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4-Coumarate:coenzyme A ligase (4CL) is known to activate cinnamic acid derivatives to their corresponding coenzyme A
esters. As a new type of 4CL-catalyzed reaction, we observed the synthesis of various mono- and diadenosine polyphos-
phates. Both the native 4CL2 isoform from Arabidopsis (At4CL2 wild type) and the At4CL2 gain of function mutant
M293P/K320L, which exhibits the capacity to use a broader range of phenolic substrates, catalyzed the synthesis of
adenosine 5⬘-tetraphosphate (p4A) and adenosine 5⬘-pentaphosphate when incubated with MgATP⫺2 and tripolyphosphate
or tetrapolyphosphate (P4), respectively. Diadenosine 5⬘,5,-P1,P4-tetraphosphate represented the main product when the
enzymes were supplied with only MgATP2⫺. The At4CL2 mutant M293P/K320L was studied in more detail and was also
found to catalyze the synthesis of additional dinucleoside polyphosphates such as diadenosine 5⬘,5-P1,P5-pentaphosphate
and dAp4dA from the appropriate substrates, p4A and dATP, respectively. Formation of Ap3A from ATP and ADP was not
observed with either At4CL2 variant. In all cases analyzed, (di)adenosine polyphosphate synthesis was either strictly
dependent on or strongly stimulated by the presence of a cognate cinnamic acid derivative. The At4CL2 mutant enzyme
K540L carrying a point mutation in the catalytic center that is critical for adenylate intermediate formation was inactive in
both p4A and diadenosine 5⬘,5,-P1,P4-tetraphosphate synthesis. These results indicate that the cinnamoyl-adenylate
intermediate synthesized by At4CL2 not only functions as an intermediate in coenzyme A ester formation but can also act
as a cocatalytic AMP-donor in (di)adenosine polyphosphate synthesis.
4-Coumarate:CoA ligase (4CL; EC 6.2.1.12) repre- is released (Knobloch and Hahlbrock, 1975; Becker-
sents the branch point enzyme of plant phenylpro- André et al., 1991).
panoid metabolism, catalyzing the activation of
4-coumaric acid and various other hydroxylated and E:coumaroyl⬃pA ⫹ CoA 3 coumaroyl-CoA ⫹
methoxylated cinnamic acid derivatives to the corre-
sponding CoA esters in a two-step reaction. During AMP ⫹ E (3)
the first step (Eq. 1), coumarate and ATP form a
coumaroyl-adenylate intermediate with the simulta- On the basis of the presence of a highly conserved
neous release of pyrophosphate (PPi), a reaction peptide motive, the putative nucleotide-binding do-
which is reversible (Eq. 2). main, 4CLs, luciferases, fatty acyl-CoA synthetases,
acetyl-CoA synthetases, and non-ribosomal peptide
E⫹coumarate ⫹ ATP 3 E:coumaroyl⬃pA ⫹ PPi synthetases have been grouped in one superfamily
of adenylate-forming enzymes (Fulda et al., 1994). A
(1) second, independent group of adenylate-forming
proteins make up the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
E:coumaroyl⬃pA ⫹ PPi 3 ATP ⫹ coumarate ⫹ E (Pavela-Vrancic et al., 1994). In the presence of ATP
(2) and Mg2⫹, all enzymes listed above form an enzyme-
bound acyl-adenylate intermediate, which is esterified
In the second step (Eq. 3), the coumaroyl group is with either CoA (4CL, acetyl-CoA synthetases,
transferred to the sulfhydryl group of CoA, and AMP and fatty acyl-CoA synthetases), or the enzyme-bound
cofactor 4⬘-phosphopantetheine (non-ribosomal pep-
1
tide synthetases), or tRNAs (aminoacyl-tRNA
This work was supported by the Polish State Committee for synthetases).
Scientific Research (project no. PBZ–KBN– 059/T09/2001 to
M.P.-B. and A.G.) and by the Max-Planck-Society (to E.K. and
Several of the enzymes forming an acyl-adenylate
H.-P.S.). intermediate with concomitant release of PPi can in
* Corresponding author; e-mail guranow@au.poznan.pl; fax 48 – a second type of reaction also catalyze the formation
61– 8487146. of uncommon mononucleoside and dinucleoside
Article, publication date, and citation information can be found polyphosphates such as adenosine 5⬘-tetraphosphate
at www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/doi/10.1104/pp.011684. (p4A; Eq. 4), adenosine 5⬘-pentaphosphate (p5A;
Plant Physiology, March 2003, Vol. 131, pp. 1401–1410, www.plantphysiol.org © 2003 American Society of Plant Biologists 1401
Pietrowska-Borek et al.
Eq. 5), diadenosine 5⬘,5⬙-P1,P4-tetraphosphate (Ap4A; phosphates (ApnA) rapidly increased in response to
Eq. 6), and diadenosine 5⬘,5⬙-P1,P5-pentaphosphate heat shock, oxidative, or heavy-metal ion stress, sug-
(Ap5A; Eq. 7; for reviews, see McLennan, 2000; Sillero gesting that these compounds could act as alarmones
and Günther Sillero, 2000). (Brevet et al., 1985; Baltzinger et al., 1986; Miller and
McLennan, 1986; Coste et al., 1987; Johnstone and
E:acyl⬃pA ⫹ P3 3 p4A ⫹ acid ⫹ E (4) Farr, 1991; Pàlfi et al., 1991). Several proteins were
where P3 is tripolyphosphate. identified to directly bind diadenosine polyphos-
phates, including the stress-related proteins DnaK
E:acyl⬃pA ⫹ P4 3 p5A ⫹ acid ⫹ E (5) and GroEL from E. coli (Johnstone and Farr, 1991). In
higher eukaryotes, especially mammalian cells, it has
where P4 is tetrapolyphosphate. been observed that appreciable physiological and
E:acyl⬃pA ⫹ ATP 3 Ap4A ⫹ acid ⫹ E (6) pathological effects are associated with changes of
diadenosine polyphosphate levels, in particular with
E:acyl⬃pA ⫹ p4A 3 Ap5A ⫹ acid ⫹ E (7) alterations of the Ap3A to Ap4A ratio (Kisselev et al.,
1998). In agreement with the suggested importance
Such capacity was demonstrated for certain of the Ap3A to Ap4A ratio, the human Ap3A hydro-
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (Plateau et al., 1981; lase, Fhit, appeared to be involved in the protection
Goerlich et al., 1982; Plateau and Blanquet, 1982; of cells against tumorigenesis (Siprashivili et al.,
Jakubowski, 1983), some acetyl-CoA and fatty acyl- 1997).
CoA synthetases (Guranowski et al., 1994; Fontes et Phenylalanyl- and seryl-tRNA synthetases from
al., 1998), firefly luciferase (Guranowski et al., 1990), yellow lupin seeds are the only plant enzymes known
and more recently also for a non-ribosomal peptide to synthesize Ap3A and Ap4A (Jakubowski, 1983).
synthetase from Bacillus brevis (Dieckmann et al., However, the existence of highly specific enzymes
2001). Corresponding to this broad range of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of (di)nucleoside
catalyzing reactions that in vitro lead to the synthesis polyphosphates, such as (asymmetrical) dinucleo-
of (di)nucleoside polyphosphates, appreciable side tetraphosphatase (EC 3.6.1.17), dinucleoside
amounts of these compounds, pnN and NpnN⬘, have triphosphatase (EC 3.6.1.29), and nucleoside 5⬘-
been found to also naturally occur in a variety of tetraphosphatase (EC 3.6.1.14), indicates that these
tissues and organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and nucleotide derivatives may exist and have a func-
animal cells (Garrison and Barnes, 1992; Kisselev et tion in planta (Jakubowski and Guranowski, 1983;
al., 1998; McLennan, 2000). They presumably occur Guranowski et al., 1996, 1997). In this report, we
ubiquitously in all organisms, however, their pres- demonstrate that Arabidopsis 4CL2, a key enzyme
ence in plants has not yet been demonstrated. of plant secondary metabolism, can catalyze the
Although (di)nucleoside polyphosphate synthesis synthesis of various mono- and dinucleoside
is typically promoted by the absence or an insufficient polyphosphates. The basic requirements and kinetic
concentration of the respective end acceptor (e.g. CoA, parameters of these reactions are presented, and
4⬘-phosphopantetheine, and tRNAs) the (di)adenosine their possible biological roles are discussed.
polyphosphate product spectra observed are specific
for each enzyme. For example, most aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetases can catalyze the formation of Ap4A, RESULTS
whereas mammalian aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases Synthesis of Adenosine 5ⴕ-Polyphosphates
with specificity for Trp only produce Ap3A (Kisselev
et al., 1998). Adenosine 5⬘-polyphosphates (e.g. p4A) Having identified At4CL2 as a member of the large
and diadenosine 5⬘-polyphosphates (e.g. Ap3A and family of adenylate-forming enzymes (Stuible et al.,
Ap4A) have been considered to play important roles 2000), we wanted to test whether At4CL2 and two
in regulating cellular processes such as sporulation, mutant variants derived from this enzyme are also
stress responses, cell proliferation, and apoptosis in capable to catalyze the synthesis of p4A or p5A. The
various biological systems (Kisselev et al., 1998; respective enzymes were incubated with either P3 or
Nishimura, 1998). In Brewer’s yeast (Saccharomyces P4 as potential adenylate acceptors in the presence of
cerevisiae), p4A and p5A accumulate during sporula- their cognate phenolic acid substrate (a cinnamic acid
tion, whereas these compounds were not detectable derivative), ATP and Mg2⫹, whereas CoA was omit-
during its vegetative growth (Jakubowski, 1986). Fur- ted from the incubation mixture. For product analy-
ther studies demonstrated that yeast acetyl-CoA syn- sis, aliquots were sampled at different time points,
thetase can synthesize p4A and p5A and therefore subjected to thin layer chromatography and subse-
might be the enzyme responsible for the accumula- quently visualized under short wavelength UV. Var-
tion of these adenosine 5⬘-polyphosphates (Gu- ious At4CL2 variants (the wild-type enzyme and mu-
ranowski et al., 1994). In bacteria (Escherichia coli, tants derived thereof) support the synthesis of p4A
Synechococcus sp.), yeast (S. cerevisiae), and animal and p5A in the presence of P3 or P4, respectively. In
cells (fruitfly [Drosophila melanogaster] and Artemia Figure 1, this is demonstrated for the mutant M293P/
franciscana) the concentrations of diadenosine poly- K320L. The identity of the reaction products, p4A and
1402 Plant Physiol. Vol. 131, 2003
(Di)Adenosine Polyphosphate Synthesis by 4-Coumarate:Coenzyme A Ligase
p5A, was verified by their comigration with authentic which is not converted to the CoA ester by At4CL2,
standards and their susceptibility to yeast exopoly- does also not support p4A synthesis. In Table I, the
phosphatase, scPPX1, which degrades nucleoside kinetic properties of the At4CL2 wild-type catalyzed
polyphosphates to ATP and orthophosphate (Gu- reactions leading to the synthesis of p4A or the CoA
ranowski et al., 1998). Addition of inorganic pyro- esters of various cinnamic acid derivatives are com-
phosphatase to the reaction mixture had no signifi- pared. Interestingly, apparent Km values for couma-
cant effect on the rates of p4A and p5A production rate and caffeate are about 10-fold lower in the reac-
and was therefore not included in the standard assay. tion leading to p4A in comparison with the
For the At4CL2 wild-type enzyme, nucleoside corresponding values for thiol-ester formation.
polyphosphate synthesis was strictly dependent on The At4CL2 mutant enzyme carrying two amino
the presence of a cinnamic acid derivative, such as acid substitutions, M293P and K320L, was analyzed
coumarate or caffeate, which are efficiently con- in detail for its capacity to catalyze adenosine 5⬘-
verted to their corresponding thiol-esters by the en- polyphosphate formation. The At4CL2 mutant
zyme in the standard 4CL reaction (Ehlting et al., M293P/K320L is a gain of function variant of
1999). In the presence of 100 m coumarate, a specific At4CL2, which in contrast to the wild-type enzyme is
activity of 6.2 nkat mg⫺1 protein for p4A synthesis capable to efficiently activate ferulate and cinnamate
was determined, whereas in its absence p4A was due to its enlarged and more hydrophobic substrate
undetectable. Ferulate and cinnamate, in contrast to binding pocket (Stuible and Kombrink, 2001; K.
coumarate and caffeate, are known to represent only Schneider, K. Witzel, E. Kombrink, and H.-P. Stuible,
poor substrates for the At4CL2 wild-type enzyme unpublished data). In addition to its broader sub-
and correspondingly were considerably less efficient strate utilization spectrum, the double mutant exhib-
in stimulating p4A synthesis (Table I). Sinapate, its higher conversion rates than the wild-type en-
this mutant is also incapable of catalyzing the syn- Synthesis of Dinucleoside Polyphosphates
thesis of (di)adenosine polyphosphates (not shown),
In additional experiments, we analyzed the capac-
indicating that adenylate formation is an essential
ity of the At4CL2 mutant M293P/K320L to support
step during both CoA ester formation and (di)ade-
the synthesis of dinucleoside polyphosphates, such
nosine polyphosphate synthesis. as Ap3A, Ap4A, dAp4dA, and Ap5A. When the en-
zyme was supplied with 5 mm ATP, which served as
both adenylate donor and acceptor, 5 mm MgCl2 and
Special Requirements for Adenosine 62 m ferulate, accumulation of Ap4A could be ob-
5ⴕ-Polyphosphate Synthesis served by thin-layer chromatography (Fig. 3A). The
identity of the product was confirmed by comigra-
The pH dependence of p4A synthesis catalyzed by tion with the authentic standard, its resistance to
At4CL2 was monitored in various buffers, including alkaline phosphatase, and its susceptibility to Ap4A
acetate, MES, HEPES, CHES, covering a pH range hydrolase from L. angustifolius, which converts
from 3.6 to 9.5. Maximum activity was observed be- Ap4A to ATP plus AMP (Fig. 3). Maximum rates of
tween pH 6 and 8, with half-maximal activity at pH Ap4A synthesis were observed between pH 6 and 7
4.5 and 9 (results not shown). 4CL-catalyzed reac- (not shown). The kinetic constants of Ap4A synthesis
tions converting cinnamic acid derivatives to CoA were estimated with [3H]ATP concentrations ranging
esters typically have a pH optimum ranging from pH from 0.3 to 5 mm and yielded an apparent Km for ATP
7.5 to 8.5 (Knobloch and Hahlbrock, 1975; Knobloch of 4.1 mm and Vmax of 1.2 nkat mg⫺1. When ATP was
and Hahlbrock, 1977; Voo et al., 1995). Various diva- replaced by dATP, the At4CL2 mutant M293P/
lent cations were tested for their capacity to support K320L also catalyzed the synthesis of dAp4dA at a
p4A synthesis, and maximum activity was obtained comparable rate (Fig. 3B). With p4A as the only nu-
with 5 mm Mg2⫹ (100%), whereas lower rates were cleotide present in the reaction mixture, the enzyme
observed with Mn2⫹ (54%), Co2⫹ (52%), Ni2⫹ (47%), additionally supported the synthesis of Ap5A (not
and Zn2⫹ (15%), all tested at 5 mm. Ca2⫹ had no shown). However, no Ap3A synthesis could be de-
stimulating effect. tected in a reaction mixture containing 5 mm ADP as
Figure 3. Synthesis of diadenosine tetraphosphate (Ap4A) and di(deoxyadenosine) tetraphosphate (dAp4dA) by the At4CL2
mutant M293P/K320L from Arabidopsis. Product accumulation was monitored by withdrawing 3-L aliquots of the reaction
mixtures at the times indicated. After 16 h, the reactions were stopped by heating (3 min, 100°C) and further incubated at
30°C in the presence of 2 units of alkaline phosphatase (AP) from calf intestine and after its inactivation, with 50 ng of
(asymmetrical) Ap4A hydrolase (Ap4A-ase) from Lupinus angustifolius, and additional aliquots were withdrawn at the times
indicated. Samples were subjected to thin-layer chromatography in solvent system II as described in “Materials and
Methods.” A and dA at the arrows represent adenosine and deoxyadenosine, respectively.
DISCUSSION
several aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases produced Ap3A that alternative adenylate acceptors such as oligo-
(Ap3N) and Ap4A (Ap4Ns) at comparable rates phosphates (Pn) or adenosine oligophosphates (pnA)
(Zamecnik et al., 1966; Plateau and Blanquet, 1982; are present at sufficient concentrations. In fact, 4CL
Jakubowski, 1983; Kitabatake et al., 1987). represents the first plant enzyme, in addition to
Finally, we observed that At4CL2 was also capable aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, for which the capacity
to catalyze reverse reaction, i.e. the (re)use of the to synthesize these unusual mono- and diadenosine
adenylate moieties originating from adenosine 5⬘- polyphosphates has been demonstrated. Thus, our
polyphosphates and diadenosine polyphosphates for results shine new light on an old enzyme, 4CL, which
the generation of ATP. This activity may connect the may have an important function beyond the well-
degradation of unusual nucleotide derivatives with established role in phenylpropanoid metabolism.
the regeneration of ATP. Comparable enzymatic ac-
tivities have previously been reported for some MATERIALS AND METHODS
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (Zamecnik et al., 1966;
Plateau et al., 1981; Goerlich et al., 1982; Led et al., Chemicals and Enzymes
1983; Guédon et al., 1987) as well as for firefly lucif- Coenzyme A, mono- and dinucleotides, buffers, and salts were from
erase (Momsen, 1978; Günther Sillero et al., 1991; Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis), [2,8-3H]ATP (25 Ci mmol⫺1) was from ICN
Ortiz et al., 1993). The functional significance of these (Irvine, CA), and [3H]Ap4A (20 Ci mmol⫺1) was from Moravek Biochemi-
reactions remains to be demonstrated but it could be cals (Brea, CA).
Recombinant At4CL2 proteins, the wild-type form, and the two mutants
related to (a) recycling the energy stored in the PPi M293P/K320L and K540N were expressed and purified as previously de-
linkages of (di)nucleoside polyphosphates back to scribed (Stuible et al., 2000; Stuible and Kombrink, 2001). The following
ATP, (b) necessary degradation of important signal- enzymes were used as analytical tools: yeast inorganic pyrophosphatase
ing molecules, or (c) efficient removal of otherwise (Sigma-Aldrich), calf intestinal alkaline phosphatase (Promega, Madison,
WI), recombinant exopolyphosphatase from yeast, scPPX1 (kindly supplied
toxic compounds that accumulate as byproducts of by Dr. S. Liu, Department of Biochemistry, Beckman Center, Stanford, CA;
adenylate-transfer reactions. Guranowski et al., 1998), and recombinant Ap4A hydrolase from Lupinus
4CL represents a key enzyme of the general phe- angustifolius (kindly donated by Drs. K. Gayler and D. Maksel, University of
nylpropanoid metabolism, which connects primary Melbourne; Maksel et al., 2001).
metabolism with various product-specific pathways
by supplying appropriate mixtures of substrates for Chromatographic Media and Solvent Systems
these subsequent reactions (Dixon and Paiva, 1995;
Douglas, 1996). Due to its position at a metabolic Thin-layer chromatography was performed with aluminum sheets pre-
coated with silica gel containing fluorescent indicator (catalog no. 5554, E.
branch point, 4CL represents a prime target for reg- Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). For monitoring of the synthesis of mono-
ulatory control mechanisms. In this context, the ob- nucleoside polyphosphates, the chromatograms were developed in dioxane:
servation that At4CL2 is capable to synthesize and ammonia:water mixed at the ratio 6:1:6 (v/v/v), (system I) and for moni-
reuse unusual nucleotide derivatives, which may toring of the synthesis of dinucleoside polyphosphates that ratio was 6:1:4
(v/v/v, system II).
function as intracellular messengers is obviously in-
triguing. Interestingly, 4CL can support the synthesis
of Ap4A but does not transfer the AMP-moiety onto Enzyme Assays
ADP to yield Ap3A. This is contrasted by properties
of some other plant enzymes, such as phenylalanyl- The synthesis of adenosine 5⬘-polyphosphates p4A and p5A was deter-
mined in an assay mixture (50 L final volume) containing 100 mm HEPES/
tRNA synthetase from yellow lupin, which can pro-
KOH (pH 7.0), 5 mm MgCl2, 5 mm ATP, 10 mm polyphosphate (P3 or P4),
duce both Ap3A and Ap4A (Jakubowski, 1983). and either 100 m coumarate and 12.5 g of At4CL2 wild-type enzyme or 62
Whether these differences in catalytic properties of m ferulate and 3.75 g of the ferulate-preferring At4CL2 mutant M293P/
different adenylate-forming enzymes contribute to K320L. Incubations were carried out at 30°C. At appropriate times, usually
the Ap3A to Ap4A ratio in plant cells and whether 10 to 120 min, 3-L aliquots were withdrawn and spotted onto thin-layer
plates. Chromatograms were developed for 90 min in solvent system I,
this ratio has a regulatory function or determines cell dried, and visualized/photographed under short wave UV light. For quan-
fate, such as apoptosis versus proliferation as previ- titative assays, the mixture was supplied with [3H]ATP (2.5 Ci); at appro-
ously suggested for some mammalian model systems priate times 5-L aliquots were withdrawn for analysis by thin-layer chro-
(Vartanian et al., 1997), remains to be elucidated. matography, and radioactivity in p4A or p5A spots was determined by
scintillation counting. For estimation of kinetic constants, pH optima, etc.,
Nevertheless, the idea that unusual nucleotide deriv- the conditions varied appropriately.
atives may have a regulatory function in plant me- The synthesis of diadenosine 5⬘,5-P1,P4-tetraphosphate, Ap4A, was as-
tabolism is strengthened by the recent identification sayed in an assay mixture (50 L final volume) containing 100 mm HEPES/
of Arabidopsis enzymes involved in (p) ppGpp syn- KOH (pH 7.0), 5 mm MgCl2, 5 mm ATP, 62 m ferulic acid, and 7.5 g of the
At4CL2 mutant M293P/K320L. Incubations were carried out at 30°C and
thesis. Characterization of the respective proteins lasted up to several hours. Five-microliter aliquots were withdrawn and
suggest a function of (p) ppGpp in mediating stress- spotted onto thin-layer plates, and chromatograms were developed in sol-
induced defense responses in plants (van der Biezen vent system II. To monitor the synthesis of dAp4dA or Ap5A, dATP or p4A
et al., 2000). substituted ATP. When the activity of the At4CL2 wild-type was deter-
mined, 100 m coumarate was used instead of ferulate.
In conclusion, the data obtained in this study The transfer of the adenylate moiety from mono- or dinucleoside 5⬘-
clearly show that, in the absence of CoA, 4CL can polyphosphates onto various acceptors, was monitored in a reaction mix-
function as a pnA and ApnA synthetase, provided tures (50 L final volume) containing 100 mm HEPES/KOH (pH 7.0), 5 mm
MgCl2, 62 m ferulate, an adenylate donor (1 mm p4A, 0.5 mm Ap4A, or 1 (Lupinus luteus) seeds: purification to homogeneity and hydrolysis of
mm Ap5A), an adenylate acceptor (10 mm PPi, 5 mm P3, or 5 mm P4), and 7.5 mRNA 5⬘-cap analogs. Protein Expr Purif 8: 416–422
g of the At4CL2 mutant M293P/K320L. The time course of product accu- Guranowski A, Starzyńska E, Brown P, Blackburn GM (1997) Adenosine
mulation in these reactions was monitored as above on thin-layer chromato- 5⬘-tetraphosphate phosphohydrolase from yellow lupin seeds: purifica-
grams, which were developed either in system I or II. tion to homogeneity and some properties. Biochem J 328: 257–262
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