Soil Aeration & Temperature

Why Soil Air is Important

For the growth of plants and the activity of soil micro-organisms, soil aeration can be just as important as soil moisture status. o And it is often more difficult to manage. Soil temperature is important for two reasons: o First, it affects the rate of plant growth and micro-organism populations o Second, it influences soil drying through evaporation. Increasing soil temperatures influence soil aeration through their stimulating effect on the growth of plants and soil organisms and on the rates of biochemical activity.

The Nature of Soil Aeration

Aeration involves the ventilation of soil. o In this process, gases move in and out of the soil. Aeration determines: o The rate of gas exchange with the atmosphere o The proportion of pore spaces filled with air o The composition of the soil air o The resulting chemical oxidation or reduction potential in the soil Oxygen and carbon dioxide, along with water, are primary ingredients for two vital biological processes: o Respiration of all plants and animals o Photosynthesis that creates sugars Respiration: o Consumes O2 and produces CO2 o Oxidizes sugar compounds (e.g. C6H12O6 + O6 = 6CO2 + 6H2O) Photosynthesis: o Creates sugars (e.g. 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + O6) o Releases O2

Soil Aeration in the Field

Oxygen availability in soil is regulated by three factors: o Soil macroporosity (as affected by texture and structure) o Soil water content (as it affects the proportion of the pore spaces filled with air) o O2 consumption by respiring organisms (including plant roots and micro-organisms). Poor soil aeration becomes a serious issue when more than 80% of the soils macropores are filled with water leaving less than 20% of these pore spaces filled with air for two reasons: o Little pore space for air storage o Water blocks the exchange of gases between the soil and atmosphere o Compaction also blocks this exchange even when the soil is not wet The more rapidly roots and microbes use up O2 and release CO2, the greater the need for the exchange of gases between the soil and atmosphere. This exchange is made possible by two mechanisms: o Mass flow o Diffusion Mass flow is less important than diffusion. It is enhanced by fluctuations in soil moisture content as the water forces the air out of the soil. The great bulk of gaseous exchange is achieved through diffusion. o Little pore space for air storage o Water blocks the exchange of gases between the soil and atmosphere The great bulk of gaseous exchange is achieved through diffusion. o This is achieved as each gas moves in a direction determined by its own partial pressure. o There is no pressure gradient between the soil air and the atmosphere for the air as a mixture of gases. There are, however, a concentration gradient for each individual gas that

makes up the atmosphere and this is expressed as a partial pressure gradient. o Because of the restrictions associated with soil air movement, the concentrations of individual gases is different in the soil than in the atmosphere there is generally more CO2 in soil air and less O2. o As a consequence of the higher concentration of O2 in the atmosphere, there is a net movement of O2 into the soil. Similarly, due to higher concentrations of CO2 (and water vapour) in the soil, these have a net movement out of the soil.

Characterizing Soil Aeration

The aeration status of a soil can be characterized in three ways: o The content of O2 and other gases in the soil air o The air-filled soil porosity o The chemical oxidation-reduction (Redox) potential of the soil

Gaseous Composition of Soil Air

From what we just talked about, the gaseous composition of soil air differs from the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains nearly 21% O2, 0.035% CO2, and more than 78% N2. Soil air has about the same level of N2, but lower levels of O2 and higher levels of CO2. O2 levels vary from only slightly lower in the macropores near the surface to less than 5% or even zero in the lower horizons of poorly drained soils with few macropores. Even slight increases in CO2 can be toxic to plants. Other gases can build up in soils too under waterlogged conditions methane (CH4), hydrogen sulphide (H25), and ethylene (C2H4)

Soil Porosity
We know that in an ideal soil, you would have close to a 50:50 ratio between soil water and soil air or 25% by volume of air.

Plant growth becomes severely inhibited when air-filled porosity falls below 20% of the pore space, or 10% of total soil volume. Again this is primarily due to soil saturation (of water). The higher of water, filling the upper macropores block the diffusion of O2 into the soil to replace that used up by respiration. O2 diffuses 10,000 times faster through pores filled with air than those filled with water.

Redox Potential
The soil is filled with electrical charges brought about by the myriad of chemical exchanges taking place. During these processes, electrically charged ions and electrons are released from compounds and absorbed by others. An important characteristic of soil is the reduction and oxidization states of chemical compounds in the soil. The redox potential (Eh) measures the electrical potential (as measured by millivolts or volts) of a system due to the tendency of substances to give up or acquire electrons. o For example, two-valent iron (Fe2+ or Fe(II)) in FeO is oxidized into Fe(III) or a tri-valent form in FeOOH when it comes in contact with water. In this process, H+ ions and electrons (e-) are released. o Fe(II) loses an electron as it changes to Fe(III) and H+ ions are formed. The redox potential is measured against a reference state. In this case, this state is set by the hydrogen couple (a redox potential of zero): H2 == H+ + 2eIf a substance will accept electrons easily, it is known as an oxidizing agent (O2 is an example). If the substance supplies electrons easily, it is a reducing agent. Reduction: The gain of electrons, and therefore the loss of positive valence charge, by a substances. Oxidization: The loss of electrons, and therefore the gain of positive valence charge, by a substance, and in some cases, the chemical combination with O2 (gas).

Redox Potential Role of O2

O2 is a strong oxidizing agent it rapidly accepts electrons from many other elements. O2 can oxidize both organic and inorganic substances. As it oxidizes another substances, O2 is, in turn, reduced. Redox potential is dependent upon the presence of electron acceptors (O2 or other oxidizing agents) and pH (as it increases, Eh decreases) In a well-drained soil, Eh ranges between 0.4 and 0.7 V. As aeration decreases, Eh declines to about 0.3 to 0.35 V. Other elements act as oxidizers too: nitrogen in nitrate (N(V)), Fe (iron), Mn (manganese), and S (sulphur).

Factors Affecting Soil Aeration

1. Soil water levels impact on macropores; gravitational water 2. Rate of respiration in the soil by microbial and plant activity 3. Topsoil vs. subsoil subsoils are usually more O2 deficient than topsoils (due to fewer macropores and high water content levels) and pathways for diffusion of gases into and out of the soil is longer for deeper horizons. 4. Seasonal Differences marked seasonal variation in the composition of soil air: springtime, soil is often wet and conditions are poor for soil gas exchange but low soil temperatures and respiration of plant roots and soil micro-organisms are restricted so O2/CO2 exchange is also restrained; summer, drier conditions, opportunity for gas exchange higher and vigorous plant and microbe activity. 5. Impact of vegetation can impact on soil aeration by removing large quantities of water through transpiration 6. Soil heterogeneity aeration status varies greatly in different locations in a soil profile; in a well-drained generally-uniformed soil, the trend is a general reduction in O2 and increase in CO2 as one moves down the profile. However, variation occurs within horizons change due to:

o Tillage practices impact on macropores and soil structure o Presence or absence of macropores poorly aerated zones may occur from either heavy-textured soils or compaction or naturally due to the structure of soil peds where the smallness of the pores may restrict the movement of soil air and gas exchange o Plant roots can either enhance or reduce O2 concentrations in their immediate vicinity; in poorly-drained soils, it can lead to O2 depletion; some plants (hydrophytic plants) can transfer O2 to the soil.

Ecological Effects of Soil Aeration

First, there are the effects on organic residue degradation. o Soil aeration influences many soil reactions and, as a result, many soil properties. o Many of these reactions are associated with soil microbial activity notably in the breakdown of organic residues. o In cases where O2 is deficient, the rate of decay slows. o Where O2 is present, aerobic organisms are also active and oxidization processes occur. Poorly aerated soils contain a wide range of only partially oxidized products such as ethylene gas, alcohols, and organic acids, many of which can be toxic to plants at high levels. o Generally, the presence or absence of O2 completely modifies the nature of the decay process and its effect on plant growth. Second, there is the impact on the Redox potential. o Through its effect on the redox potential, the level of O2 largely determines the forms of several inorganic elements. For example, the oxidized state of nitrogen and sulphur are readily available to higher plants. o But what nutrients are made available varies based upon soil conditions wet soils result in differing chemical reactions compared to dry soils.

o This impact varies depending upon soil pH the interaction between soil aeration and soil pH in supplying available nutrients plants. o The redox potential also determines the presence of toxic elements such as chromium, arsenic, and selenium. o And it can impact on the production of methane gas when the redox potential drops to about -0.2 V, a condition common in rice paddy and natural wetlands. Third, there is the impact on activities of higher plants. o Plants can be adversely affected by poor aeration in three ways: Growth of plants, particularly the roots, is curtailed Absorption of nutrients and water is decreased Formation of certain toxic compounds to plant growth is favoured Plant species vary in their ability to tolerate poor aeration. o Some plants that can tolerate high water tables (< 10cm): Black spruce, mangrove, common cattail, cranberries, rice, skunk cabbage, swamp oak o Water tables ranging between 15 to 30 cm: Black willow, orchard grass, tall fescue o Water tables from 40 to 60 cm: Birdsfoot trefoil, mulberry, mustard, red maple, sorghum, willow oak o Water tables from 75 to 90 cm: beech, birch, cabbage, corn, millet, peas, red oak o Water tables deeper than 100 cm: barley, beans, cherry, oats, peach, sugar beets, wheat, white pine.

Soil Aeration Related to Soil and Plant Management

Both surface and subsurface drainage are essential for maintaining a good aerobic environment for plant growth. First, the maintenance of soil structure and cultivation.

o Maintenance of a stable soil structure as we have seen in the labs is an important means of augmenting good aeration. o Pores of macro size are encouraged by large, stable aggregates and these are quickly drained of excess water from rainfall or irrigation, allowing gases to move into the soil from the atmosphere. o On cropland, the maintenance of organic matter by the addition of manure and crop residues, and by the growth of close-growing grasses and legumes, helps maintain aggregate stability. o No-tillage systems often provide sufficient earthworm burrows and root channels (undisturbed) to promote drainage. Second, in the case of lawn and tree maintenance, assisting in soil aeration helps ensure vibrant growth. o When transplanting a young tree seeding or any woody species, you need to ensure that you dont pile additional soil up around the tree, hiding the top of the root ball. This prevents proper soil aeration and can impede proper drainage of water. So, you leave the soil cover thin on top of the root ball. o How often have you seen lawns with all sorts of plugs on its surface? This is core cultivation. Small holes are created, promoting better gas exchange in the lawn.

Soil Aeration & Temperature

Soil Temperature
The temperature of a soil greatly affects the physical, biological and chemical processes occurring in that soil. o Biological processes are slower in cold soils than in warm ones. o Biological decomposition comes to a near standstill, limiting the amount of nutrients nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, and calcium made available to plants. o Absorption and transport of water and nutrient ions are also inhibited.

Soil Temperature & Plants

The growth rates of most plants are actually more sensitive to soil temperature than to above ground air temperature. o Most plants thrive in a very narrow band of soil temperature. o Corn and pine grow best when the soil temperature is about 25C to 30C. o Soil temperature often limits the productivity of crops and natural vegetation. o Life cycles of plants are also influenced by soil temperature. For example, many bulb flowers. o On the flip side, too-hot soil temperatures can also affect plants. Different plant processes have different optimal soil temperatures. o One most sensitive to soil temperature is seed germination. o Corn seed planted into soil cooler than 7C to 10C will not germinate and likely rot. o Optimal root growth occurs at a soil temperature of between 23C and 25C, somewhat cooler for shoot growth. o Potatoes, for example, develop best in soil temperatures between 16C and 21C.

o Soil temperatures trigger germination and growth of different plants. o Most cereals and many of our crops thrive in a soil temperature of between 10C and 30C. o Some need cold temperatures. The seeds of certain (winter) crops and prairie grasses need a cold soil temperature of between 2C and 4C to enable them to germinate the next spring, a process called vernalization. Root functions are also affected by soil temperature. o Root functions such as nutrient uptake and water uptake are sluggish in cool soil when temperatures are below optimal levels for plant growth. This can lead to nutrient deficiencies. Crops can also experience winter burn. Microbial processes are also affected by soil temperature. o Soil microbial activities generally cease below 5C, a point termed the biological zero. o Rates of microbial activity, such as respiration, more than doubles for every 10C rise in soil temperature to an optimum of 35C to 40C. o This impacts on the productivity of vegetation. The northern boreal forests productivity is probably limited primarily by the inhibiting effect of low soil temperatures than affect microbial recycling and the release of nutrients from the tree litter and soil organic matter. o The microbial oxidization of ammonium ions to nitrate ions occurs most readily at temperatures near 30C. However this also is near zero at low soil temperatures. o Farmers take advantage of this by injecting their fields with ammonia fertilizers knowing it would transform into nitrogen until the soil warms. Freezing and thawing processes are also affected by soil temperature. o When soils hit the freezing mark, soil water freezes and thaws.

o As the soil water does this, soil aggregates are subjected to pressure as areas of pure ice form in the soil. These are called ice lens. o These exert great pressure in the soil, altering the physical structure of the soil. o In a saturated soil with a puddled structure, these processes can break up large masses and improve granulation. o Freezing and thawing processes can also move large objects in the soil through a process called frost heaving. These include rocks, fence posts, foundations. o These actions are more extreme in loams and less in sandy soils or very clay-rich soils. o Soils with ice lens are also often supersaturated they hold more water than they do in a saturated state. High soil temperatures also affect plant productivity o High temperatures can be used to control certain plant diseases. o It is also possible to raise the soil temperature by placing a plastic sheet over the soil increasing temperatures to 50C o or 60C. These temperatures kill off certain wilt-causing fungal diseases of vegetables and fruits, and adversely affect certain weeds, seeds, and insect pests. This process is called soil solarization. Forest fires are one of the most far reaching ecosystem disturbances in nature. Dramatic changes in soil temperature can affect the breakdown and movement of nutrients in the soil. Some

o o o

volatized hydrocarbon compounds move quickly into deeper pores that are cooler, where they condense on the surface of particles and fill spaces. o Fires also affect seed germination and hasten the recycling of organic matter.

Absorption & Loss of Solar Energy

Soil temperature is affected most by three factors: o The net amount of heat energy the soil absorbs o The heat energy required to bring about a given change in the temperature of the soil o The energy required for soil processes o Solar radiation is the primary source of energy to heat soils and this varies with conditions and latitude. o Only about 10% is absorbed into the soil. This is affected by the lands albedo, aspect and soil cover. It is also affected by the amount of soil moisture in the soil.

Thermal Properties of Soil

We know, by experience, certain features of soil. o A dry soil is more easily heated/warmed than a wet soil. This is because the energy needed to heat the temperature of water 1C (its heat capacity) is much higher than that for soil solids. o Heat capacity expressed per unit mass is called specific heat (c). o The specific heat of pure water is 1.0 cal/g (4.18 joules per gram). For dry soil it is 0.2 cal/g or 0.8 J/g. o Evaporation of water from soil subsurfaces requires a lot of energy 540 kilocalories, or 2.257 J for every kilogram of water vapourized.

Thermal Conductivity of Soil

The movement of heat in soil is analogous to that of water movement. o The rate of flow is determined by a driving force and by the ease with which the heat flows through the specific soil. o This is Fouriers Law: thermal conductivity of a soil (K) times the change in temperature gradient over distance.

o The thermal conductivity of a soil is affected by a number of factors: most importantly, the moisture content of the soil and the degree of compaction. o Heat passes through water many times faster than through air. As water content increases, soil air levels decrease and the transfer resistance decreases. o Heat moves through mineral particles even faster than through water, so when particle-to-particle contact is increased by soil compaction, heat transfer rates also increase.

Soil Temperature Fluctuations

Soil temperature fluctuates by the day, the month, and the season. o It also varies by depth. o The surface layer temperatures vary more or less according to the temperature of the air although the soil is generally warmer than the air throughout the year. o Soil temperature also stabilizes the deeper you go in the profile. While temperatures range between 20C and 25C at a soil depth of around 300 cm year-round, surface temperatures fluctuate greatly: from zero to 35C.