Chapter 1 Basic Conservation Laws

T-S Leu TSL Sep. 1, 2010

Main Topics
Definition of a Fluid Basic Equations Methods of Analysis Dimensions and Units

Definition of Fluid
Substance: Solid, liquid and Gas phases A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) stress. No matter how small the shear stress may be, a fluid will deform. deform Fluids comprise the liquid and gas phases of matter.
Ch 1-0

Fluid v.s. Solid (I)

When a shear stress is applied: Fl id continuously d f Fluids ti l deform Solids deform or bend

Ch 1-0

Fluid v.s. Solid (II)

F shear stress = A
There is no slip at the boundary; the fluid in direct contact with the solid boundary has the same velocity as the boundary itself. l it th b d it lf

No-Slip Condition http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUTkqZeiMow Ch 1-0

Fluid v.s. Solid (III)

Vague idea: Fluid is soft and easily deformed. Solid is hard and not easily deformed. Molecular structure: Solid has densely spaced molecules with large intermolecular cohesive force allowed to maintain its shape. Liquid has further apart spaced molecules, the intermolecular forces are smaller than for solids and the molecules have more solids, freedom of movement. Gases have even greater molecular spacing and freedom of motion with negligible cohesive intermolecular forces and as a consequence are easily deformed.
Ch 1-0

Statistical and Continuum Methods

Two basic ways to derive the basic equations which govern the motion of ti hi h th ti f a fluid: Molecular and Statistical approaches Continuum approach

Ch 1-0

Molecular and Statistical Approaches

Fluids consist of molecules whose motion is governing by the law of dynamics. The macroscopic phenomena are assume to arise from the molecular motion of the molecules. The theory attempts to predict the macroscopic behavior of the fluid from the laws of mechanics and probability (or statistical) theory. Statistics => the predicted macro fluid behavior near an equilibrium state For a fluid state not far from equilibrium, the molecular and statistical approaches yield the transport coefficients (such as the viscosity coefficient and the thermal conductivity ), and the equations of mass, momentum and energy conservation. The theory is well developed for light gases, but it is incomplete for polyatomic gas molecules and for liquids. Currie Ch 1-1

Continuum Approach
View the fluid as a continuous medium. Unless we use specialized equipment, we are not aware of the underlying molecular nature of fluids. From the viewpoint of molecular structure, the mass is not continuously distributed in space. Under what circumstance a fluid can be treated as a continuum?
Ch 1-1

Mean Free Path & Knudsen number

The mean free path is the average distance between collisions for a molecule.
Knudsen number Kn

Kn =

mean free path Characteristic length L

Kn << 1 => continuum flow (non-slip boundary condition) Kn ~ 1 => slip flow > Kn >>1 => free molecular flow (molecular dynamics) For examples: Flow in some microchannels is a slip flow. Flow in the outer space (rarefied gas) is a free molecular flow.

Ch 1-1

Fluid as a Continuum
Density ()

The specific gravity (SG)

SG =
The specific weight ()

H O
2

Note: the specific weight of water is about =9.81 kN/m3

mg = g V

where H2O=1000 kg/m3 at 4oC typically

Ch 1-1

Concept of Continuum ?
Depending on the type of information desired rather than the nature of the fluid. VALID whenever the smallest fluid volume VALID, (V) of interest contains a sufficient number of molecules to make statistical average meaningful. g g INVALID whenever the number of molecules INVALID, per unit volume is time-dependent for the microscopic volume.
Ch 1-1

Under Continuum Assumption

Each fluid property is assumed to have a definite value at every point in space. The fluid properties such as density, pressure, temperature, velocity, and so on, are considered to be continuous function of position and time.

Ch 1-1

Property at a Point
How to determine the density at a point ?

= ( x, y, z , t ) = (r, t )
Where m is the mass contained in a volume V , and V is the smallest volume surrounding the point for which statistical average are meaningful. (or V) is the limiting value of V

1 / n << << L3

n is number of molecules per unit volume and L is the smallest significant length scale in the flow field. Ch 1-1

VELOCITY FIELD
Defining the fluid velocity at point C as

the instantaneous velocity of the center of the m Defining a fluid particle as a small mass of m.

The velocity at point C is defined as the instantaneously velocity of the fluid particle which at a given instant is which, instant, passing through point C. V = V ( x, y, z, t ) = V (r, t ) The velocity at any point in the flow field (the velocity field) is given by V = u ( x, y, z, t )i + v( x, y, z, t ) j + w( x, y, z, t )k
Ch 1-1

Example
At normal Temperature and Pressure, a 2m cube contains about 2x108 (2x1011) gas ( q ) molecules. ( g (liquid) The vast of majority of flow situations encountered in physics and engineering satisfy the continuum condition. Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) typically have a characteristic lengthscale between 1m and 1mm. Therefore, the continuum hypothesis remain valid for such system. H However, th there are situations ( it ti (ex. fl flow i a nano t b or in tube flow in the outer space (rarefied gas)) where the continuum hypothesis is invalidated and the molecular dynamics (free molecular flow) approach has to be used.
Ch 1-1

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
System method
In mechanics courses. Dealing with an easily identifiable rigid body.

Control volume method

In fluid mechanics course. Difficult to focus attention on a fixed identifiable quantity of mass. Dealing with the flow of fluids.

Ch 1-2

System Method
A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of y , q y mass. The boundaries separate the system from the surrounding. The boundaries of the system may be fixed or movable. No mass crosses the system boundaries.
Piston-cylinder assembly:
The gas in the cylinder is the system. If the gas is heated, the piston will lift the weight; The boundary of the system thus move. Heat and work may cross the boundaries, but the quantity of matter remain fixed. Ch 1-2

System v.s. Control volume

A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass. The system boundaries separate the system from the surroundings. The boundaries of system may be fixed or movable; however, there is no mass transfer across the system boundaries.

Ch 1-2

Control Volume Method

Control Volume (CV) is an arbitrary volume in space through which the fluid flows. The geometric boundary of the control volume is called the Control Surface (CS).

The CS may be real or imaginary. The CV may be at rest or in motion.

Ch 1-2

10

METHODS OF DESCRIPTION
Lagrangian description => System > Eulerian description => Control volume

Ch 1-2

Lagrangian Description
Attention is focused on a material volume (MV) and follow individual fluid particle as it move. Th fluid particle i colored, t The fl id ti l is l d tagged or id tifi d d identified. Determining how the fluid properties associated with the particle change as a function of time. Example: one attaches the temperature-measuring device temperatureto a particular fluid particle A and record that particles particle temperature as it moves about. TA = TA(t)=T (xo,yo,zo, t) where particle A passed through coordinate (xo,yo,zo) at to The use of may such measuring devices moving with various fluid particles would provide the temperature of these fluid particles as a function of time.

Ch 1-2

11

Eulerian Description
Attention is focused on the fluid passing through a ( ) p control volume (CV) fixed in the space. Obtaining information about the flow in terms of what happens at the fixed points in space as the fluid flows past those points. The fluid motion is given by completely prescribing the necessary properties as a functions of space and time. Example: one attaches the temperature-measuring E l h h i device to a particular point (x,y,z) and record the temperature at that point as a function of time. T = T ( x , y , z , t ) => field concept. The independent variables are the spatial coordinates ( x , y , z) and time t

Ch 1-2

Field Representation of flow

At a given instant in time, any fluid property ( such as density, pressure, velocity, and acceleration) can be described as a functions of the fluids location.This representation of fluid parameters as functions of the spatial coordinates is termed a field representation of flow flow. The specific field representation may be different at different times, so that to describe a fluid flow we must determine the various parameter not only as functions of the spatial coordinates but also as a function of time time. EXAMPLE: Temperature field T = T ( x , y , z , t ) EXAMPLE: Velocity field

V = u ( x, y , z , t ) i + v ( x, y , z , t ) j + w( x, y, z , t ) k
Ch 1-2

12

Nature and Transformation of Lagrangian and Eulerian Description

It is more nature to apply conservation laws by using Lagrangian description (ie. Material Volume) (ie Volume). However, the Eulerian description (ie. Control Volume) is preferred for solving most of problem in fluid mechanics. The two descriptions are related and there is a transformation formula called material, total or , substantial derivative between Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions.

Ch 1-2

Let (x,y,z,t) be any field variable, e.g., , T, V=(u,v,w), etc. (Eulerian description) Observe a fluid particle for a time period t as it flows (Langrangian description) During the time period, the position of the fluid particle will change by amounts x , y , z, while its vale of will change by an amount = t + x + y + z
t x y z

Material Derivative (I)

As one follow the fluid, (x, y, z ) = (u , v, w) t So D x y z = lim = + + + = +u +v +w t 0 t t x t y t z t t x Dt y z which is called the material, total, or substantial derivative.
Ch 1-3

13

Material Derivative (II)

Use the notation D/Dt to emphasize that the material derivative is the rate of change seen by an observer following the fluid. The material derivateive express a Langrangian derivative in terms of Eulerian derivatives. In vector form,

D = +u +v +w = + (V ) Dt t x y z t
May also use the index notation and Einsteins summation convention (i.e, summing over repeated indices) to write

D = + uk Dt t xk
Where (x1,x2,x3)(x,y,z) and (u1,u2,u3)(u,v,w) Note: The repeated index that us summed over is called a dummy index; one that is not summed is called a free index.
Ch 1-3

14

15

16

17

Basic Laws
Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily includes statement of the basic laws governing the fluid motion. The basic laws, which applicable to any fluid, are:

Conservation of mass Conservation of (angular) Momentum - Newtons second law of motion. Conservation of Energy The first law of thermodynamics

FOX Ch 4

18

BASIC LAWS FOR A SYSTEM

- Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass
Requiring that the mass, M, of the system be constant.

dM DM D = = dt system Dt Dt
Where the mass of the system

V ( system )

dV = 0

FOX Ch 4

BASIC LAWS FOR A SYSTEM

- Conservation of Momentum
Newtons Second Law
Stating th t the St ti that th sum of all external force acting on the f ll t lf ti th system is equal to the time rate of change of linear momentum of the system.

r r r dP DP D F= = = dt system Dt Dt y

V (system )

r VdV

Where the linear momentum of the system

FOX Ch 4

19

BASIC LAWS FOR A SYSTEM

- Conservation of Energy
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Requiring that the energy of system be constant constant.

Q W = dE
DE D & & dE Q W = = = ( et dV ) dt system Dt Dt V ( system )
Where E is the total energy of the system and et is the total energy of the system per unit volume

V2 et = e + + gz 2

e is specific internal energy, V the speed, and z the height of a particle having mass dm.
FOX Ch 4

RELATION OF SYSYTEM DERIVATIVES TO THE CONTROL VOLUME FORMULATION (I)

At t+t t+t, t+t t, I+II=Control volume II+III=System 1. Choosing a fixed control volume in space relative to coordinate xyz. 2. Imaging selecting an arbitrary piece of the flowing fluid at to, and dyeing this piece of fluid. 3. The initial shape of the fluid system is chosen as control volume. 4. After an infinitesimal time, the system will have moved to a FOX Ch 4 new location.

20

How to Derive (I)

Let N represent any one of the system extensive properties ( mass, linear momentum, angular momentum, energy, and entropy), the corresponding intensive property (extensive property per unit mass ) will be designated by Eta

FOX Ch 4

How to Derive (II)

From the definition of derivative, the rate of change of Nsystem is given by

N ) N s )t dN lim s t + t t 0 dt system t
o

where

N s )t = ( N CV )t
o

N s )t + t = ( N II + N III )t + t = ( N CV N I + N III )t + t
o o o o

( N N I + N III )t + t ( N CV )t dN lim CV t 0 t dt system

o

= lim t 0

( N CV )t + t ( N CV )t (N ) (N ) + lim III t + t lim I t + t t 0 t 0 t t t 1 2 3

o o o o

FOX Ch 4

21

How to Derive (III)

Evaluate each of the three terms..

1 lim t 0 2

( N CV )t + t ( N CV )t N CV = = CV dV t t t
o o
o III o III

v v ( N III )t + t CS d N III )t + t CS V dAt = lim = lim lim t 0 t 0 t 0 t t t v v = CS V dA

III

The expression for N III )t + t

o

dN III ) to + t = dV ) to + t v v = V dAt )to + t

FOX Ch 4

How to Derive (IV)

3
lim t 0 v v ( N I )t + t = CS V dA t
o I

This i th f d Thi is the fundamental relation between the rate t l l ti b t th t of change of any arbitrary extensive property, N, of a system and the variations of this property associated with a control volume.

v v v v dN CV dV + CS V dA + CS V dA dt system t v v CV dV + CS V dA t Constitute the

I IIII

entire control ti t l surface

Reynolds Transport Theorem

FOX Ch 4

22

How To Derive Control Volume Formulation

BASIC LAWS

System Method

Control Volume Method

Governing Equation
System Formulation

Control Volume Formulation

Governing Equation

Reynolds Transport Theorem

FOX Ch 4

Reynolds Transport Theorem

Expressing the Lagrangian rate of change of a volume integral in terms of the volume integral of Euler derivatives Let (r,t) be any fluid property (e.g., mass momentum, energy, etc.) per unit volume, and consider a material volume V(t). For the purpose of formulating conservation laws, one needs to evaluate

D Dt

V (t )

(t )dV = lim

1 (t + t )dV (t )dV t 0 t V ( t +t ) V (t )

23

D Dt

V (t )

(t ) dV = lim

1 (t + t ) dV (t )dV t 0 t V ( t +t ) V (t )

1 D (t)dV = lim (t + t)dV (t + t)dV V (t) t 0 t Dt V (t +t ) V (t ) 1 + (t + t)dV (t)dV t V (t ) V (t ) r (t + t )dV = (t + t ) dV + (t + t )(V n)tdS
V ( t +t ) V (t ) S (t )

D Dt

1 (t ) V (t ) (t )dV = lim0 t V (t +) ((tt) + t )dV + Vt ) t dV t ( t V

D Dt

V (t )

(t ) dV =

S (t )

(t )u ndS +

(t ) dV t V (t )

D t dV = St u ndS + Vt ) t dV Dt V ( ) ( ) (
By converting the surface integral to volume integral by use of Gauss theorem

S (t )

u ndS = (u)dV
V (t )

D t dV = Vt ) t + (u) dV Dt V ( ) (
In tensor notation, notation

D t dV = Vt ) t + xk (uk ) dV Dt V ( ) (
Langragian derivative of a volume integral of a given property

Material derivative

D = + uk t Dt xk

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Conservation of Mass
Basic Law for Conservation of Mass Dt V dV = 0 The system and control volume formulation --- Reynolds Transport Theorem
D t dV = Vt ) t + xk (uk ) dV Dt V ( ) (

D dV = V t + xk ( uk ) dV = 0 Dt V

Continuity equation

+ ( u k ) = 0 t xk

Material derivative

D = + uk Dt t xk

A partial differential equation => velocity is continuous

D u u + ( u k ) = ( + u k )+ k = + k =0 t xk t xk xk xk Dt

CONSERVATION OF MASS
Rectangular Coordinate System
The differential equation for conservation of mass: The continuity equation

By Del operator

The continuity equation becomes + ( u k ) = 0 t xk

Vector form Tensor form

25

Description and Classification of Fluid Motions

Compressible or Incompressible Fluid

Compressibility refers to the change in density () of a substance that is subjected to a change in pressure on it. The usual quantity used to measure this phenomenon is the bulk modulus of elasticity or simply bulk modulus E: or, simply, modulus,

E=

dp dp = (d ) / (dV ) / V

In a fluid, the bulk modulus E and the density determine the speed of sound (pressure waves) c, according to the formula dp p dp p dp (d ) = (d ) / = E c= = d

Mach number:

M=

V c

M<0.3 Incompressible Flows => fluid is treated as incompressible M>0.6 Compressible Flows => fluid is treated as compressible

26

Subsonic, Transonic and Supersonic Flows

U.S. Navy F/A-18 at Transonic Speed.

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Supersonic Wind Tunnel

Continuity Equation for Incompressible Fluid

Definition of Incompressible fluid: = cosntant ?
As a given fluid is followed, not only will its mass be observed to remain constant, but its volume, and hence its density, will be observed to remain constant.
Material derivative

D ( ) = 0 Dt

Follow a fluid particle Continuity equation

+ ( u k ) = 0 t xk D u u + ( u k ) = ( + u k )+ k = + k =0 t xk t xk xk xk Dt

Continuity eq.

u k =0 xk

or

r V = 0

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Stratified-Fluid Flow ()
A fluid particle along the line 1 or 2 will have its density remain fixed at =1 or =2 y
D ( ) = 0 Dt
Follow a fluid particle

Stratified-fluid flow is considered to be incompressible but is not incompressible, constant (constant ) everywhere ie. / x 0, / y0, StratifiedStratified-fluid flow may occurs in the ocean (owing to salinity variation) or in the atmosphere (owing to temperature variations).

Conservation of Momentum (I)

Basic Law for Conservation of Momentum
D Dt

V d V = P d S + f d V
S V

where P is surface force (e.g. pressure, viscous stress) per unit area and f is body force (e.g. gravity, electromagnetic force etc.) per unit mass.

Reynolds Transport Theorem

D t dV = Vt ) t + xk (uk ) dV Dt V ( ) (

=uj

D u j dV = V t (u j ) + xk (u juk )dV Dt V = Pj dS + f j dV
S V

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STRESS FIELD
The forces act on fluid particles:
Body forces ( gravity, electromagnetic ).
The gravitational body force acting on an element of volume volume, dV, is given by where is the density, g is local gravitational acceleration.

Surface forces ( pressure, viscous ).

The surface forces on a fluid particle lead to stresses: p
Normal to surface Fn >> normal stress n Tangent to surface surface Ft >> shear stress n

n = lim0 A
n

Fn A n

n = lim0 A
n

Ft A n

Notation for Stress (I)

The force on the element Ax is resolved into

FX , Fy , Fz

The stresses on the element Ax are defined as: F F F xx = lim0 x xy = lim0 y xz = lim0 z A A A A x A x A x
x x x

where the first subscript indicates the plane on which the stress acts, the second subscript indicates the direction in which the stress acts.

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Notation for Stress (II)

The stresses on the element Ay are yy , yx , yz Th stresses on th element Az are zz , zx , zy The t the l t

The Stress at a Point

The state of stress at a point can be described completely y p y g g y y by specifying the stresses acting on any three mutually perpendicular plane through the point. The stress at a point is specified by the nine components.

xx yx zx

xy yy zy

xz yz zz

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Notation for Stress Tensor

xx yx zx xy yy zy xz yz zz
11 12 13 22 23 21 31 32 33

The first index of ij specifies the surface orientation, while the second index indicates the direction of the surface force component. Two directions (indices) needed to specify ij , so it is a tensor of ( ) p y rank 2 having 9 components in total. With zero volume torque, the stress tensor is symmetric, and hence has only 6 independent components. (i.e. ij= ji ) In general, P(n=ej)= P(ej)= ij ej e.g. P(e1)= 11 e1+ 12 e2+ 13 e3 But Pj= ij ni e.g. P1= 11 n1+ 21 n2+ 31 n3

Conservation of Momentum (II)

D u j dV = V t (u j ) + xk (u juk )dV = S Pj dS + V f j dV Dt V

P dS = n dS =
S j S ij i

ij xi

dV

Gauss theorem

(u juk )dV = ij dV + f j dV V x V k i V ij Since the choice of V is arbitrary + f j (u j ) + (u juk ) = Continuity eq eq. t xk xi

t (u ) + x
j

u j t

+uj

u j u j u j ij +uj (uk ) + uk = [ + uk ]+ uj[ + (uk )] = + f j t xk xk t xk t xk xi

u j t

+ uk

u j xk

]=

ij xi

+ f j

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Conservation of Momentum (III)

[
since

u j t

+ uk

u j xk
t

]=

ij xi

+ f j
]
D + uk = Dt t xk

Duj Dt

=[

u j

+ uk

u j xk

Mass per unit volume

Duj Dt

]=

ij xi

+ f j

r r ma = F
Net body force per unit volume acting on the fluid particle

Follow a fluid particle and observe its acceleration

Net surface force per unit volume acting on the fluid particle

Conservation of Energy (I)

D 1 & & V (e + 2 u u)dV = Q W Dt

& & Q = q ndS W = [ u Pds + u fdV ]

S S V

D 1 V (e + 2 u u)dV = u Pds + V u fdV q ndS Dt S S

{t (e + 2 u u) + x
V S V

1 [ (e + u u)]uk }dV 2 k
S

= u Pds + u fdV q ndS

u Pds = u
j S S

ij i

n ds =
V

(u j ij )dV xi

q ndS = q n ds = x
j j S S V

q j
i

dV

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 {t ( e + 2 u u ) + x
V j j

1 [( e + u j u j )]uk }dV 2 k

=
V

q j (u j ij )dV + u j f j dV dV xi xi V V

{}dV = 0
V

q j 1 1 ( e + u j u j ) + [( e + u j u j )]uk = (u j ij ) + u j f j t 2 xk 2 xi xi e 1 1 1 + ( u ju j ) + u ju j ( e + u j u j ) = + e t t t 2 t 2 2 t 1 e [( e + u j u j )]u k = e ( u k ) + uk xk 2 xk xk
1 1 + u ju j ( uk ) + u k ( u ju j ) xk xk 2 2

LHS = (

1 1 e e + uk ( u j u j )] ) + [ ( u j u j ) + +u k xk t 2 t xk 2

LHS = ( = (

1 1 e e ) + [ ( u j u j ) + +u k ( u j u j )] + uk t xk t 2 xk 2

u j u j e e + uk + u j uk ) + (u j ) t xk t xk

RHS =

q j ij u j q j (u j ij ) + u j f j = uj + ij + u j f j xi xi xi xi xi

u j ij u j u j q j e e ) + u j( + uk ) = uj + ij + uk + u j f j t xk xi t xk xi xi
Conservation of Momentum

u j t

+ uk

u j xk

]=

ij xi

+ f j

Rate of change of internal energy

u j q j De e e + uk )= = ij Dt t xk xi xi

Conduction heat transfer

Conversion of Mechanical energy into thermal energy (partially reversible, partially irrversible)

34

Discussion of Conservation Equations

We have now 5 scalar equations: Continuity (1), momentum (3), and equation (1). But there are 17 unknowns: (1), e(1), uj(3), qj (3) and ij(9) (9). Need Constitutive relations to relate the stress tensor ij (9) to the deformation tensor (velocity gradient uj(3)) and to relate the heat flux qj (3) to the temperature gradient T(1). 17 unknowns reduce to 6 which are (1), e(1), uj(3), and T(1). Now we have 5 scalar equations for 6 unknowns. We also need equation of state : equation state: p =p(,T), e=e(,T) Two more equations ; one more unknown p. Therefore, we have 7 equations for 7 unknown which are (1), e(1), V(3), T(1) and p(1).

MOTION OF A FLUID PARTICLE

Fluid Translation: The particle moves from one point to another. Fluid Rotation: The particle rotates about any or all of the x,y,z axes. Fluid Deformation: Angular Deformation: The particles angles between the sides change. Linear Deformation: The particles sides stretch or contract.

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Pictorial Representation

Rotation and Deformation (I)

Rate of shear

36

Rotation and Deformation (II)

= u +

u u y t ut = yt y y

v v = v + x t vt = xt x x

XiEta

Fluid Rotation (I)

The particle rotation is a vector q p quantity and, in y , general.

r v v = i x + j y + k z r

1 1 ( ) ( ) 2 x y 2 z = lit0 lim = lit0 lim t t u y 1 v x t ) t ( 1 v u y y 2 x x = = lim t 0 t 2 x y

dy

dx

37

Fluid Rotation (II)

x =
r 1 w v 2 y z

y =

1 u w 2 z x

1 r w v = i + 2 y z
r 1 u u

r u w r v u j + k z x x y
u u u u

= e1 3 2 + e2 1 3 + e3 2 1 x x x x 2 x2 x3 1 2 1 3

Fluid Rotation (III) Vorticity

Defining Vorticity which is a measurement of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves in the flow r r r field: i j k r r v r = 2 = curlV = V = x y z v w u
= 2 = i
v r r w y v + z r u w r v u v j + k = V x y z x

In cylindrical coordinates system:

r r 1 Vz V r Vr Vz r 1 rV 1 Vr V = er + ez + e r r z r r z r

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Rate of Rotation

Average rate of CCW rotation about the fluid elements centroid: r 1 r w v r u w r v u r 1 = V = i + j + k 2 2 y z z x x y r 1 r 1 u = V = ei ijk k 2 2 x j

Permutation Symbol
rst

ijk

+ 1 if (r, s, t) = (1,2,3), (2,3,1) or (3,1,2) = 1 if (r s t) = (3 2 1) (2 1 3) or (1 3 2) (r, s, (3,2,1), (2,1,3) (1,3,2) 0 otherwise (i.e., when any 2 indices have the same value)

= V = e1

u3 u2 u u u u + e2 1 3 + e3 2 1 x x x x 1 2 1 3 x2 x3

r u = V = ei ijk k x j v

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Irrotational and Rotational flows

r r curlV = V = 0

r r curlV = V 0

Irrotational flow

rotational flow

Rate of Shear (Angular deformation)

Angular deformation of a particle is given by the sum of th two angular deformation f the t l d f ti
+
= u +
u u y t ut = yt y y v v = v + x t vt = xt x x
dy

dx

= / x

= / y

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Fluid Angular Deformation (I)

The rate of angular deformation in xy plane
v x u y t + t x x y y + v u = ... = + = lim = lim t 0 t 0 t t x y

w v + The rate of angular deformation in yz plane = y z w u g plane = The rate of angular deformation in zx p + x z

In general, the rate of rotation about the axis normal to xi-xj plane is given by the antisymmetric tensor 1 u u j The rate of shear about the axis normal to xi-xj plane is given by the symmetric tensor One can decompose the deformation rate tensor define as below
eij = ui 1 ui u j 1 ui u j + = + x j 2 x j xi 2 x j xi
Symmetric B=BT antiymmetric B=-BT

Deformation Rate Tensor

i 2 x j xi

1 ui u j + 2 x j xi

41

Constitutive Relations
To relate ij (9 elements) to the deformation tensor eij(9 elements) by a set of parameter. Postulates for Newtonian fluids Newtonian fluids (like water, air) v.s. nonnewtonian fluid ( , ) When the fluid is at rest, the stress is hydrostatic, and the pressure exerted by the fluid is the thermodynamic pressure (Pascals principle), So,

ij = p ij + ij
Where ij is the shear stress tensor 2. For Newtonian fluids, the h 2 F N t i fl id th shear stress t t tensor i li is linearly l related to the deformation rate of tensor ekl and depends on ekl only = e = uk
ij ijkl kl ijkl

xl

Note that ijkl (a tensor of rank 4) consists of 81 elements. Recall also that the deformation rate tensor can be decomposed into the sum of a symmetric tensor and an antisymmetric tensor.

3. Since there is no shearing action in a solid body rotation, shear stress is related only to rate of shear by

ij = ijkl ekl = ijkl

1

u uk 1 u = ijkl k + l x x xl 2 k l u u 1

u 1 u + ijkl k l x x 2 k l u

ij = ijkl k + l = ijkl k + l x x 2 x x 2 k k l l
Note that ijkl (a tensor of rank 4) consists of 81 elements.

4. There is no preferred directions in the fluid, so the fluid properties are point functions (isotropy). Accordingly, ijkl is an isotropic tensor of rank 4.

ijkl = ij kl + ( ik jl + il jk ) + ( ik jl il jk )

For zero volume torque, ij= ji, so ijkl = jikl which implies =0 Originally we have 81 parameters. By assuming material isotropy and zero volume torque, only 2 parameters ( and ) remain.

42

With zero volume torque, Prove the shear stress tensor is symmetric, and hence has only 6 independent components. (i.e. ij= ji )

ij =

1 { ij kl + ( ik jl + il jk )} uk + ul x x 2 k l

u u u = ij k + i + j x xk j xi

ij = p ij + ij = p ij + ij
Thermodynamic pressure Second viscosity

u u j u k + i + x xi xk j
Dynamic viscosity

Mechanical pressure : average of normal stress

u u 1 1 u p = ii = p ii + ii k + k + k x 3 3 xk k xk 1 u 2 u 2 u p = ii = p k k = p ( + ) k x 3 xk 3 xk 3 k r 2 u p p = ( + ) k = K V 2 3 xk K = ( + ) Bulk viscosity 3

43

For monatomic gases, K=0 (K is usually very small)

2 K =+ =0 3

2 3

Stokess relation

p= p

For incompressible fluids,

r V = 0

p= p

Whether or not the stokess relation is valid stokes s

Navier-Stokes Equations

ij x i

x i

u u j u k = p + ( u k ) + + i + p ij + ij x xk xi x j x j xk x i j

+ f j xi u u u ij = p ij + ij = p ij + ij k + i + j x xk j xi t + uk xk ]=

u j

u j

ij

u u j i + x j xi

u j t

+ uk

u j xk

]=

u p u u j + f j ( k ) + i + + x x x j x j xk xi j i

Navier-Stokes Equations
u p u u j + f j ( k ) + i + + x x t xk x j x j xk xi j i r u k For incompressible fluids, V = =0 xk u u p u u [ j + uk j ] = + i + j + f j t xk x j xi x j xi

u j

+ uk

u j

]=

For incompressible fluids with constant viscosity ,

p [ + uk ]= t xk x j

u j

u j

For incompressible ,inviscid fluids =0,

u 2u j 2u i + f j = p + 2j + f j + + 2 x x j x j xi xi i

u j t

+ uk

u j xk

]=

p + f j x j

The Euler equations

44

Fourier Law of Heat Conduction

q = kT
Thermal conductivity k

q j = k

T x j

Energy Equations:

u j q j e e De D + uk )= = ij Dt t xk xi xi
The reversible energy transfer due to compression work

q j xi
u j

T (k ) xi x j

ij

u u j u j u u = p ij + ij k + i + = p k + x xi xk xk j xi xi
The viscous dissipation function : irreversible energy transfer that always increase the internal energy of fluid

u u j u j u = ( k )2 + i + x xk j xi xi

For incompressible fluids,

= (

u u j u j u u j 1 ui u j 1 u u j = i + = i + ) ( i ) + ( x x x 2 x xi 2 x j xi j j xi i j xi
symmetric symmetric
2

u u j u j u u j u j uk 2 = i + ) + i + x x xk xi xi xi xi j j

antisymmetric

u j ui u j ui u j = = + + + 2 x j xi x j xi 2 x j xi
tensor Aij

Dissipation function is always a positive definite quantity which increase irreversibly the internal energy of For a symmetric tensor Sijj and an antisymmetric fluid

ui

S ij Aij = S ji A ji = S ij Aij

S ij Aij = 0

Energy Equations:

u j q j e e u T + uk ) = ij = p k + (k )+ t xk xi xi xk xi x j

45

The viscous dissipation function :

= ( u u j u j u uk 2 u u j ui u j ) + i + + = ( k )2 + i + x 2 x j xi x j xi xk xi xi xk j
2

u u j u j u u u u j = ( k )2 + i + = ( k )2 + i + x xk xk xi xi 2 x j xi j
Homework

= (

u v w u v w 2 + + ) + 2 ( ) 2 + ( ) 2 + ( ) 2 x z y x y z

u v v w w u + ( + )2 + ( + )2 + ( + )2 y x z y x z

Governing Equations
Continuity equation:
D u + ( u k ) = + k =0 t xk Dt xk

Momentum (N-S) equation:

[
u j t + uk u j xk ]= u p u u j + f j + ( k ) + i + x x x j x j xk xi j i

Energy equation:
(

u e e T + uk ) = p k + (k )+ t xk xk xi x j u u j u j u = ( k )2 + i + x xk xi xi j

46

 5 scalar equations; 7 unknown ui(3), , p, e, T (assuming , and k are known from experimental data) Need 2 equations of state p =p(,T), e=e(,T) For example for an ideal gas p = RT e = CvT Need also initial and boundary conditions to complete the mathematical formula. The governing equations can be written in vector form, and rendered independent of coordinate systems used to described the flow.

u e e T + uk ) = p k + (k )+ t xk xk xi x j

= (

u u j u j uk 2 ) + i + x xk xi xi j

e = C vT
for constant Cv

C v ( C v (
C v (

u T T T + uk ) = p k + (k )+ t xk xk xi x j T T T + uk )= (k )+ t xk xi x j

for incompressible flow with constant Cv for inviscid flow with constant Cv

u T T T + uk ) = p k + (k ) t xk xk xi x j

C v (

T T T + uk )= (k ) t xk xi x j

for incompressible inviscid flow with constant Cv

47

u e e T + uk ) = p k + (k )+ t xk xk xi x j

u De T +p k = (k )+ Dt xk xi x j

p uk p D D p 1 Dp ( ) = 2 = xk Dt Dt Dt

De D p 1 Dp T + ( ) = x (k x ) + Dt Dt Dt i j

D p Dp Dh Dp T (e + ) = = (k )+ Dt Dt Dt Dt xi x j DT Dp T C p = (k )+ Dt Dt xi x j

Vector form of Governing Equations

Continuity equation
u D u + ( u k ) = + u k + k = + k =0 t xk t xk xk Dt

r r D r r + ( V ) = + V + V = + V = 0 t t Dt
N-S equation with constant and
[
u j t + uk u j xk ]= p u u u j + f j + ( k ) + i + x j x j xk xi x j xi

u j t

+ uk

u j xk

]=

ui u j p uk + f j + ( ) + + x x x x x j x j xk i i j i

V + V V] = p + ( + )( V) + 2V + f j t

48

Energy Equations with constant thermal conductivity k:

u T e e + uk ) = p k + (k )+ t xk xk xi x j
2

u u j u j u u u u j = ( k )2 + i + = ( k )2 + i + x xk xk 2 x j xi j xi xi

e + (V )e] = p V + k 2T + t

= ( V ) 2 +
Shear stress:

(V + (V) ): (V + (V) ) 2
T T

ij = ( V )I + (V + (V )T )

u u u ij = ij k + i + j x xk j xi

Dyadic: inner product of 2 tensors TijSji=T:S, TijSij=T:ST

Cylindrical Coordinate System

The CV chosen is an infinitesimal cube with sides of length dr, rd, and dz. e = i cos + j sin
r

e = i sin + j cos Other ez = k

er = e e = er

derivatives of unit vectors are zero

f f f dx + dy + dz = f dr x y z f f f df = dr + d + dz = f dr dr = idx + jdy + kdz = er dr + erd + ez dz r z 1 f f f f f f f dr = ( er + e + ez ) (drer + rde + dzez ) = dr + d + dz r r z r z 1 f 1 f f e + ez = er + e + ez f = er + r r r z r z df =

49

 1 V = Vrer +V e +Vzez + e + ez r r z 1 V = (er + e + ez ) (Vrer +V e +Vzez ) r r z V 1 (Vrer ) 1 (V e ) Vz + e + = r + e z r r r V 1 (Vr ) V (er ) 1 (V ) V (e ) Vz = r + e er + e r + + e + r z r r r r V V 1 V V V = r + e e r + e er + z r r r r z V V 1 V Vz + = r+ r+ r r r z 1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz = + + r r r z = er

(1)

er = e e = er

V =

1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz + + r r r z

Incompressible flow Continuity equation in cylindrical coordinate

= er
(2)

1 + e + ez r r z

V = Vrer +V e +Vzez

er = e

e = er

V = (Vr er + V e + Vz e z ) (er
(V )V = (Vr

V 1 + Vz + e + e z ) = Vr + r r r z r z

V + + Vz )(Vr er + V e + Vz e z ) r r z 2 V V V e V V V e V V Vz V V V V V Vr + Vz z + e z Vr z + + Vz r + r r + e Vr + + Vz + = er Vr r + r r r r z z r z r r r = er Vr = er Vr V V V V V V Vr V Vr V V Vz V V V + Vz z + Vz r + r e + e Vr + + Vz er + e z Vr z + + r z r r r z r z r r r
2 V V V Vr V Vr V V V V V V V V Vz + + Vz r + e Vr + + Vz + r + e z Vr z + + Vz z r r z r r z r r z r r 2

(3)

2 V V Vr V V V V V V V V + Vz r + e Vr + + Vz + r (V )V = er Vr r + r r r r r z z r Centripedal Coriolis V V V Vz + e z Vr z + + Vz z acceleration acceleration r z r

50

 = er

1 + e + ez r r z

V = Vrer +V e +Vzez

er = e

e = er

2 T = T = (er

1 1 T T T ) + e + e z ) (er + e + ez r r z r z r 2T 1 T 1 1 T 2T = 2 + e (er ) + e (e )+ 2 r r r r r z 2 T 1 T 1 T er 1 1 T 1 T e 2T = 2 + e er ( ) + e + e e ( ) + e 2 + r r r r r r r z 2 r 2T 1 T 1 1 T 1 T 2T = 2 + e e + + ( ) e er 2 r r r r r r z 2 2T 1 T 1 2T 2T = 2 + + + r r r r 2 2 z 2 1 T 1 2T 2T = + (r ) + 2 r r r r 2 z 2
(4)

1 T 1 2T 2T T= (r ) + 2 + r r r r 2 z 2
2

= er
V = (e r

1 + e + ez r r z

V = Vrer +V e +Vzez

1 + e + e z )(V r e r + V e + V z e z ) r r z 1 (V e ) 1 V z V V z V V z V 1 (V r e r ) V ere z + e e e z + r e z e r + e z e + e ze z = r e r e r + e r e + + e + r r r r z z r r z V e 1 V z V V V z V e r 1 V V z V 1 (V r ) V = r e r e r + e r e + + + ere z + e e r + e r e e + e e e z + r e z e r + e z e + e r r r r r r z z r r z

er = e

e = er

1 V 1 V z V V V V z V V z V 1 (V r ) V ere z + e e r + r e e + e e e e r + e e z + r e z e r + e z e + e ze z = r e r e r + e r e + r r r r z z r r z r r 1 V 1 V z V V V z V V z V 1 V r V V )e e + e r e z + ( e e z + r e z e r + e z e + e ze z = r e r e r + e r e + )e e r + ( r + r r r r r r z z r r z

(5)

V Vr Vz r r r 1 V V V 1 V 1 Vz r ) ( r + V = ( ) r r r r r Vr V Vz z z z

51

Vr V Vz Vr r r r r 1 V V V V 1 V 1 Vz r (V)T = V = ( ) ( r + ) r r r r r r Vr V Vz Vz r z z z

1 Vr V Vr ) r r z V 1 V V ( r+ ) r r z 1 Vz Vz r z (

V 1 Vr V Vz Vr V 2 r + ) +( r z r r r r V 1 V V 1 Vz V V 1 V r ( r+ ) + ) V + (V)T = + ( r r r z r r r 1 Vz V Vz Vz Vr + + z r z r z
(6)

V V 1 Vr 2 r r ( )+ r r r r V 1 V V 1 V T r 2( r + ) V + (V) = r ( ) + r r r r r 1 Vz V Vz + Vr + r z r z

Vz Vr + r z 1 Vz V + r z V 2 z z

2 V = V = (er

1 + e + ez ) r r z Vr V V 1 V 1 Vz V 1 Vr V er + e + z e z + e ( ez )e + )e r + ( r + er r r r r r r r r V V V + e z r er + e + z e z z z z

V V V 1 1 Vr V 1 Vz V 1 V 2 V = r er + e + z e z + )e r + ( r + ( )e + ez r r r r r r r r r r V V V V V 1 er Vr + r er + e + z e z + e er + e + z e z z z z z r r r r

2V 2V 1 2Vr 1 V 2V 1 V V e 2 V = 2r er + 2 e + 2z e z + ( 2 2 )e r + ( 2 r ) r 2 r r r r r r 2 r Vr 1 V e 1 Vr 1 V 1 2Vz + ( + )e + ( 2 + 2 ) + 2 ez r r r r r r 2

1 TVz 2V 2V 2 2Vz T Vr 1 1 V T 1 1 + 2r e(4) + e 2 2 z r + z eT = z 2 e z + r ) + r + r r 2 e++ r 2 r e z (r r r r r r z

2 2

52

 2V 2V 2V 1 2Vr 1 V 1 V V 2 V = 2r er + 2 e + 2z e z + ( 2 2 )e r + ( 2 r )e 2 r r r r r r 2 r 1 Vr 1 V Vr 1 V 1 2Vz + ( + )e ( 2 + 2 )e r + 2 ez r r r r r r 2 2V 2V 2V 1 Vr 1 V 1 Vz + 2r er + 2 e + 2z e z + er + e + ez z z z r r r r r r
2V 2V 1 Vr 1 2Vr 1 V Vr 1 V 2 V = er 2r + 2 2 ( 2 + 2 ) + 2r + r 2 r r r r r z r 2V 2V 1 V 1 V V 1 Vr 1 V + e 2 + ( 2 r ) + ( + ) + 2 + r r r r r r r 2 z r 2V 1 2Vz 2Vz 1 Vz + e z 2z + 2 + + r r 2 z 2 r r

2V 1 Vr 1 2Vr 2Vr 2 V Vr 2V 1 V 1 V V 2 V = er 2r + + 2 + 2 2 2 + e 2 + +( 2 r ) 2 z r r r r r r r r r 2 r r + 2V 1 Vz 1 2Vz 2Vz 1 Vr 1 2V 2V + 2 + 2 + e z 2z + + + r z r 2 r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2

2V 1 Vr 1 2Vr 2Vr 2 V Vr 2 V = er 2r + + + r r r 2 2 z 2 r 2 r 2 r 2V 1 V 1 2V 2V 2 Vr V + e 2 + + + 2 + 2 z r r r 2 2 r r 2 r 2V 1 Vz 1 2Vz 2Vz + e z 2z + + + r r r r 2 2 z 2

2Vr =

1 Vr 1 2Vr 2Vr 2Vr 1 Vr 1 2Vr 2Vr (r )+ 2 + = 2 + + + r r r r 2 z 2 r r r r 2 2 z 2 2V = 2Vz = 2V 1 V 1 2V 2V + + + 2 r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2Vz 1 Vz 1 2Vz 2Vz + + + r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2

(4)

(7)

Vr 2 V V 2 V 2V = er 2Vr 2 2 +e 2V + 2 r +ez 2Vz r r r2 r

( )

53

V 2 V Vr 2 V 2 V = er 2Vr 2 2 + e 2V + 2 r + e z 2Vz r r r 2 r

(7)

2 V V Vr V V V V V V V V + Vz r + e Vr + + Vz + r (V )V = er Vr r + r r z r r r z r V V V Vz + e z Vr z + + Vz z ( ) (3) r z r

V + V V] = p + 2V + f j t

N-S equation for incompressible flow with constant viscosity

where

2 =

1 1 2 2 (r ) + 2 + 2 r r r r 2 z

(4)

where

54

w here

55

56