Chapter 5

Fourier Series
5.1 Periodic functions
A function f(t) is said to be periodic in t with period 2T if
f(t + 2T) = f(t)
where T is a positive constant for all t.
Periodic functions occur in many areas of engineering, for example, current and voltage in an AC
circuit, the motion of a piston in an internal combustion engine.
If f(t) is periodic in t and n is any integer, then
f(t + 2nT) = f(t) for all t
and so 4T, 6T, 8T, are also periods of f(t). The smallest possible value of 2T is called
the (fundamental) period of f(t).
1
Example 1
(i) cos t and sin t have a fundamental period of 2.
(ii) cos n(t +
2
n
) = cos(nt + 2) = cos nt, n > 0.
cos nt has the fundamental period 2/n.
(iii) f(t) = C, where C is a constant
is periodic but has no fundamental period.
(iv) The fundamental period of tan t is .
(v) Other example of periodic functions:
f(t) :=
_
t, 0 t < 1
1, 1 t < 2,
with period 2.
0
t
2
1
2
1
-1
-2 -3
3
-4
4
f(t)
2
(vi)
g(t) :=
_

_
2t, 0 t < 1
2, 1 t < 3
8 2t, 3 t < 4, with period 4.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t
8 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
4
g(t)

If f(t) and g(t) are periodic, with period 2T, then any linear combination
f(t) + g(t)
is also periodic with period 2T.
Example 2
f(t) = a
0
+a
1
cos t + a
2
cos 2t + + a
n
cos nt +
+ b
1
sin t + b
2
sin 2t + + b
n
sin nt +
has period 2.
3
5.2 Fourier Series
Let f(t) be dened in the interval (T, T), and assumed that f(t) has the period 2T. Then,
we may write the Fourier series corresponding to f(t) as
f(t) =
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos
nt
T
+ b
n
sin
nt
T
_
, (5.1)
and we call the constant term
a
0
2
as the mean of f(t) over a period, where a
0
, a
n
, b
n
,
n = 1, 2, 3, are unknown constants, to be determined. Note that the terms of a trigonometric
series are orthogonal. That is
_
c+2T
c
sin
mt
T
sin
nt
T
dt =
_
c+2T
c
cos
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt
=
_
0, if m = n
T, if m = n,
_
c+2T
c
sin
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt = 0,
for m, n = 1, 2, 3, ,
where c is any real constant.
As a special case, we consider c = T in this section.
4
Example 3. Show that
(i)
_
T
T
sin
mt
T
sin
nt
T
dt =
_
T
T
cos
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt
=
_
0, if m = n
T, if m = n.
(ii)
_
T
T
sin
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt = 0,
for m, n = 1, 2, 3, .
Proof:
(i) Note that sin Asin B =
1
2
[cos(A B) cos(A + B)]. For m = n,
_
T
T
sin
mt
T
sin
nt
T
dt =
1
2
_
T
T
_
cos
(mn)t
T
cos
(m + n)t
T
_
dt
=
1
2
_
sin
(mn)t
T
(mn)
T

sin
(m+n)t
T
(m+n)
T
_
T
T
= 0.
Since cos Acos B =
1
2
[cos(A + B) + cos(A B)],
_
T
T
cos
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt =
1
2
_
T
T
_
cos
(m + n)t
T
+ cos
(mn)t
T
_
dt
= 0.
For m = n,
_
T
T
sin
mt
T
sin
nt
T
dt =
1
2
_
T
T
_
1 cos
2nt
T
_
dt
=
1
2
_
t
sin
2nt
T
2n
T
_
T
T
= T.
5
_
T
T
cos
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt =
1
2
_
T
T
(1 + cos
2nt
T
)dt
=
1
2
_
t +
sin
2nt
T
2n
T
_
T
T
= T.
(ii) Note that sin Acos B =
1
2
_
sin(A + B) + sin(A B)
_
. For m = n,
_
T
T
sin
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt =
1
2
_
T
T
_
sin
(m +n)t
T
+ sin
(mn)t
T
_
dt
=
1
2
_
cos
(m+n)t
T
(m+n)
T
+
cos
(mn)t
T
(mn)
T
_
T
T
=
T
2
_
cos(m + n) + cos(mn) cos(m +n) cos(mn)
_
= 0.
For m = n,
_
T
T
sin
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt =
1
2
_
T
T
sin
2nt
T
dt
= 0.
Integrating both sides of equation (6.1) with respect to t over the interval [T, T],
_
T
T
f(t)dt =
a
0
2
(2T) +

n=1
_
a
n
_
T
T
cos
nt
T
dt + b
n
_
T
T
sin
nt
T
dt
_
giving
a
0
=
1
T
_
T
T
f(t)dt.
Multiplying both sides of equation (6.1) by cos
mt
T
and integrating over [T, T], we have
_
T
T
f(t) cos
mt
T
dt =
a
0
2
_
T
T
cos
mt
T
dt +

n=1
_
a
n
_
T
T
cos
mt
T
cos
nt
T
dt
+b
n
_
T
T
cos
mt
T
sin
nt
T
dt
_
giving
a
n
=
1
T
_
T
T
f(t) cos
nt
T
dt, n = 1, 2, 3, .
6
Multiplying both sides of equation (6.1) by sin
mt
T
and integrating gives
b
n
=
1
T
_
T
T
f(t) sin
nt
T
dt, n = 1, 2, 3, .
Thus we have
f(t) =
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos
nt
T
+ b
n
sin
nt
T
_
where
a
0
=
1
T
_
T
T
f(t)dt,
a
n
=
1
T
_
T
T
f(t) cos
nt
T
dt,
b
n
=
1
T
_
T
T
f(t) sin
nt
T
dt, n = 1, 2, 3, .
This is known as the Fourier series representation of f(t) and the coecients a
n
, b
n
are
known as the Fourier coecients of f(t).
If T = , then
f(t) =
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos nt + b
n
sin nt
_
,
where
a
0
=
1

f(t)dt,
a
n
=
1

f(t) cos ntdt,

b
n
=
1

f(t) sin ntdt, n = 1, 2, 3, .

7
5.3 Sufficient conditions for a function to have a Fourier
series (the Dirichlet conditions)
1. f(t) be real-valued and bounded in [T, T] and extended to other values of t by the
periodicity relation
f(t + 2nT) = f(t), n = 1, 2, 3, .
2. f(t) has only a nite number of maximum and minimum points in [T, T].
3. f(t) has only a nite number of nite discontinuous points in [T, T].
N.B.:
1. Continuity alone is not a sucient condition for a function to have a Fourier series.
2. If f(t) satises the Dirichlet conditions at t then the Fourier series converges to
(i) f(t), if t is a point of continuity.
(ii) the value
1
2
_
f(t

0
) + f(t
+
0
)
_
=
1
2
_
lim
tt

0
f(t) + lim
tt
+
0
f(t)
_
, if t = t
0
is a point of
discontinuity.
Since f(t) is not equal to the Fourier series everywhere. We write
f(t)
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos
nt
T
+ b
n
sin
nt
T
_
.
8
Example 4.
Let
f(t) :=
_

_
t + 1, 3 t < 2
t
2
, 2 t < 0
cos t, 0 t <

2
1,

2
t < 3
.
0
1
2
4
3
3 2 1 -3 -2 -1
t
f (t)
-1
-2
f(t) has a Fourier series in [3, 3].
Let
g(t) := sin
1
t
, t [, ].
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
The Graph of sin(1/ t)
g(t)
t
g(t) has an innite number of maxima and minima in the neighborhood of t = 0. Hence g(t)
has no Fourier series in [, ].
9
Let
h(t) :=
1
t
2
1
, t [, ].

1
h(t)
t
0
Since there is an innite discontinuity at x = 1.
Hence h(t) has no Fourier series in [, ].
10
Example 5.
Find the Fourier series for the square wave
f(t) :=
_
0 < t 0
2, 0 < t <
with period 2.
Solution:
t
0
f(t)

3 2
3 4 2
2
Graph of f(t).
The Fourier series corresponding to f(t) as
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos nt + b
n
sin nt
_
,
where
a
n
=
1

f(t) cos nt dt
=
1

_

0
2 cos nt dt =
2

_
sin nt
n
_

0
= 0,
a
0
=
1

f(t) dt =
1

_

0
2 dt =
2

= 2,
11
b
n
=
1

f(t) sin nt dt
=
1

_

0
2 sin nt dt =
2

_
cos nt
n
_

0
=
2
n
_
1 cos n
_
=
2
n
_
1 (1)
n
_
=
_
0, if n is even
4
n
, if n is odd.
Hence, the Fourier series of f(t) is
f(t) 1 +
4

n=1
sin(2n 1)t
2n 1
.

If we write
S
n
(t) = 1 +
4

k=1
sin(2k 1)t
2k 1
Then
S
1
(t) = 1 +
4

sin t
S
2
(t) = 1 +
4

sin t +
4
3
sin 3t
S
3
(t) = 1 +
4

sin t +
4
3
sin 3t +
4
5
sin 5t
By looking at various partial sums of this series we may see how it approaches f(t) as n .

t
0
1
2
S
1
= 1 +
4

sin t
12
0
0

1
2
1
2
t t
S
2
= 1 +
4

sin t +
4
3
sin t S
5
= 1 +
4

sin t + +
4
9
sin 9t
N.B.:
1. As more terms are taken the series does approach f(t).
2. At a point of discontinuity of f(t) that is, at t = 0 (and also t = n, n = 1, 2, .)
the series converges to 1 which is the average of the left and right hand limits at that point.
3. Only sine terms are present in this series and only the odd harmonics (sin t, sin 3tmsin 5t, etc).
4. the coecients b
n
(the amplitudes of the sine terms present) are proportional to 1/n and
hence we may expect fairly slow convergence of this series.
13
Example 6.
Find the Fourier series for the following function of period 10:
f(t) :=
_
40 + 4t, 5 t 0
4t 0 < t 5,
Solution:
The Fourier series corresponding to f(t) as
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos
nt
5
+ b
n
sin
nt
5
_
,
where
a
n
=
1
5
_
5
5
f(t) cos
nt
5
dt
=
1
5
__
0
5
(40 + 4t) cos
nt
5
dt +
_
5
0
4t cos
nt
5
dt
_
=
1
5
__
0
5
40 cos
nt
5
dt +
_
0
5
4t cos
nt
5
dt +
_
5
0
4t cos
nt
5
dt
_
=
1
5
40
_
0
5
cos
nt
5
dt +
1
5
_
5
5
4t cos
nt
5
dt
= 8
_
sin(
nt
5
)
n
5
_
0
5
+ 0, since
_

F(t) dt = 0 if F(t) is an odd function

= 0,
b
n
=
1
5
_
5
5
f(t) sin
nt
5
dt
=
1
5
__
0
5
(40 + 4t) sin
nt
5
dt +
_
5
0
4t sin
nt
5
dt
_
=
1
5
__
0
5
40 sin
nt
5
dt +
_
0
5
4t sin
nt
5
dt +
_
5
0
4t sin
nt
5
dt
_
=
1
5
40
__
0
5
sin
nt
5
dt +
1
5
_
5
5
4t sin
nt
5
dt
_
= 8
_
cos(
nt
5
)
n
5
_
0
5
+
8
5
_
_
t cos(
nt
5
)
n
5
_
5
0
+
5
n
_
5
0
cos
nt
5
dt
_
14
=
40
n
_
1 cos n
_
+
8
5
_

5
n
_
5 cos n
_
+
5
n
_
sin(
nt
5
)
n
5
_
5
0
_
=
40
n
(1 cos n)
40
n
cos n
=
40
n
,
a
0
=
1
5
_
5
5
f(t) dt
=
1
5
__
0
5
(40 + 4t) dt +
_
5
0
4t dt
_
=
1
5
__
0
5
40 dt +
_
0
5
4t dt +
_
5
0
4t dt
_
=
1
5
40
_
0
5
dt +
1
5
_
5
5
4t dt
= 8
_
t
_
0
5
+ 0
= 40.
The Fourier series of f(t) is
f(t) 20

n=1
40
n
sin
nt
5
.
15
Method II
The graph of y = f(t) is shown in gure 1.
0
f (t)
40
-10 -20 10
t
20 30 5
-5
Figure 1
Hence the function f(t) is equivalent to the function g(t) dened on the interval (0, 10] as
g(t) := 4t, 0 < t 10, with period 10.
And the Fourier series corresponding to g(t) as
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos
nt
5
+ b
n
sin
nt
5
_
,
where
a
n
=
1
5
_
10
0
g(t) cos
nt
5
dt
=
1
5
_
10
0
4t cos
nt
5
dt
=
4
5
_
_
t sin
nt
5
n
5
_
10
0

5
n
_
10
0
sin
nt
5
dt
_
=
4
n
_

cos
nt
5
n
5
_
10
0
= 0,
16
b
n
=
1
5
_
10
0
g(t) sin
nt
5
dt
=
4
5
_
10
0
t sin
nt
5
dt
=
4
5
_
_

t cos
nt
5
n
5
_
10
0
+
5
n
_
10
0
cos
nt
5
dt
_
=
4
5
_

50
n
+
5
n
_
sin
nt
5
n
5
_
10
0
_
=
40
n
,
a
0
=
1
5
_
10
0
g(t) dt
=
4
5
_
10
0
t dt
=
4
5
_
t
2
2
_
10
0
= 40
Hence the required series of f(t) is
f(t) 20

n=1
40
n
sin
nt
5
.
17
Example 7.
f is a periodic function of period and f(x) = x
2
+

2
x, x (

2
,

2
).
(a) Find the Fourier series for f(x).
(b) Use the result in (a) to evaluate

n=1
1
n
2
.
Solution:
t
0
f(x)
2

3
3
2
2 2 2

graph of f(x)
The Fourier series corresponding to f(x) as
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos 2nx + b
n
sin 2nx
_
,
where
a
n
=
2

_
2

2
(x
2
+

2
x) cos 2nx dx
=
4

_
2
0
x
2
cos 2nx dx
=
4
n
_
_
(x)
_

cos 2nx
2n
__
2
0
+
1
2n
_
2
0
cos 2nx dx
_
=
2
n
2

2
) cos n =
(1)
n
n
2
18
b
n
=
2

_
2

2
(x
2
+

2
x) sin 2nx dx
= 2
2

2
_
2
0
x sin 2nx dx
= 2
_
_
(x)(
cos 2nx
2n
)
_
2
0
+
1
2n
_ pi
2
0
cos 2nx dx
_
=
1
n
_

2
_
cos n =
(1)
n

2n
a
0
=
2

_
2

2
(x
2
+

2
x) dx
= 2
2

_
2
0
x
2
dx =
4

_
x
3
3
_
2
0
=

2
6
.
Hence,
f(x)

2
12
+

n=1
_
(1)
n
n
2
cos 2nx +
(1)
n+1

2n
sin 2nx
_
.
At x =

2
, our series converges to
1
2
_

2
2
+ 0
_
=

2
4
, by Dirichlets conditions.
Putting x =

2
, the series becomes

2
12
+

n=1
1
n
2
.
Hence,

n=1
1
n
2
=

2
4


2
12
=

2
6
.

19
5.4 Even and Odd Functions
A function f(t) is said to be an even function of t if f(t) = f(t), and to be an odd function
of t if f(t) = f(t).
For example,
t
4
+ 3t
2
+ 7, cos t, e
t
2
, |t|, .
are even functions of t,
t
5
+ 2t
3
+ 7t, sin t, tan t, t cos t, .
are odd functions of t.
Properties:
(i) If f(t) is a even function of t and integrable on [a.a], then
_
a
a
f(t) dt = 2
_
a
0
f(t) dt.
(ii) If f(t) is an odd function of t and integrable on [a, a], then
_
a
a
f(t) dt = 0.
(iii) If f(t) and g(t) are both even, the product of f(t) and g(t) is even, since
f(t)g(t) = f(t)g(t).
Similarly, if f(t) and g(t) are both odd, the product of f(t) and g(t) is even, since
f(t)g(t) = (f(t))(g(t)) = f(t)g(t).
If f(t) is odd and g(t) is even, the product of f(t) and g(t) is odd, since
f(t)g(t) = (f(t))g(t) = f(t)g(t).
Now consider nding the Fourier series of an even function f(t) in [, ]:
a
n
=
1

f(t) cos nt dt =
2

_

0
f(t) cos nt dt,
since the product of f(t) and cos nt is even.
b
n
=
1

f(t) sin nt dt = 0,
20
since the product of f(t) and sin nt is odd.
Hence the Fourier series of an even function f(t) in [, ] is:
f(t) =
a
0
2
+

n=1
a
n
cos nt,
where
a
n
=
2

0
f(t) cos nt dt, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .
This is called a Fourier cosine series for f(t). You may of course continue to use the full form
of the Fourier series if f(t) is even, but the above form required less work and you are less likely
to make an error in the integration.
As expected, an even function f(t) requires only even functions in its representation.
Similarly if f(t) is an odd function of t and integrable on [, ], all the coecients a
n
are
zero and we nd,
f(t) =

n=1
b
n
sin nt,
where
b
n
=
2

0
f(t) sin nt dt, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .
which is called a Fourier sine series, for f(t) consisting of only odd terms.
21
Example 8.
The sinusoidal voltage E(t) = sin t is passed through a full-wave rectier to produce
E(t) = | sin t|, t
Find its Fourier series.
t
0 2
2

1
E(t)
E(t) is an even function and so
E(t) =
1
2
a
0
+

n=1
a
n
cos nt,
where
a
n
=
2

_

0
E(t) cos nt dt
=
2

_

0
sin t cos nt dt
=
1

_

0
(sin(1 + n)t + sin(1 n)t) dt
=
1

_
cos(1 + n)t
1 + n

cos(1 n)t
1 n
_

0
=
1

_
cos(1 + n)
1 + n

cos(1 n)
1 n
+
1
1 + n
+
1
1 n
_
=
_
0 if n is odd, n = 1
4
(1n
2
)
, if n is even,
a
0
=
2

_

0
sin t dt =
2

_
cos t
_

0
=
4

,
a
1
=
2

_

0
sin t cos t dt =
2

_

0
sin td(sin t) =
2

_
sin
2
t
2
_

0
= 0.
22
Hence in [, ],
E(t) =
2

+
4

n=1
cos 2nt
1 4n
2
=
4

_
1
2

cos 2t
1 3

cos 4t
3 5

cos 6t
5 7

_
.
23
5.5 Half Range Series
In various applications (such as the solution of partial dierential equations by the separation of
variables method), it is necessary to express a function f(t) dened only on [0, ] as a series of
cosines or sines.
We may construct an even function f
1
(t) by
f
1
(t) :=
_
f(t) 0 < t <
f(t) < t < 0
and f
1
(t + 2) = f
1
(t) for all t, is known as the even periodic extension of f(t). This has
a Fourier cosine series which converges to f(t) in (0, ).
Similarly we may construct an odd function f
2
(t) by
f
2
(t) :=
_
f(t) 0 < t <
f(t) < t < 0
and f
2
(t + 2) = f
2
(t) for all t, is known as the odd periodic extension of f(t). This has
a Fourier cosine series which converges to f(t) in (0, ).
f (t)
2 f (t)
1
f(t)
0

3 2
0
3
0
2 2 2
t
t t
graph of f(t) graph of f
1
(t) graph of f
2
(t)
24
Example 9.
Find Fourier cosine and sine series for
f(t) = t, 0 t .
Solution:
(i) Fourier cosine series
The even periodic extension of f(t) corresponds to the triangular wave
0
f(t)
2
2
t
3

f(t) =
1
2
a
0
+

n=1
a
n
cos nt
where
a
n
=
2

_

0
t cos nt dt
=
2

__
t sin nt
n
_

1
n
_

0
sin nt dt
_
=
2

_
cos nt
n
2
_

0
=
2
n
2

((1)
n
1)
=
_

4
n
2

, if n is odd
0, if n is even
25
a
0
=
2

_

0
t dt
=
2

_
t
2
2
_

0
=
Hence in [0, ],
f(t) =

2

4

n=1
1
(2n 1)
2
cos(2n 1)t
=

2

4

_
cos t +
cos 3t
9
+
cos 5t
25
+
_
.
Putting t = 0 in this series gives
0 =

2

4

n=1
1
(2n 1)
2
,

n=1
1
(2n 1)
2
=

2
8
.
26
(ii) Fourier sine series
The odd periodic extension of f(t) corresponds to the saw-tooth wave
0
f(t)
2
2
t
3

f(t)

n=1
b
n
sin nt
where
b
n
=
2

_

0
t sin nt dt
=
2

__
t
cos nt
n
_

_

0
cos nt
n
dt
_
=
2(1)
n
n
Hence in (0, ),
f(t) = 2

n=1
(1)
n
n
sin nt.

27
5.6 Fourier Approximation
Suppose we approximate f(t) by a nite trigonometric series
S
N
(t) =
1
2

0
+
N

n=1
(
n
cos nt + sin nt)
such that the squared error
E =
_

[f(t) S
N
(t)]
2
dt
is minimized.
E =
_

[f(t)
1
2

n=1
(
n
cos nt +
n
sin nt)]
2
dt
=
_

f
2
(t) dt +
1
4

2
0
_

1
2
dt
+
N

n=1
(
2
n
_

cos
2
nt dt +
2
n
_

sin
2
nt dt)

0
_

f(t) dt 2
N

n=1
_

n
_

f(t) cos nt dt +
n
_

f(t) sin nt dt
_
(all other cross terms are zero due to the orthogonality of
1, cos nt, sin nt)
E =
_

f
2
(t) dt +

2

2
0
+

2

2
0
+
N

n=1
(
2
n
+
2
n
)

0
a
0
2
N

n=1
(
n
a
n
+
n
b
n
)
For E to be a minimum we must have
E

0
=
0
a
0
= 0 =
0
= a
0
E

n
= 2
n
2a
n
= 0 =
n
= a
n
, n = 1, 2, , N
E

n
= 2
n
2b
n
= 0 =
n
= b
n
, n = 1, 2, , N
28
i.e. the coecients
0
,
n
,
n
of the nite series are exactly the coecients taken from the Fourier
series. Thus a truncated Fourier series is the best approximate to f(t) in the sense that it minimizes
the squared error.
Now, for this choice of the coecients
E =
_

f
2
(t) dt

2
a
2
0

n=1
(a
2
n
+ b
2
n
)
or, since we must have E 0,
1
2
_

f
2
(t) dt
1
4
a
2
0
+
1
2
N

n=1
(a
2
n
+ b
2
n
)
which is known as Bessels inequality.
As N , we have
1
4
a
2
0
+
1
2

n=1
(a
2
n
+ b
2
n
)
1
2
_

f
2
(t) dt
but in fact the sign may be replaced by an = sign, since,
_

f
2
(t) dt =
_

_
1
2
a
0
+

n=1
a
n
cos nt + b
n
sin nt
_
2
dt
=
1
4
a
2
0
2 +

n=1
(a
2
n
+b
2
n
)
(using the orthogonality properties)

1
2
_

f
2
(t) dt =
1
4
a
2
0
+
1
2

n=1
(a
2
n
+ b
2
n
)
This result is known as Parsevals Theorem.
If f(t) is an electrical signal,
1
2
_

f
2
(t) dt is proportional to the total mean power in the
signal. This result may be interpreted as the mean power of a signal equals the sum of the mean
powers in each of the frequency components of that signal.
29
5.7 Further Results
5.7.1 Dierentiation and Integration of Fourier Series
Under certain conditions the Fourier series of f(t) may be dierentiated or integrated term by
term to give f

(t) and
_
f(t) dt respectively.
5.7.2 Frequency Spectrum
Each term of a Fourier series has a physical interpretation. The rst term
1
2
a
0
=
1
T
_
c+T
c
f(t) dt
is the average value of f(t). It is time independent and is known as the dc (direct current) term.
cos t and sin t are simple harmonic (single frequency) oscillations with angular frequency
being the fundamental frequency of f(t). a
1
and b
1
are the amplitudes of these terms.
The terms cos nt and sin nt are the harmonic terms, with frequency an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency, with amplitudes a
n
and b
n
.
Plots of the coecients a
n
and b
n
as functions of form the frequency spectrum of f(t).
For a periodic function only the frequencies n occur and hence the spectrum consists of discrete
lines spaced apart. It is a discrete or line spectrum.
n
b
0
a
n
0
2 3 4 5
angular
frequency
5
angular
frequency
3 2 4
Many electronic devices are required to pass signals with little distortion. Using Fourier series the
signal may be analyzed into its harmonics and the eect of the device on each harmonic calculated.
For example, high frequency waves may get distorted most. By knowing how much of each harmonic
component is present in a signal we may calculate the degree of distortion expected.
30
The smoother f(t) is, the faster will be the convergence of the Fourier series and so the signal will
be better represented by a small number of the lower harmonics. If
(i) f(t) is only piecewise-continuous, a
n
, b
n
1/n
(ii) f(t) is continuous but f

(t) has discontinuities, a

n
, b
n
1/n
2
(iii) f(t) and all derivatives up to f
(k1)
(t) are continuous but f
(k)
(t) is not, a
n
, b
n
1/n
k+1
.
This behavior can be observed in the examples.
5.7.3 General Orthogonal Functions
The results of this section generalize to give expansions of f(t) in terms of other orthogonal
functions (not necessarily trigonometric).
If a set of functions
0
(t),
1
(t),
2
(t),
3
(t), . dened on an interval [a, b] has the property
that
_
b
a

m
(t)
n
(t) dt = 0, if m = n,
they are orthogonal.
The generalized Fourier series of f(t) is
f(t) =

n=1
c
n

n
(t)
where
c
n
=
_
b
a
f(t)
n
(t) dt
_
b
a

2
n
(t) dt
(the coecients c
n
are derived as in section 6.2).
31