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Grading techniques

INTRODUCTION
Importance of Grading
Landscape architects and other designers must ensure that grading
becomes an integral part of the design process, on a par with the location of buildings,
circulation patterns, and the recognition and use of all landscape qualities. Indeed, in
many cases the grading scheme is a primary determinant in the total design.

Functional and Aesthetic Reasons for Grading


Grading may be done for a number of functional and/or aesthetic reasons.
Shown in fig. below.

Outdoor Lighting
Introduction
This section includes information useful for solving site lighting problems.
Included are definition of terms associated with lighting general design principles,
characteristics of various lamps and recommended levels of illumination (industry
standards) for various landscape uses. The information included here will help the
designer focus on specific ideas about lighting and in the process of specifying fixtures
for particular lighting projects.
Objectives of Outdoor lighting
The purpose of outdoor lighting include:
1) Improving the legibility of critical nodes, landmarks, and circulation and activity
zones in the landscape.
2) Facilitating the safe movement of pedestrians and vehicles, promoting a more
secure environment and minimizing the potential for personal harm and damage
to property and ;
3) Helping to reveal the salient features of a site at a desired intensity of light in
order to encourage nighttime use of a particular environment.
GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Orientation
Lighting Hierarchy:
Driver and pedestrian orientation can be aided by providing a hierarchy of
lighting effects that correspond to the different zones and uses of a site. For instant, subtle
but recognizable distinctions can be made between major and minor roads, paths, and use
areas by varying the distribution and brightness of the light and by varying the height,
spacing, and colour of the lamps.
Attaining high levels of illumination along circulation routes does not
have to be prime consideration in outdoor lighting. If a clear and consistent system is
provided, low levels may be adequate for sale circulation. Once a modest illumination
intensity has been provided, the degree of lighting uniformity will become a more
important determinant than increased intensity.
Clear Lighting Patterns:
Clear optical guidance can be provided with the positive alignment of light
fixtures positioned in consistent, recognizable, and unambiguous patterns. A staggered
layout of road and pathway lights tends to obscure rather than reinforce the direction of
the circulation alignment and the location intersections.

Underlighting
In regions subject to cool weather, site furniture should be placed to take advantage of
natural sun traps, thereby extending the usefulness of the site. Materials with absorb and
radiates.
Furniture should be designed to minimize water accumulation. For some
elements of furniture it may be necessary periodically to shut down service on the site or
totally remove the furniture. Such factors should be considered when selecting each item.
Materials used in cold climates should not become brittle when cold,
especially in locations where they may be stressed by normal use. Most cast metals and
some kinds of plastics should be carefully analyzed before being used in cold climates.
Fasteners and joints should also be able to withstand stresses caused by expansion and
contraction of the materials.
Precipitation:
Rain : In regions subject to rain, some of the site furniture used for sitting should be
placed in sheltered locations.
Benchers should drain well; they could be constructed of non absorptive
materials to promote rapid drying. They should also be located to take advantage of the
warming effect of sunlight. In humid climates, it is essential that all materials be naturally
decay and fungus-resistant, or specially treated to minimize mildew, rot, and consequent
staining.

Wind:
In areas subject to strong prevailing winds, site furniture should be located to minimize
any negative gusting impacts upon users.
In warm climates, furniture can be located to take advantage of natural
cooling breezes. Trees ran provide shade and to some extent, control the movement of air.
Light:
Site furniture should take advantage of the quality and character of light
available on the site.
Wherever possible, minimize the glare from light fixtures and intense
sunlight Recognizing that light condition change both daily and seasonally, locate
furniture and especially outdoor signs in such a way as to minimize the glare from them
caused by low sun angles on wet, frosted, or otherwise reflective surfaces.
Noise :
The sounds of songbirds, children, street performers, and the like can be
so pleasant that site furniture may be focused toward the source. Reciprocally,
undesirable sounds can be blocked. Sound barrier walls, earth mounds, and other
techniques of noise control should be considered.

Physical Factors
Climate:
Different climates and/or dramatic seasonal changes can significantly influence the
design of site furniture and the consequent comfort of the users. Figure shows typical
climate factors. A thorough understanding of the consequences of seasonal variation,
including both advantages and disadvantages, is an essential prerequisite for the design of
site furnishings.
Physiography :
There are distinctive qualities about all parts of the world's landscapes that
require careful consideration when designing and placing site furniture. Particular
landforms, vegetation, and other qualities which give an area its special regional or local
character should be responded to in a congruent manner. For instance, in the united States
the building vernacular of the Rocky Mountains is distinctly different from that of the
Appalachian highlands. Special attention should be given to examining local landscape
and materials before translating program requirements into built elements.

Site Planning Considerations


Thorough consideration of all factors pertaining to parking should be given to the overall
plan of any project at its inception in order to integrate the design of buildings and
structures with parking areas and related improvements. Residential, commercial,
industrial, institutional, recreational, and other types of projects all have particular
requirements relative to parking and should be planned accordingly. When detailed
parking layouts are developed simultaneously with building plans, oversights leading to
inefficient control of traffic and similar errors of design can be avoided; otherwise,
makeshift changes in construction or acceptance of unsatisfactory compromise controls at
a later date can lead to an unfortunate result.
The parking habits of users have a tremendous influence on standards.
Urban drivers will usually accept narrower stalls will drivers in rural or suburban areas.
Activities like picnicking call for wider the handling of bulky items in and out of cars
easier. In shopping centers where carts are used, wider stalls are more desirable, as
compared to all-day parking areas for office workers. If experienced attendants are to
park cars, aisles at least 4 ft narrower can be used for 90-degree parking. Designers
should also be mindful of the fact that drivers typically will not park precisely in the
center of the stall, nor will they always drive in all the way. If stalls are too narrow,
drivers will ignore demarcation lines and lap over into adjoining stalls.
In any parking area, handicapped parking spaces or a passenger loading
zone should be located as close as possible to the shortest accessible path of travel to
buildings.
General Layout of Parking Areas.
A major consideration in the design of any parking area is simplicity.
Parking areas should not be complex or designed in such manner as to test a driver's
ability.
The three basic dimensions of any parking layout are: (1) the length and
width of car stalls, (2) the width of aisles, and (i) the angle between car stall and aisle.
Aisle width is related to stall width and angle of stalls. With a wider stall, it is possible to
use a slightly narrower aisle. With the trend to smaller cars, dimensions for parking have
generally decreased. The 9-ft (1.8-m) stall is most common, but the 8 ½ ft (2.b-m) stall is
being used more frequently.

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