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Introduction
By the end of this unit you will be able to understand the structure and the functions of the skeletal, muscular, cardiovascular and respiratory systems and how they are affected by exercise both in the short and long term as well as how the body copes with a variety of stresses. You will also acknowledge the fundamentals of the energy systems by carrying out a range of sports activities throughout this unit.
The skeleton can be divided into 2 main parts. The axial skeleton The appendicular skeleton
Joint type Freely movable (synovial) Slightly movable (cartilaginous) Fixed (fibrous)
Range of movement Wide range of movement Slight movement because joints are linked by cartilage No movement at all between bones
Sacrum, cranium
Synovial joints
Synovial joints are the most commonly occurring type of joint in the body. Examples include the hip, knee and ankle joint.
The following characteristics are found within synovial joints: Synovial fluid is found within the joint which lubricate it and this allows for free movement
Synovial membrane is a layer inside the capsule this secretes the synovial fluid Hyaline cartilage covers the head of the bone forming the joint. It protects the bone and reduces friction within the joint
There are six different types of synovial joints outlined below. Type of synovial joint/example Ball and socket e.g. hip, shoulder Pivot e.g. atlas and axis at the neck Hinge e.g. elbow Gliding e.g. carpals in the hand Saddle e.g. thumb Condyloid e.g. wrist Description Has the ability to move in all directions One bone is able to turn from side to side around the other bone. This joint moves in one plane only Movement is limited This is when one bone slides on top of another. Movement is limited This joint moves in 2 planes. Movement is limited Movement can be made possible in 2 planes
Flat
Irregular
Provide attachment of muscle and support, also protect These are irregular Protection and in shape support
Osteoclasts when a bone is damaged these cells clean up the area and are responsible for absorbing and removing bone so that osteoclasts can then form the new bone
Below is a flow diagram of the process of bone growth: Cartilage When we are born most of our bone is cartilage and is softer than the bone that we have when we are adults. This leads to the bones going through ossification.
Osteoblasts these cells produce collagen and minerals that harden the bone and change the bone from cartilage.
Osteocytes these are the final bone cells that allow the bones to be hardened and in the form as we know when we are adults.
Osteoclasts When we exercise or break our bones these cells help clean up the area so that ossification can occur again and build a stronger bone.
Bone growth
The major anterior and posterior muscles of the human body are shown on the following diagrams. Anterior muscles of the body
Description The muscle shortens The muscle lengthens The muscle stays the same length throughout
Example The leg kicking a ball Bicep curl on the downward phase The crucifix position holding a weight at arms length
Tendons Tendons are made up of collagen and elastin and attach muscle to bone. Tendons are strong and inelastic and vary in both shape and size.
All of these effects only occur and are maintained if individuals continue exercising. If they stop exercising the effects will reverse and they will return to the state they were in before training.
The aorta then delivers the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
Veins
Capillari es
Deoxygenated blood moves from the capillaries to veins and venules. They carry blood back to the heart. Deoxygenated blood then enters the heart from the largest veins the vena cava Deliver nutrients and remove waste products
Blood
Blood is the transport system within the body. Its function is to: Transport oxygen to the tissues and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide Transport nutrients to the cells White blood cells are responsible for protecting the body from infection
Passage of air through the respiratory system Below is an outline of the passage of air through the respiratory system: Air enters the body through the nose and mouth. The nasal cavity removes dust particles by using the cilia (nasal hairs) To stop food going down the windpipe there is a flap at the back of the throat called the epiglottis. The epiglottis closes when food is swallowed to stop food getting into the trachea
The air then passes down the trachea otherwise known as the windpipe The trachea branches off into 2 bronchial tubes which lie behind the sternum The bronchial tubes branch out again into smaller bronchi and then smaller still into tiny bronchioles Once the air has passed along this part of respiratory system the air will arrive in the alveoli Alveoli are thin walled air sacs. The alveoli will fill with air then empty as an individual inspires and expires air into the lung cavities. The alveoli allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass between the blood and the lungs The blood takes the oxygen and returns the carbon dioxide to the lungs to be expired The oxygenated blood is then taken to the heart to be distributed to the rest of the body
The process when oxygen and carbon dioxide change places is called gaseous exchange. This happens when a high concentration of gas moves to a low concentration of gas.
To enable muscles to contract energy is required. There are three energy systems that allow muscles to contract as outlined below: Energy system Creatine phosphate system Uses creatine phosphate for energy that is present in the muscle naturally Lactic acid system Uses glucose to create energy from our diets Description Immediate energy system lasting for a short period of time approx. 10 seconds. Oxygen is not required Short term energy system lasting beyond 10 seconds at high intensity. There will be a build up of lactic acid and muscles will tire causing fatigue. Oxygen is not required Aerobic system Long term energy Uses supply. A ready glucose/fat/protein supply of oxygen is for energy production needed for this system Example Explosive sports such as shot put/javelin e.g. 100 metre sprint and power sports Races lasting approx. 180 seconds e.g. swimming, rugby and basketball, 400m running
This system provides us with long term energy to allow us to continue for longer periods of time participating in a variety of activities. For example it can be used in events such as 400m. No oxygen is required for this system, however lactic acid is produced which causes the muscles to tire.
This system provides long term energy. This system is used in long distance events e.g. marathons, 3000m running. The system uses carbohydrate, protein and fats for energy sources and can only be used in the presence of oxygen. This is why it takes a while for the system to start as the body has to wait for the presence of oxygen. Energy system Creatine phosphate Advantages ATP is found directly in the muscle tissue. It does not require oxygen to work and there are no waste products Chemical reactions are very short and is does not require oxygen to work This system can store a far greater amount of energy and is readily available. Activities can be sustained for a much longer period of time Disadvantages Limited supply lasting only a short time
Lactic acid
Aerobic
Again only a limited supply available at high intensity and there is build of lactic acid which can in turn stop the activity This system requires the presence of oxygen
In order for individuals to maintain their weight they are required to balance their energy intake and output e.g. in terms of food that is what is eaten in a day balanced against what activities/sport/exercise we do in a day. There must be a balance of each otherwise weight is gained or lost respectively. Below is a table of the average amount of energy used in a number of activities:
Activity Walking Golf Badminton Rigorous gardening Gymnastics Tennis Rugby Squash Brisk jogging Cycling Swimming
Energy used (per hour) 380 Kj 560Kj 710Kj 880Kj 880Kj 1000Kj 1130Kj 1254Kj 1320Kj 1380Kj 1500Kj