mae 3309 - Thermal Engineering This covers the basic principles of Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer with Engineering

applications. Part I Thermodynamics 1 Concepts and Definitions

Definition: Thermodynamics is a science that deals with Heat, Work and Properties of the substance in a process. Applications: Steam power plants, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning devices, Propulsion power plants (automobiles, rockets, air-breathing vehicles etc.) and so on. Analytical Approaches: 1. Statistical Analysis (Microscopic approach): A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of a large group of individual particles. 2. Classical Analysis (Macroscopic approach): An approach based on the time-averaged influence of many particles, perceived by our senses and measured by instruments. Dimensions and Units: 1. English system : ft (in, mile), lbm, sec, lbf, ft lbf (Btu), hp, .. 2. S.I. (System International) : m (mm, cm), gm (kg), sec, N, J (kJ), W (kW) . Terminology System - quantity of matter or region in space chosen for study. Surrounding - everything else external to the system. Boundary - that separates system and surrounding may be fixed or movable. 1. Closed system - consists of fixed mass; only energy (Heat and/or Work) crosses the boundary; volume of the system not necessarily fixed. e.g. a gas in a piston-cylinder device. 2. Open system a selected region within a device, also referred to as Control volume; involves flow of mass across the boundary; energy (Heat and/or Work) may cross the boundary. e.g. compressor, turbine, nozzle, water heater. 3. Isolated system - uninfluenced by the surroundings; no mass, work or heat transfer takes place across the boundary. e.g. Universe.

Energy - can exist in different forms thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear and their sum constitutes the total energy. Thermodynamics deals with the change of the total energy rather than its absolute value. For convenience, the total energy of a system is assigned a value of zero at some reference point. Classification of total energy: 1. Macroscopic (external) forms of energy with reference to some outside reference frame: (a) Potential energy (PE) and (b) Kinetic energy (KE). PE = mgz arises by virtue of the systems elevation in a gravitational field. KE = mV2/ 2 arises by virtue of motion relative to some reference frame. 2. Microscopic (internal) forms of energy related to molecular structure and molecular activity Internal energy (U). Components of internal energy: Sensible energy owing to translational, vibrational, and rotational kinetic energies of the individual molecules of the system depends on temperature of the system. Latent energy owing to inter-molecular forces associated with the phase of the system. Chemical energy associated with chemical reaction. Nuclear energy associated with nuclear reaction. The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are considered as insignificant. The total energy of a system is then expressed as E = U + KE + PE E = U + mV2/ 2 + mgz on a unit mass basis, e = u + V2/ 2 + gz kJ kJ/kg

Mass transfer, Heat transfer and Work transfer are referred to as interactions between system and surrounding. Property is any characteristic of a system. Its value depends on the state of the system and is independent of the path by which the system arrived at the given state. e.g familiar ones - pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. less familiar ones - viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, velocity, elevation etc.

Classification of properties: Intensive property - independent of the size of the system. e.g pressure, temperature and density Extensive property - value depends on the size of the system. e.g. mass, total volume and total energy Specific property - extensive property per unit mass. e.g. specific volume (v = V/m), specific internal energy (u = U/m), specific total energy (e = E/m) State - condition of a system described by a set of properties. At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values. The state of a system is specified by two independent, intensive properties. Thermodynamic equilibrium - no unbalanced potentials or driving forces within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings. Types of equilibrium: Thermal equilibrium, Mechanical equilibrium, phase equilibrium and chemical equilibrium. Process: Change of state of a system occurs due to a process, as a result values of one or more properties change. Path of a process: The series of equilibrium states passed through by a system during a process. To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings. Quasi-equilibrium process - an idealized process equilibrium is maintained at all times A process in which deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal and the states can be considered during the process as equilibrium states. Many actual processes can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium with negligible error and analysis is much easier. The properties describe the state of the system only when it is in equilibrium. Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties (T, P, V, v etc.) as coordinates are useful for visualizing the processes. Types of processes: based on a particular property that remains constant during the process. Polytropic process a general process P Vn = constant Isothermal Process temperature remains constant n=1 Isobaric process pressure remains constant n=0 Isochoric process specific volume remains constant n= Isentropic process entropy remains constant n = k (ratio of specific heats)

Cyclic process: Initial and final states of the system during a process are same. Non-cyclic process: The initial and final states are not same. Pressure: Force exerted by a fluid per unit area. For a fluid at rest, the pressure at a given point is the same in all directions. Unit N/m2 called Pa (pascal) in SI system and lbf / in2 or psi in English system. Other units are: 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa; 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars Absolute pressure - measured relative to absolute vacuum The pressure measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere. Gauge pressure pressure measured above atmospheric pressure. Vacuum pressure pressure measured below atmospheric pressure. Pgauge = Pabs Pvac = Patm Patm Pabs (for pressures above Patm ) (for pressures below Patm )

In thermodynamic relations, absolute pressure is almost always used. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics and Temperature It states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It serves as a basis for temperature measurement. Temperature a measure of hotness or coldness. Several properties of materials change with temperature and this forms the basis for temperature measurement. Temperature scales in SI system - Celsius scale and in English system Fahrenheit scale Thermodynamic temperature Scale developed in conjunction with II law a temperature scale independent of the properties of the thermometric substance. Kelvin ( K) in SI - named after Lord Kelvin Rankine (R) in English system named after William Rankine A temperature scale identical to Kelvin scale is the Ideal gas temperature scale measured using constant-volume gas thermometer based on the principle that at

low pressures, the temperature of a gas is proportional to its pressure at constant volume. i.e. T = a + b P, where the constants a and b are experimentally determined. If ice point and steam point are assigned the values of 0 and 100, respectively, then the gas temperature scale will be identical to the Celsius scale. In this case the value of a (corresponding to an absolute pressure of zero) is determined to be -273.15oC. Then the absolute gas temperature scale is given by T = bP. The relationship between Kelvin and Celsius scales is T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15 The relationship between Kelvin and Celsius scales is T(R) = T(oF) + 459.67 T(R) = 1.8 T(K) and T(oF) = 1.8 T((oC) +32

2.

Properties of Pure Substance

A process is carried out in a thermodynamic device with the help of some working fluid or system. The effects produced on this working fluid are considered to analyze the process. It is therefore necessary to have information on the properties of such working fluids. The working fluid is generally a pure substance that may change its phase. A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition. It may exist in more than one phase (physical structure-solid, liquid or gas) but the chemical composition is same in all phases. e.g. a system consisting of water or steam or a mixture of ice & water or water & steam; a system consisting of oxygen as vapor, or liquid, or a combination of these. Air, however, though a mixture of several gases is considered a pure substance as long as it is all gas or all liquid. (liquid phase is richer in nitrogen in a combination, hence not homogeneous in composition). A mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance as oil is not soluble to make the mixture chemically homogeneous. Phases of pure substance solid, liquid and gas Phase-change process of pure substances: There are many practical situations where two phases of a pure substance coexist in equilibrium. Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in boiler and condenser of a steam power plant. The refrigerant turns from liquid to vapor in the freezer of a refrigerator

Constant pressure heating of water (say at one atm. pressure): Refer to the T-v and P-T diagrams. Compressed liquid or sub-cooled liquid - the substance is not about to vaporize; Saturation liquid: the liquid that is about to vaporize. Saturation temperature (Tsat) - temp. at which the pure substance starts boiling depends on the pressure for a given pure substance. Boiling temp. decreases with altitude. Higher boiling temp. means shorter cooking times, hence it takes longer to cook at higher altitudes. For each 1000 m increase in elevation, the boiling temp. drops by a little over 30C. Water boils at 100 0C at 1 atm. pressure. Saturation pressure (Psat) - pressure at which the pure substance starts boiling. In saturated liquid-vapor mixture (wet vapor), liquid and vapor phases coexist in equilibrium Saturated vapor - vapor that is about to condense Superheated vapor - vapor that is not about to condense or vapor having a temperature above saturation temperature. Property Diagrams for Phase-change Processes: T- v and P v diagrams

Critical Point - is the point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states are identical (saturation line will become a point). At pressures above the critical pressure, there will not be a distinct phase-change process. Instead, the specific volume of the substance will continually increase, and at all times there will be only one phase present. Eventually, it will resemble a vapor, but we can never tell when the change has occurred. Above the critical state, there is no line that separates the compressed liquid region and the superheated vapor region. The critical properties of water are: Tcr = 374.14 0C Pcrt = 22.09 MPa, vcrt = 0.003155 m3 /kg

Saturated liquid line connecting the saturated liquid states. Saturated vapor line connecting the saturated vapor states. These two lines meet each other at the critical point forming a dome. Compressed liquid, Superheated vapor and Saturated liquid-vapor or wet regions are shown in the figure. The general shape of the P-v diagram is very much like the T-v diagram, but the T=constant lines on this diagram have a downward trend.

Enthalpy In the analysis of certain types of processes, particularly in power generation (turbines) and refrigeration, we frequently encounter the combination of properties U + PV . For the sake of simplicity and convenience, this combination is defined as a new property, Enthalpy, denoted as H = U + PV (kJ) and h = u + Pv (kJ/kg)

This property is very useful in the analysis and graphical representation of the processes. It is also used to represent the properties of steam in tabular or graphical form (Mollier chart). Mollier referred to the group (u + Pv) as Heat contents and Total heat Steam Property Tables the subscript f is used to denote the properties of a saturated liquid, the subscript g is used to denote the properties of a saturated vapor, and the subscript fg is used to denote the difference between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same property. vf = specific volume of saturated liquid; vg = specific volume of saturated vapor hf = enthalpy of saturated liquid; hg = enthalpy of saturated vapor

uf = internal energy of saturated liquid; ug = internal energy of saturated vapor sf = entropy of saturated liquid; sg = entropy of saturated vapor ufg = ug - uf

vfg = vg - vf ; hfg = hg - hf (enthalpy of vaporization or latent heat); Table - A-4

Temp. T
o

sat.pr. Psat kPa

sp. volume vf vg

internal energy uf ufg kJ/kg ug

enthalpy hf hfg hg kJ/kg

entropy sf sfg sg

m3 /kg

kJ/(kg.K)

Table - A-5 Press. T

o

sat.temp. Psat kPa

sp. volume vf vg

internal energy uf ufg kJ/kg ug

enthalpy hf hfg hg kJ/kg

entropy sf sfg sg

m3 /kg

kJ/(kg.K)

Quality of steam ( x ) - for saturated liquid-vapor mixture During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor. That is, it is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. Quality x is a measure of the proportions of the liquid and vapor phases in the mixture and is defined as x = mvapor / mtotal where mtotal = mliquid + mvapor = mf + mg

Quality has significance for saturated mixture only. It has no meaning in the compressed liquid or superheated regions. Its value is always between 0 and 1; x = 0 (0%) for saturated liquid and x = 1 ( 100%) for saturated vapor. In 1 kg mass of wet steam (saturated liquid-vapor mixture) of quality x, mass of saturated vapor = x kg; and mass of saturated liquid = (1 x) kg

hence, specific volume of wet steam is given by v = x vg + (1- x) vf or v = vf + x vfg m3 /kg m3 /kg and x = ( v - vf ) / vfg

Similarly, the internal energy and enthalpy of wet steam are expressed as u = x ug + (1- x) uf or u = h = x hg + (1- x) hf or h = s = Superheated vapor The temperature and pressure are no longer dependent properties. At pressures sufficiently below the critical pressures or at temperatures sufficiently above the critical temperature, a superheated vapor can be approximated as an ideal gas. Reference state For water, the state of saturated liquid at 0.01 oC is taken as the reference state, and the internal energy and entropy are assigned zero values at that state. However, in thermodynamics we are concerned with the changes in properties, and the reference state chosen is of no consequence in calculations. u = x (uf + ufg ) + (1- x) uf uf + x ufg kJ / kg and we get and we get

u = x (hf + hfg ) + (1- x) hf hf + x hfg sf + x sfg kJ / kg kJ / kg

Ideal gas equation of state Equations of state - relations involving properties of a substance at equilibrium states Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words. The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it is above the critical temperature. Vapor usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of condensation. From experimental observations, it has been established that at very low density all gases and vapors approach ideal gas behavior, with P-v-T relationship given by Pv = RT called Ideal gas equation of state

Because of its simplicity, the ideal gas equation of state is very convenient to use in thermodynamic calculations. Where R is gas constant given by R = Ru / M

Ru = universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ / (kmol . K) 1545 ft lbf / (lbmol . R) M = molar mass (mass of one mole); mass m = M N, where N = mole number Other forms of this equation of state are; P V = m R T; P V = N Ru T

The properties of an ideal gas of fixed mass at two different states are related to each other by P1 V1 = P2 V2 T1 T2 An ideal gas is an imaginary substance that obeys the relation P v = R T. It has been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation closely approximates the P-v-T behavior of real gases at low density. At low pressures and high temperatures, the density of a gas decreases, and the gas behaves as an ideal gas under these conditions. In the range of practical interests, many familiar gases such as air, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton and even heavier gases such as carbon dioxide can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error (often less than 1%). Dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants and refrigerant vapor in refrigerators (where high pressures are involved), however, should not be treated as ideal gases. Instead, the property tables should be used for these substances. In air-conditioning applications, the water vapor in the air can be treated as an ideal gas with essentially no error, since the pressure of water vapor is very low.

Compressibility Factor (Z) - a measure of deviation from ideal gas behavior, given by Z = Pv / RT or Pv=ZRT

Z = 1 for ideal gases. For real gases Z can be greater or less than unity. Van der Waals equation of state - Equation of state for real gases is given by ( P + a / v2 ) ( v b ) = R T The intermolecular attraction forces and the volume occupied by the gas molecules themselves are not taken into account in the ideal gas equation of state. The term a / v2 accounts for the intermolecular forces and the term b for the volume occupied by the molecules. An ideal gas can be defined as a gas at sufficiently low density so that intermolecular forces and the associated energy are negligibly small.

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