at hand (as suggested by Norman, 1990; 2002). There is still, therefore, plenty of room for improvement in HCI, and icons too will continue to improve and develop, particularly, again, in terms of consistency and standardisation.

What will replace icons and when? Icons are a part of the WIMP model of GUI, but are often found in newer, experimental models too. At present, apart from some remaining CLI, there are no widely used UI to replace WIMP-GUI in the general market. Until one appears, icons will remain. Icons will, however, evolve. We can already envisage the use of 3-D and hologrammatic icons, although it is unlikely these would add signicantly to icon functionality. More important, many newer icons will change state, either through animation or replacement, to reect changes to the object they represent. These already exist in, for example, picture folder icons in Windows XP, or the iCal icon in Mac OS X. Looking further into the future, it is almost certain that computers will one day be controlled by voice or even thought alone, eventually removing the need for both the mouse and the keyboard. Further innovations, such as hologrammatic projection displays, may even reduce physical display sizes far below the current minimum. Even then, icons may survive as a means to represent data and objects. Such things remain largely in the realms of science ction for the present, but they are unlikely to stay there for too long. The humble computer icon that became known to the mass market back in 1984 is no longer a simple, 32 x 32 pixel, black and white graphic symbol. It is now full colour and large enough to be appreciated as a work of art. Icons will continue to evolve and remain part of our computing experience for many years to come.

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Appendix A: Abbreviations and acronym glossary


CLI Command Line Interface(s). A user interface to a computers operating system or an application in which the user responds to a visual prompt by typing in a command on a specied line, receives a response back from the system, and then enters another command, and so forth (taken from http://www.linux.com/guides/Linux-FilesystemHierarchy/glossary.shtml). GNOME GNU Network Object Model Environment. A computer desktop environment for UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems, often used for Linux. It is the ofcial desktop of the GNU Project (taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME). GUI Graphical User Interface(s). A programme that lets the user interact with a computer system in a highly visual manner. Graphical user interfaces usually require a highresolution display and a pointing device, such as a computer mouse (taken from http:// www.oreilly.com/catalog/debian/chapter/book/glossary.html). HCI Human Computer Interaction. The study of how humans interact with computers and programmes. It is an academic eld spanning computer science and many aspects of psychology and ergonomics (taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-Computer_ Interaction). KDE K Desktop Environment. A free desktop environment and development platform built that runs on most Unix and Unix-like systems, often used for Linux (taken from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE). NLS oNLine System. A revolutionary computer collaboration system designed by Douglas Engelbart during the 1960s and demonstrated in 1968. The NLS system was the rst to employ the practical use of hypertext links, the mouse, raster-scan video monitors, information organized by relevance, screen windowing, computer presentation and other modern computing concepts (taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLS_ %28computer_system%29). OS Operating System(s). The basic software that makes a computer run. An OS schedules tasks, allocates storage, handles the interface to peripheral hardware and presents a default interface to the user when no application program is running (taken from http:// www.7designavenue.com/glossary.htm). PC Personal Computer(s). Generally a computer designed to be used by one person at a time. Early models performed only simple tasks such as word processing, programming or game play (taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer). PDA Personal Digital Assistant(s). A handheld computer that serves as an organizer for personal information. It generally includes at least a name and address database, to-do list and note taker (taken from http://www.wirelesstechiq.com/news/294-wirelessTechIQ_ news.html). UI User Interface(s). This is a general term referring to the way a human interacts with computer programmes. There are many forms of user interface and the term can be equally employed to relate to microwave ovens as to PCs (based on http://www.ideaeng. com/pub/entsrch/glossary.html). WIMP Window, Icon, Menu, Pointer. A model of GUI by which a user interacts with a computer through the use of these four elements. The user employs a mouse to postion a pointer on objects such as icons and windows, clicking on them to cause interaction. The WIMP model is the most common in personal computing at present, but is a subject of much controversy and criticism. Many researchers claim to be searching for an idea; postWIMP solution (based on http://www.archivemag.co.uk/gloss/W.html). WIMP-GUI a graphical user interface based on the windows, icon, menus, pointer model.

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Appendix B: List of notable websites relating to icon creation


Apple Human Interface Guidelines: http://developer.apple.com/documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/ OSXHIGuidelines/index.html#//apple_ref/doc/uid/20000957 Fast Icons: http://www.fasticon.com/stockicons.html Firewheel Design: http://www.rewheeldesign.com/ Delicious Monster: http://www.mikematas.com/ GNOME Interface Guidelines: http://developer.gnome.org/projects/gup/hig/2.0/icons.html Hicks Design: http://www.hicksdesign.co.uk/ IconFactory: http://www.iconfactory.com/ Jasper Hauser: http://www.jasperhauser.nl/icon/ Microsoft Windows XP Icon Guidelines: http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/dnwxp/html/ winxpicons.asp PyrusMalus: http://www.pyrusmalus.com/ Symbol and sign databases: http://www.symbols.com/graphicsearch.html http://www.symbols.net http://www.omniglot.com/writing/blissymbolics.htm The BettsBro: http://homepage.mac.com/adambetts/thebettsbro/portfolio/icons.html Yellow Icon: http://www.yellowicon.com/ Yellow Lane: http://www.yellowlane.com/

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