You are on page 1of 31

BTEC First Diploma in Sport Unit 1 The Body in Sport Learner Resource Pack

Introduction
By the end of this unit you will be able to understand the structure and the functions of the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular and respiratory systems and how they are affected by exercise both in the short and long term as well as how the body copes with a variety of stresses. You will also acknowledge the fundamentals of the energy systems by carrying out a range of sports activities throughout this unit.

Section One: The Skeletal System


Part 1.1: Structure of the skeleton
The skeleton provides us with a complex framework made up of bones, joints and cartilage which protect our vital organs. Without this framework we would be unable to perform any type of movement such as carrying out everyday tasks e.g. dressing or washing to sporting movements e.g. running and jumping. The skeleton is made up of over 300 bones at birth but the adult body ends up with approximately 206 because some bones fuse together. This means that some bones that are separated are joined together to form one bone. An example of this is the skull as this starts off as separate bones and as we grow the separate bones fuse to form one bone.

Anterior view of skeleton

Posterior view of the skeleton

The skeleton can be divided into 2 main parts. The axial skeleton The appendicular skeleton

The axial skeleton


The axial skeleton is made up of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and the sternum. The bones are outlined below with some details about each one: Skull cranium The skull is made up of approximately 28 bones; these bones are fused as outlined previously. It protects the brain, eyes and the ears. Sternum Commonly known as the breast bone the sternum is a flat bone which is at the front of the rib cage and helps protect the heart and lungs. Ribs There are 12 pairs of ribs which join onto the vertebral column. 3 pairs are attached and the last 2 pairs are unattached; these are called floating ribs. The ribcage provides protection for the heart and lungs. Vertebral column Commonly known as the spine there are 33 bones called vertebrae. The vertebral column has the responsibility of protecting the spinal cord, supporting the body, provision of posture, allowing for movement and the transmission of force to the various body parts. The vertebral discs acts as a shock absorber and allows for movement.

The vertebral column

The appendicular skeleton


The appendicular skeleton is made up of the arms, shoulder girdle, legs and hip girdle. Clavicle Commonly known as the collar bone. There are 2 which attach at the shoulders. Scapulae There are 2 which link at the spine allowing movement at the arms and shoulders. Humerus, radius and ulna These are the bones that form the upper and lower arm. There are 8 carpal bones in the wrist, 5 metacarpal bones in the hand as well as 14 phalanges. Femur, tibia and fibula and patella These are the bones that form the upper and lower leg. The knee cap is called the patella. There are 7 tarsals in the foot, 5 metatarsals also in the foot as well as 14 phalanges. Pelvis The pelvis forms the hip girdle which is made up of 2 halves fused together on each side. Here weight is transmitted to the legs as well as supporting the lower abdomen and protecting various vital organs.

Part 1.2: Joints


Joints are found where 2 or more bones meet; they are joined by ligaments. Ligaments are fibrous tissues that join bone to bone and ensure that the joint is stable.

Joints and movement


Joints can be classified based upon the amount of movement available and also their structure. The three types of joint are outlined below: 1. 2. 3. freely movable (synovial) slightly movable (cartilaginous) fixed (fibrous)

Joint type Freely movable (synovial) Slightly movable (cartilaginous) Fixed (fibrous)

Example Knee, hip and shoulder Vertebral column

Range of movement Wide range of movement Slight movement because joints are linked by cartilage No movement at all between bones

Sacrum, cranium

Synovial joints
Synovial joints are the most commonly occurring type of joint in the body. Examples include the hip, knee and ankle joint.

A typical synovial joint

The following characteristics are found within synovial joints: Synovial fluid is found within the joint which lubricate it and this allows for free movement

Synovial membrane is a layer inside the capsule this secretes the synovial fluid Hyaline cartilage covers the head of the bone forming the joint. It protects the bone and reduces friction within the joint

There are six different types of synovial joints outlined below. Type of synovial joint/example Ball and socket e.g. hip, shoulder Pivot e.g. atlas and axis at the neck Hinge e.g. elbow Gliding e.g. carpals in the hand Saddle e.g. thumb Condyloid e.g. wrist Description Has the ability to move in all directions One bone is able to turn from side to side around the other bone. This joint moves in one plane only Movement is limited This is when one bone slides on top of another. Movement is limited This joint moves in 2 planes. Movement is limited Movement can be made possible in 2 planes

Part 1.3: Functions of the skeleton


Shape The skeleton forms our shape or framework, giving us individuality. Otherwise we would all look alike. Protection The skeleton protects our vital organs. For example the skull protects the brain, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord and the rib cage protects the heart and the lungs. Movement The skeleton with its complex bones and joints allows us to move in a variety of ways whether it is carrying out daily tasks or playing sports. Support The skeleton holds our vital organs in place, provides attachment for the muscles and gives us our overall shape which in many cases determines the sports we go on to play. Blood production The marrow of the bone produces red and white blood cells. Calcium and as other minerals are also stored in the bones.

Part 1.4: Bone and bone growth


Bone
Bone is the hardest tissue in the body. There are four different types of bone which can be classified in relation to their shape, size and function. These are described below. Bone type Long Short Description These are the longer bones in the body These are the shorter bones found in our hands and feet These can attach to larger muscles Function Involved in main /larger movements Involved in small/finer movements Example Femur, humerus Carpals, metatarsals Cranium, pelvis

Flat

Irregular

Provide attachment of muscle and support, also protect These are irregular Protection and in shape support

Face and vertebrae

Bone growth and sport


Prior to birth (at embryo stage) our skeleton is made up of cartilage which is elastic but firm. Cartilage changes into bone as the embryo grows. Bone is harder and firmer making it resilient to the stresses of the stages of growth from childhood and then finally into adulthood. Ossification is the process of the development of bone from cartilage. Exercise and sports activities aid the development of the skeleton during the childhood stages of life. Bone is a living tissue that has the capacity to repair itself when it is damaged. Bones are enclosed by a membrane (periosteum); this acts like a skin that holds it all together. Within the periosteum there are three types of bone cells as outlined below: Osteoblasts these produce collagen and minerals that are needed for bone growth and the hardening of the bones Osteocytes these are the main cells of the bone tissue required for maintaining healthy bones

Osteoclasts when a bone is damaged these cells clean up the area and are responsible for absorbing and removing bone so that osteoclasts can then form the new bone

Below is a flow diagram of the process of bone growth: Cartilage When we are born most of our bone is cartilage and is softer than the bone that we have when we are adults. This leads to the bones going through ossification.

Osteoblasts these cells produce collagen and minerals that harden the bone and change the bone from cartilage.

Osteocytes these are the final bone cells that allow the bones to be hardened and in the form as we know when we are adults.

Osteoclasts When we exercise or break our bones these cells help clean up the area so that ossification can occur again and build a stronger bone.

Bone growth

Part 1.5: Movement


All movements can be classified into certain patterns. These movements are defined to help coaches and trainers review how individuals are moving and how they can be changed to improve performance. Some movements and their descriptions are outlined below: Movemen t Flexion Extension Adduction Abduction Rotation Description The angle of the joint decreases The angle of the joint increases The limb moves closer to the mid line of the body The limb moves away from the mid line of the body The limb moves towards the mid line of the body and changes the position of the body Example Bending the knee to kick a ball Straightening the knee after the kick has taken place Forehand shot in tennis Backhand shot in badminton Mobility movement during a warm up phase of an activity

Part 1.6: Effects of exercise


Short term effects of exercise
When exercise is undertaken it will cause the joints to stimulate the secretion of synovial fluid. This synovial fluid will become less viscous (thick) and the range of movement around the joint will increase.

Long term effects of exercise


If a long period of training is undertaken the following effects will occur. There is an increase in bone density; bones become stronger and more resilient to the stresses imposed upon them through exercise and sport. This in turn reduces the risk of osteoporosis. Strengthening of ligaments also occurs around the joint and this in turn helps the joints become more stable. The hyaline cartilage becomes thicker which provides more protection and there is an overall increase in the production of synovial fluid.

Section Two: The Muscular System


Part 2.1: Major muscles of the body and their functions
The muscular system is a network of fibres that work together to create movement by contracting and extending (shortening and lengthening). There are in fact approximately 600 voluntary muscles in our body. The functions of the muscles are outlined below: They give shape to our bodies They create movement When the muscles contract they generate heat They help in the circulation of blood They provide protection for our vital organs and hold them in place

The major anterior and posterior muscles of the human body are shown on the following diagrams. Anterior muscles of the body

Posterior muscles of the body

Part 2.2: Types of muscles


There are three types of muscle within the human body. Smooth muscles these are smooth in appearance and work involuntarily e.g. they work without us thinking about them or in other words automatically. They work our internal organs. e.g. bowel, uterus and bladder. Skeletal muscles these are striated in appearance in other words striped. The skeletal muscles are voluntary and are under our control. We use these muscles when we carry out daily tasks and sports activities, e.g. ironing, walking, running and swimming to name but a few. Cardiac muscle this muscle is also striated in appearance and is only found in the heart. This muscle is also controlled involuntarily. It works on its own and is under constant nervous and chemical control.

Part 2.3: Muscle and movement


Movement occurs when muscles shorten (contract) and lengthen (extend). It is skeletal muscle that performs any visible movement that your body makes and any non visible movement is as a result of other muscular tissues performing (e.g. smooth and cardiac). Muscles work in groups rather than on their own, with most arranged in opposing pairs. The muscle responsible for the movement is called the prime mover or agonist. Muscles work in opposing pairs. When the agonist contracts the opposing muscle has to relax to allow the movement to occur. This muscle is called the antagonist. Example the bicep curl If the prime mover is the bicep then the tricep is the antagonistic muscle that relaxes in order for movement to take place (the bicep curl). The antagonist and the agonist work together to produce the movement. When a muscle contracts it either shortens, lengthens or stays the same length. When it shortens or lengthens it is known as an isotonic contraction. If it stays the same length it is referred to as an isometric contraction. There are two types of isotonic contractions concentric and eccentric. Below are descriptions of the different types of contraction:

Type of contraction Concentric Eccentric Isometric

Description The muscle shortens The muscle lengthens The muscle stays the same length throughout

Example The leg kicking a ball Bicep curl on the downward phase The crucifix position holding a weight at arms length

Tendons Tendons are made up of collagen and elastin and attach muscle to bone. Tendons are strong and inelastic and vary in both shape and size.

Part 2.4: The effects of exercise on the muscular system


Short term effects of exercise
The following effects are seen when exercise is undertaken in the muscles: There is an increase in muscular temperature and metabolic activity The demand for oxygen is greater together with an increase in blood supply as the muscular system becomes more efficient As the muscles become warmer through activity they are more pliable which reduces the risk of injury

Long term effects of exercise


The following long term effects are seen in the muscular system: The muscular system becomes stronger and more resilient in order for it to cope with demands imposed upon it Muscle bulk and size will increase. The increased size of the muscle tissue is called hypertrophy There will be improved range of flexibility if certain training activities are undertaken Muscle endurance will also increase resisting fatigue The body shape will have a more toned look; posture will also improve The heart muscle will also increase in size if regular cardiovascular training is undertaken

All of these effects only occur and are maintained if individuals continue exercising. If they stop exercising the effects will reverse and they will return to the state they were in before training.

Section Three The Cardiovascular System and How it is Affected by Exercise

Part 3.1: Structure of the cardiovascular system


The cardiovascular system is composed of three main parts: the heart, the blood vessels and the blood. Its function is to deliver oxygen and nutrients and excrete waste products from all the cells of the body. The heart The heart is a large muscle that pumps blood and transports it around the body via arteries and veins. It is made up of four chambers, two upper atria and two lower ventricles. The walls of the four chambers are made up of cardiac muscle, which is called the myocardium. The blood vessels Blood vessels are the transporters and allow the exchange of materials to take place such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, drugs and heat. The blood Blood is the fluid by which oxygen, carbon dioxide and nutrients are transported throughout the body.

Part 3.2: Structure and function of the heart


The heart is an involuntary muscle that will become more efficient with regular exercise. The role of the heart is to pump blood around the body.

Structure of the heart

The passage of blood through the heart


A description of the how the blood passes through the heart is outlined below: Deoxygenated blood is returned from the muscles and the rest of the body via the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium The blood then passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle The blood then is pumped past the semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery The blood is then passed through the lungs and oxygenated The blood is then returned to the heart via the pulmonary vein into the left atrium The blood is then pumped past the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle The blood is then passed through the semilunar valve into the aorta

The aorta then delivers the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body

Part 3.3: Blood vessels


Blood vessels are responsible for carrying blood to all body parts. There are 3 types - arteries, veins and capillaries. The arteries carry blood away from the heart to the working muscles and other parts of the muscles where oxygen is required. The capillaries surround the areas that require oxygen and allow the oxygen to be passed to the areas and waste products to be passed back into the blood and to be excreted. The veins take the deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Blood vessel type Arteries Structure In texture they are thick and very elastic. They have the ability to contract, forcing blood towards the capillaries. Arteries become smaller and smaller and they are called arterioles These are 2 layers thick containing pocket valves and non elastic. These veins become smaller and smaller and are called venules These are thin and narrow, only one cell thick. They connect veins and arteries Function They carry blood away from the heart. The blood is under pressure

Veins

Capillari es

Deoxygenated blood moves from the capillaries to veins and venules. They carry blood back to the heart. Deoxygenated blood then enters the heart from the largest veins the vena cava Deliver nutrients and remove waste products

Blood
Blood is the transport system within the body. Its function is to: Transport oxygen to the tissues and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide Transport nutrients to the cells White blood cells are responsible for protecting the body from infection

Part 3.4: Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system


Short term effects of exercise
When an individual starts exercising the following effects occur: The heart starts working harder to supply blood to the working muscles which results in the heart rate increasing When power sports are undertaken e.g. power lifting or sprinting, blood pressure also increases Blood supply to the organs that are not needed may be reduced and the blood supply to the working muscles is increased

Long term effects of exercise


When an individual trains over a period of time the following effects occur to the CV system: The heart will increase in size and become more efficient at pumping blood around the body; this in turn results in a reduction in heart rate There is an increase in blood vessel size and number There is an increase in stroke volume due to the increase in oxygen demand by the working muscles An individual will have the ability to carry out sporting activities for longer periods of time before tiring

Section Four The Respiratory System and How it is Affected by Exercise


Part 4.1: Structure and function of the respiratory system
The respiratory system is responsible for the transportation of oxygen via the lungs as well as removing carbon dioxide from the blood via the lungs. An average adult will inhale and exhale approximately 12 to 15 breaths per minute. Structure of the respiratory system

Passage of air through the respiratory system Below is an outline of the passage of air through the respiratory system: Air enters the body through the nose and mouth. The nasal cavity removes dust particles by using the cilia (nasal hairs) To stop food going down the windpipe there is a flap at the back of the throat called the epiglottis. The epiglottis closes when food is swallowed to stop food getting into the trachea

The air then passes down the trachea otherwise known as the windpipe The trachea branches off into 2 bronchial tubes which lie behind the sternum The bronchial tubes branch out again into smaller bronchi and then smaller still into tiny bronchioles Once the air has passed along this part of respiratory system the air will arrive in the alveoli Alveoli are thin walled air sacs. The alveoli will fill with air then empty as an individual inspires and expires air into the lung cavities. The alveoli allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass between the blood and the lungs The blood takes the oxygen and returns the carbon dioxide to the lungs to be expired The oxygenated blood is then taken to the heart to be distributed to the rest of the body

The process when oxygen and carbon dioxide change places is called gaseous exchange. This happens when a high concentration of gas moves to a low concentration of gas.

Part 4.2: Mechanics of breathing


The muscles involved in breathing are the intercostal muscles, diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. The diaphragm is a dome shaped muscle situated at the bottom of the lungs. Inspiration When an individual breathes in it is referred to as inspiration. To allow inspiration to occur the diaphragm contracts. This causes the diaphragm to flatten at the bottom of the rib cage. The intercostal muscles which lie across the rib cage also contract pulling the ribs upwards. This increases the area inside the lungs and therefore allows air to pass into the lungs. Expiration When an individual breathes out it is known as expiration. During expiration the intercostal muscles relax and the ribs return to their starting position. The diaphragm also relaxes and pushes up into the rib cage area. This causes the area inside the rib cage to decrease and forces the air to be expired from the lungs.

Inspiration and expiration

Part 4.3: The effects of exercise on the respiratory system


The short term effects of exercise
When an individual takes part in exercise the demand for oxygen by the working muscles increases once exercise is started. This leads to an increase in breathing rate. There is also an increase efficiency in the alveoli which leads to an increase in gaseous exchange.

Long term effects of exercise


The following effects of training on the respiratory system occur: The ability to continue in any given activity for a longer period of time Increased vital capacity which is the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled in one breath The VO2 max of the body is increased, this is the maximum amount of oxygen that can be transported and used by working muscles

Section Five: Energy Systems


Part 5.1: Energy systems

Increased efficiency of the respiratory system

To enable muscles to contract energy is required. There are three energy systems that allow muscles to contract as outlined below: Energy system Creatine phosphate system Uses creatine phosphate for energy that is present in the muscle naturally Lactic acid system Uses glucose to create energy from our diets Description Immediate energy system lasting for a short period of time approx. 10 seconds. Oxygen is not required Short term energy system lasting beyond 10 seconds at high intensity. There will be a build up of lactic acid and muscles will tire causing fatigue. Oxygen is not required Aerobic system Long term energy Uses supply. A ready glucose/fat/protein supply of oxygen is for energy production needed for this system Example Explosive sports such as shot put/javelin e.g. 100 metre sprint and power sports Races lasting approx. 180 seconds e.g. swimming, rugby and basketball, 400m running

Skiing, marathon/long distance running

The creatine phosphate system


This system provides energy immediately as it is found in the muscles in the form of phosphocreatine (PC) but it is in limited supply and will be used up very quickly to create energy. No oxygen is required for this and therefore this is used as the very first source of energy and is used very quickly.

The lactic acid system


This system provides short term energy. When we work harder e.g. breathing becomes deeper and quicker more oxygen is needed but it takes time to gain this extra supply. This is because the oxygen takes longer to get into the blood stream and then into the working muscles. This system is used when the CP system has been exhausted.

This system provides us with long term energy to allow us to continue for longer periods of time participating in a variety of activities. For example it can be used in events such as 400m. No oxygen is required for this system, however lactic acid is produced which causes the muscles to tire.

The aerobic system

This system provides long term energy. This system is used in long distance events e.g. marathons, 3000m running. The system uses carbohydrate, protein and fats for energy sources and can only be used in the presence of oxygen. This is why it takes a while for the system to start as the body has to wait for the presence of oxygen. Energy system Creatine phosphate Advantages ATP is found directly in the muscle tissue. It does not require oxygen to work and there are no waste products Chemical reactions are very short and is does not require oxygen to work This system can store a far greater amount of energy and is readily available. Activities can be sustained for a much longer period of time Disadvantages Limited supply lasting only a short time

Lactic acid

Aerobic

Again only a limited supply available at high intensity and there is build of lactic acid which can in turn stop the activity This system requires the presence of oxygen

Part 5.2: Energy requirements of physical activity


Whatever we do in our daily lives requires the use of energy. This could mean daily everyday tasks from walking to work, washing the car to dusting and polishing as well as more strenuous activities such as our involvement in sports activities at whichever level that may be. Energy is measured in kilojoules.

In order for individuals to maintain their weight they are required to balance their energy intake and output e.g. in terms of food that is what is eaten in a day balanced against what activities/sport/exercise we do in a day. There must be a balance of each otherwise weight is gained or lost respectively. Below is a table of the average amount of energy used in a number of activities:

Activity Walking Golf Badminton Rigorous gardening Gymnastics Tennis Rugby Squash Brisk jogging Cycling Swimming

Energy used (per hour) 380 Kj 560Kj 710Kj 880Kj 880Kj 1000Kj 1130Kj 1254Kj 1320Kj 1380Kj 1500Kj

You might also like