Going Back-to-Basics For all those who want to know about the basics of Geographic Information Systems, this

page provides study-material. The tutorial gives a very basic information on the various areas of application in GIS like Global Positioning System, Remote Sensing, Aerial Photgrammetry and Image Processing.

Geographical Information System

Overview of GIS Fundamentals of GIS Geographic Data Sets Analysis of Geographic

Data

Global Positioning System Remote Sensing Photogrammetry Image Processing Projection System

Overview of GIS Introduction Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based information system used to digitally represent and analyse the geographic features present on the Earth' surface and the events (non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study) that taking place on it. The meaning to represent digitally is to convert analog (smooth line) into a digital form. "Every object present on the Earth can be geo-referenced", is the fundamental key of associating any database to GIS. Here, term 'database' is a collection of information about things and their relationship to each other, and 'geo-referencing' refers to the location of a layer or coverage in space defined by the co-ordinate referencing system. Work on GIS began in late 1950s, but first GIS software came only in

late 1970s from the lab of the ESRI. Canada was the pioneer in the development of GIS as a result of innovations dating back to early 1960s. Much of the credit for the early development of GIS goes to Roger Tomilson. Evolution of GIS has transformed and revolutionized the ways in which planners, engineers, managers etc. conduct the database management and analysis. Some Interesting Links : 1. What is GIS ? A complete compilation of information on GIS 2. GIS guide to Good Practice A brief introduction to GIS and Archaeology 3. An Introduction to GIS in Real Estate Gil Castle's final draft of the real estate column appearing in Real Estate Issues, August 1995 4. A Brief Introduction to GIS Technology Enhancing Community Capacity to use Spatial Information Defining GIS A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set of operations for working with the data. It may also be considered as a higher order map. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. (ESRI) A Geographic Information System is a computer based system which is used to digitally reproduce and analyse the feature present on earth surface and the events that take place on it. In the light of the fact that almost 70% of the data has geographical reference as it's denominator, it becomes imperative to underline the importance of a system which can represent the given data geographically. A typical GIS can be understood by the help of various definitions given below:

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and events that happen on Earth

Burrough in 1986 defined GIS as, "Set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes" Arnoff in 1989 defines GIS as, "a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle geo-referenced data :

data input data management (data storage and retrieval) manipulation and analysis data output. "

Hence GIS is looked upon as a tool to assist in decision-making and management of attributes that needs to be analysed spatially. Some Interesting Links : 1. What is GIS ? Geographical Information Systems Definition by GIS.Com 2. A revised Definition of GIS For the purpose of Exploring Geographical Information Systems 3. Definitions of GIS Compiled by Kenneth E. Foote and Margaret Lynch, The Geographer's Craft Project, Department of Geography, University of Texas at Austin. 4. Definition Of GIS: The Manager's Perspective Paper presented at the International Workshop on Dynamic and Multi-Dimensional GIS held at Hong Kong, 25-26th August 1997 5. GIS : Definition Definition of GIS by the Northwest GIS Services Inc. Answers GIS can give Till now GIS has been described in two ways: 1. Through formal definitions, and 2. Through technology's ability to carry out spatial operations, linking data sets together. However there is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of questions the technology can (or should be able to) answer. Location, Condition, Trends, patterns, Modelling, Aspatial questions, Spatial questions. There are five type of questions that a sophisticated GIS can answer: Location What is at.? The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular

location. A location can be described in many ways, using, for example place name, post code, or geographic reference such as longitude/latitude or x/y. Condition Where is it.? The second question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer. Instead of identifying what exists at a given location, one may wish to find location(s) where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g., an unforested section of at-least 2000 square meters in size, within 100 meters of road, and with soils suitable for supporting buildings) Trends What has changed since..? The third question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the differences (e.g. in land use or elevation) over time. Patterns What spatial patterns exists..? This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to determine whether landslides are mostly occurring near streams. It might be just as important to know how many anomalies there are that do not fit the pattern and where they are located. Modelling What if..? "What if" questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, if a new road is added to a network or if a toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply. Answering this type of question requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific models). GIS permits spatial operation. Aspatial Questions "What's the average number of people working with GIS in each location?" is an aspatial question - the answer to which does not require the stored value of latitude and longitude; nor does it describe where the places are in relation with each other. Spatial Questions " How many people work with GIS in the major centres of Delhi" OR " Which centres lie within 10 Kms. of each other? ", OR " What is the shortest route passing through all these centres". These are spatial questions that can only be answered using latitude and longitude data and other information such as the radius of earth. Geographic Information Systems can answer such questions. Need of GIS? Many professionals, such as foresters, urban planners, and geologists, have recognized the importance of spatial dimensions in organising & analysing information. Whether a discipline is concerned with the very

practical aspects of business, or is concerned with purely academic research, geographic information system can introduce a perspective, which can provide valuable insights as 1. 70% of the information has geographic location as it's denominator making spatial analysis an essential tool. 2. Ability to assimilate divergent sources of data both spatial and non-spatial (attribute data). 3. Visualization Impact 4. Analytical Capability 5. Sharing of Information Factors Aiding the rise of GIS.

Revolution in Information Technology.

Computer Technology. Remote Sensing. Global Positioning System.

Communication Technology. Rapidly declining cost of Computer Hardware, and at the same time, exponential growth of operational speed of computers. Enhanced functionality of software and their user-friendliness. Visualizing impact of GIS corroborating the Chinese proverb "a picture is worth a thousand words." Geographical feature and data describing it are part of our everyday lives & most of our everyday decisions are influenced by some facet of Geography.

Philosophy of GIS The proliferation of GIS is explained by its unique ability to assimilate data from widely divergent sources, to analyse trends over time, and to spatially evaluate impacts caused by development. For an experienced analyst, GIS is an extension one's own analytical thinking. The system has no in-built solutions for any spatial problems; it depends upon the analyst. The importance of different factors of GIS in decreasing order is as under:

Spatial Analysis Database Software Hardware

GIS involves complete understanding about patterns, space, and processes or methodology needed to approach a problem. It is a tool acting as a means to attain certain objective quickly and efficiently. Its applicability is realized when the user fully understands the overall spatial concept under which a particular GIS is established and analyses his specific application in the light of those established parameters. Before the GIS implementation is considered the objectives, both immediate and long term, have to be considered. Since the effectiveness and efficiency (i.e. benefit against cost) of the GIS will depend largely on the quality of initial field data captured, organizational design has to be decided upon to maintain this data continuously. This initial data capture is most important. Some Interesting Links :

Philosophy of GIS An article by NOAA National Data Centers, NGDCA Implementing GIS in Lebanon Implementing GIS in Lebanon - A Case Study by Jacques Ekmekji, Director GIS Services Division/Associate Khatib & Alami Consolidated Engineering Company Beirut - Lebanon

Advantages of GIS The Geographic Information System has been an effective tool for implementation and monitoring of municipal infrastructure. The use of GIS has been in vogue primarily due to the advantage mentioned below:

Planning of project Make better decisions Visual Analysis Improve Organizational Integration

Planning Of Project Advantage of GIS is often found in detailed planning of project having a large spatial component, where analysis of the problem is a pre requisite at the start of the project. Thematic maps generation is possible on one or more than one base maps, example: the generation of a land use map on the basis of a soil composition, vegetation and topography. The unique combination of certain features facilitates the creation of such thematic maps. With the various modules within GIS it is possible to calculate surface, length, width and distance. Making Decisions

The adage "better information leads to better decisions" is as true for GIS as it is for other information systems. A GIS, however, is not an automated decision making system but a tool to query, analyze, and map data in support of the decision making process. GIS technology has been used to assist in tasks such as presenting information at planning inquiries, helping resolve territorial disputes, and siting pylons in such a way as to minimize visual intrusion. Visual Analysis Digital Terrain Modeling (DTM) is an important utility of GIS. Using DTM/3D modeling, landscape can be better visualized, leading to a better understanding of certain relations in the landscape. Many relevant calculations, such as (potential) lakes and water volumes, soil erosion volume (Example: landslides), quantities of earth to be moved (channels, dams, roads, embankments, land leveling) and hydrological modeling becomes easier. Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences GIS can prove extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as population distribution, market localization and other related features. Improving Organizational Integration Many organizations that have implemented a GIS have found that one of its main benefits is improved management of their own organization and resources. Because GIS has the ability to link data sets together by geography, it facilitates interdepartmental information sharing and communication. By creating a shared database one department can benefit from the work of another--data can be collected once and used many times. As communication increases among individuals and departments, redundancy is reduced, productivity is enhanced, and overall organizational efficiency is improved. Thus, in a utility company the customer and infrastructure databases can be integrated so that when there is planned maintenance, affected people can be informed by computer-generated letters. Some Interesting Links:

Geographical Information Systems Advantages of GIS over Manual Methods The GeoData Institute The GIS Awarness Booklet by University of Southampton

Components of GIS GIS constitutes of five key components:

Hardware Software Data People Method

Hardware It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The choice of hardware system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms the backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets it's input through the Scanner or a digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc. A digitizer board is flat board used for vectorisation of a given map objects. Printers and plotters are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup. Software GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. GIS softwares in use are MapInfo, ARC/Info, AutoCAD Map, etc. The software available can be said to be application specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop MapInfo is the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the preferred option. For the people using AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option. Data Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also be attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain their data, to manage spatial data. People GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The people who useGIS can be broadly classified into two classes. The CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects. The use of this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the responsibility of a GIS engineer/user.

Method And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization. There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by any survey agency or satellite imagery. GIS Applications Computerized mapping and spatial analysis have been developed simultaneously in several related fields. The present status would not have been achieved without close interaction between various fields such as utility networks, cadastral mapping, topographic mapping, thematic cartography, surveying and photogrammetery remote sensing, image processing, computer science, rural and urban planning, earth science, and geography. The GIS technology is rapidly becoming a standard tool for management of natural resources. The effective use of large spatial data volumes is dependent upon the existence of an efficient geographic handling and processing system to transform this data into usable information. The GIS technology is used to assist decision-makers by indicating various alternatives in development and conservation planning and by modelling the potential outcomes of a series of scenarios. It should be noted that any task begins and ends with the real world. Data are collected about the real world. Of necessity, the product is an abstraction; it is not possible (and not desired) to handle every last detail. After the data are analysed, information is compiled for decision-makers. Based on this information, actions are taken and plans implemented in the real world. Major areas of application

Different streams of planning Urban planning, housing, transportation planning architectural conservation, urban design, landscape. Street Network Based Application It is an addressed matched application, vehicle routing and scheduling: location and site selection and disaster planning. Natural Resource Based Application Management and environmental impact analysis of wild and

scenic recreational resources, flood plain, wetlands, acquifers, forests, and wildlife. View Shed Analysis Hazardous or toxic factories siting and ground water modelling. Wild life habitat study and migrational route planning. Land Parcel Based Zoning, sub-division plans review, land acquisition, environment impact analysis, nature quality management and maintenance etc. Facilities Management Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance, planning, tracking energy use.

Some Interesting Links :

Defining Hazard Areas using GIS LMS Part1 - Vulnerability Assessment GIS and Multimodal Investment Analysis The Application of GIS to Multimodal Investment Analysis by Center for Transportation Research and Education Spatial Analysis of Crime using GIS-Based Data Weighted Spatial Adaptive Filtering and Chaotic Cellular Forecasting with Applications to Street Level Drug Markets GIS for RIDGE Research An article by Dawn J. Wright published in RIDGE Events, 1994 Application of GIS in various fields Global Positioning System

Introduction The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a burgeoning technology, which provides unequalled accuracy and flexibility of positioning for navigation, surveying and GIS data capture. The GPS NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite timing and Ranging Global Positioning System) is a satellite-based navigation, timing and positioning system. The GPS provides continuous three-dimensional positioning 24 hrs a day throughout the world. The technology seems to be beneficiary to the GPS user community in terms of obtaining accurate data upto about100 meters for navigation, metre-level for mapping, and down to millimetre level for geodetic positioning. The GPS technology has tremendous amount of applications in GIS data collection, surveying, and mapping. Geopositioning -- Basic Concepts

By positioning we understand the determination of stationary or moving objects. These can be determined as follows: 1. In relation to a well-defined coordinate system, usually by three coordinate values and 2. In relation to other point, taking one point as the origin of a local coordinate system. The first mode of positioning is known as point positioning, the second as relative positioning. If the object to be positioned is stationary, we term it as static positioning. When the object is moving, we call it kinematic positioning. Usually, the static positioning is used in surveying and the kinematic position in navigation. Some Interesting Links : 1. GPS Basics An Introduction to GPS by GPS Scales Waypoint Enterprises 2. Introduction to GPS An article submitted by Mark Bohrer 3. Global Positioning Systems An Overview by The Geographer's Craft GPS - Components and Basic Facts The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute positions anywhere on earth. The GPS is based on satellite ranging. That means the position on the earth is determined by measuring the distance from a group of satellites in space. The basic principle behind GPS are really simple, even though the system employs some of the most high-tech equipment ever developed. In order to understand GPS basics, the system can be categorised into FIVE logical Steps 1. Triangulation from the satellite is the basis of the system. 2. To triangulate, the GPS measures the distance using the travel time of the radio message. 3. To measure travel time, the GPS need a very accurate clock. 4. Once the distance to a satellite is known, then we need to know where the satellite is in space. 5. As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere and the earth's atmosphere, the signal is delayed. To compute a positions in three dimensions. We need to have four satellite measurements. The GPS uses a trigonometric approach to calculate the positions, The GPS satellites are so high up that their

orbits are very predictable and each of the satellites is equipped with a very accurate atomic clock. Components of a GPS The GPS is divided into three major components

The Control Segment The Space Segments The User Segment

The Control Segment The Control Segment consists of five monitoring stations (Colorado Springs, Ascesion Island, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and Kwajalein Island). Three of the stations (Ascension, Diego Garcia, and Kwajalein) serve as uplink installations, capable of transmitting data to the satellites, including new ephemerides (satellite positions as a function of time), clock corrections, and other broadcast message data, while Colorado Springs serves as the master control station. The Control Segment is the sole responsibility of the DoD who undertakes construction, launching, maintenance, and virtually constant performance monitoring of all GPS satellites. The DOD monitoring stations track all GPS signals for use in controlling the satellites and predicting their orbits. Meteorological data also are collected at the monitoring stations, permitting the most accurate evaluation of tropospheric delays of GPS signals. Satellite tracking data from the monitoring stations are transmitted to the master control station for processing. This processing involves the computation of satellite ephemerides and satellite clock corrections. The master station controls orbital corrections, when any satellite strays too far from its assigned position, and necessary repositioning to compensate for unhealthy (not fully functioning) satellites. The Space Segment The Space Segment consists of the Constellation of NAVASTAR earth orbiting satellites. The current Defence Department plan calls for a full constellation of 24 Block II satellites (21 operational and 3 in-orbit spares). The satellites are arrayed in 6 orbital planes, inclined 55 degrees to the equator. They orbit at altitudes of about 12000, miles each, with orbital periods of 12 sidereal hours (i.e., determined by or from the stars), or approximately one half of the earth's periods, approximately 12 hours of 3-D position fixes. The next block of satellites is called Block IIR, and they will provide improved reliability and have a capacity of ranging between satellites, which will increase the orbital accuracy. Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks (Rubidium and Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor on board

for limited self-monitoring and data processing. The satellites are equipped with thrusters which can be used to maintain or modify their orbits. The User Segment The user segment is a total user and supplier community, both civilian and military. The User Segment consists of all earth-based GPS receivers. Receivers vary greatly in size and complexity, though the basic design is rather simple. The typical receiver is composed of an antenna and preamplifier, radio signal microprocessor, control and display device, data recording unit, and power supply. The GPS receiver decodes the timing signals from the 'visible' satellites (four or more) and, having calculated their distances, computes its own latitude, longitude, elevation, and time. This is a continuous process and generally the position is updated on a second-by-second basis, output to the receiver display device and, if the receiver display device and, if the receiver provides data capture capabilities, stored by the receiver-logging unit. Some Interesting Links :

GPS Systems Segments An article by US Naval Observatory Segments of GPS The components of Global Positioning Systems by New Mexico Tech.

GPS Positioning Types Absolute Positioning The mode of positioning relies upon a single receiver station. It is also referred to as 'stand-alone' GPS, because, unlike differential positioning, ranging is carried out strictly between the satellite and the receiver station, not on a ground-based reference station that assists with the computation of error corrections. As a result, the positions derived in absolute mode are subject to the unmitigated errors inherent in satellite positioning. Overall accuracy of absolute positioning is considered to be no greater than 50 meters at best by Ackroyd and Lorimer and to be + 100 meter accuracy by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Differential Positioning Relative or Differential GPS carries the triangulation principles one step further, with a second receiver at a known reference point. To further facilitate determination of a point's position, relative to the known earth surface point, this configuration demands collection of an error-

correcting message from the reference receiver. Differential-mode positioning relies upon an established control point. The reference station is placed on the control point, a triangulated position, the control point coordinate. This allows for a correction factor to be calculated and applied to other roving GPS units used in the same area and in the same time series. Inaccuracies in the control point's coordinate are directly additive to errors inherent in the satellite positioning process. Error corrections derived by the reference station vary rapidly, as the factors propagating position errors are not static over time. This error correction allows for a considerable amount of error of error to be negated, potentially as much as 90 percent

GPS setup Accuracy of GPS? There are four basic levels of accuracy - or types of solutions - you can obtain with your real-time GPS mining system: Autonomous Differential GPS (DGPS) Real-Time Kinematic Float (RTK Float) Real-Time Kinematic Fixed Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy 15 - 100 meters 0.5 - 5 meters 20cm - 1 meter 1cm - 5 cm

(RTK Fixed) GPS satellites broadcast on three different frequencies, and each frequency (or career wave) has some information or codes on it. You can think of it as three different radio stations broadcasting several different programs. The table below lists the signals and the contents: L1 Career 19 cm wavelength 1575.42 M Hz C/A Code Navigation

L2 Career 24 cm wavelength 1227.6 M Hz P Code Navigation Message

L3 Career

Data not available

P Code : Reserved for direct use only by the military C/A Code : Used for rougher positioning For Single frequency use only L1 career is used For Double frequency, L1/L2/L3 career is used The navigation message (usually referred to as the ephemeris) tells us where the satellites are located, in a special coordinate system called WGS-84. If you know where the satellites are at any given time, then you can compute your location here on earth.

Some Interesting Links :

GPS Accuracy How is the accuracy of GPS Receiver Described ? - By Chuck Gilbert, Road Measurement Data Acquisition System

Different types of answers given by a GPS. Autonomous Positions Uses.. C/A code only Requires.. Only one receiver Data from at least four satellites Provides An accuracy range of about 15 - 100 meters This solution is designed for people who just need an approximate location on the earth, such as a boat at sea or a hiker in the mountains. Real-Time Differential GPS (DGPS) Positions

Uses.. C/A code only Requires.. Two receivers A radio link between the two receivers

Reference receiver at a known location broadcasts RTCM (Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services) corrections. Rover receiver applies corrections for improved GPS positions

Data from at least four satellites - the same four at both the references and rover (common satellites) Provides An accuracy range of about 0.5 - 5 meters depending upon the quality of receiver and antennae used. This solution gives much better results because here we have a known position at a reference receiver. However it must have a radio link between the reference receiver and the roving (moving) receiver. Real Time Kinematic (RTK) Float Positions Uses.. C/A code and career waves. Requires.. Two receivers

Reference receiver at a known location tracks satellites and then broadcasts this satellite data over a radio link in a format called CMR. (CMR is a Trimble - defined format) Rover receiver receives data from both the satellites and the reference station.

A radio link between the two receivers. Data from atleast four common satellites. Provides An accuracy range of about 20 cm to 1 meters. This solution uses more of the satellite signal than the autonomous or DGPS solution. The CMR data is carrier phase data. The float solution is actually an intermediate step towards the most precise answer, which we'll discuss next. Real Time Kinematic (RTK) Fixed Solutions Uses.. C/A code and career waves. Requires.. Two receivers

Reference receiver at a known location tracks satellites and then broadcasts CMR data over a radio link. Rover receiver receives data from both the satellites and the reference station.

A radio link between the two receivers. Initialization, which is achieved most easily with dual-frequency receivers. Data from at least five common satellites to initialize on-thefly (in motion) Tracking at least four common satellites after initializing. Provides An accuracy range of about 1 - 5 cm. We noticed that with each increasing level of precision, there are more requirements. The most important unique requirement for the RTK fixed solution is something called an initialization. Here it is not feasible to explain what's happening in an initialization, but it is relevant to mention that initialization is necessary to work at centimeter level accuracy. Dual frequency receivers can perform this process automatically. If the receiver looses the initialization - which can happen if it fails to track enough satellites - then your working accuracy will drop to the float solutions status temporarily. Remember, however both of these solutions require a radio link to your reference receiver. If, for any reason, you loose your radio link, you will drop back to the autonomous level - the least precise - until the radio link is regained. Factors that affect GPS There are a number of potential error sources that affect either the GPS signal directly or your ability to produce optimal results:

Number of satellites - minimum number required: You must track atleast four common satellites - the same four satellites - at both the reference receiver and rover for either DGPS or RTK solutions. Also to achieve centimeter -level accuracy, remember you must have a fifth satellite for on-the fly RTK initialization. This extra satellite adds a check on the internal calculation. Any additional satellites beyond five provide even more checks, which is always useful. Multipath - reflection of GPS signals near the antennae: Multipath is simply reflection of signals similar to the phenomenon of ghosting on our television screen. GPS signals may be reflected by surfaces near the antennae, causing error in the travel time and therefore error in the GPS positions. Ionosphere - change in the travel time of the signal: Before GPS signals reach your antenna on the earth, they pass through a zone of charged particles called the ionosphere, which

changes the speed of the signal. If your reference and rover receivers are relatively close together, the effect of ionosphere tends to be minimal. And if you are working with the lower range of GPS precisions, the ionosphere is not a major consideration. However if your rover is working too far from the reference station, you may experience problems, particularly with initializing your RTK fixed solution.

Troposphere - change in the travel time of the signal: Troposphere is essentially the weather zone of our atmosphere, and droplets of water vapour in it can effect the speed of the signals. The vertical component of your GPS answer (your elevation) is particularly sensitive to the troposphere. Satellite Geometry - general distribution of the satellites: Satellite Geometry - or the distribution of satellites in the sky effects the computation of your position. This is often referred to as Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP). PDOP is expressed as a number, where lower numbers are preferable to higher numbers. The best results are obtained when PDOP is less than about 7. PDOP is determined by your geographic location, the time of day you are working, and any site obstruction, which might block satellites. You can use planning software to help you determine when you'll have the most satellites in a particular area. When satellites are spread out, PDOP is Low (good). When satellites are closer together, PDOP is High (weak).

Satellite Health - Availability of Signal: While the satellite system is robust and dependable, it is possible for the satellites to occassionally be unhealthy. A satellite broadcasts its health status, based on information from the U.S. Department of Defense. Your receivers have safeguards to protect against using data from unhealthy satellites. Signal Strength - Quality of Signal : The strength of the satellite signal depends on obstructions and the elevation of the satellites above the horizon. To the extent it is possible, obstructions between your GPS antennae and the sky should be avoided. Also watch out for satellites which are close to the horizon, because the signals are weaker.

Distance from the Reference Receiver : The effective range of a rover from a reference station depends primarily on the type of accuracy you aere trying to achieve. For the highest real time accuracy (RTK fixed), roveres should be within about 10-15 Km (about 6-9 miles) of the reference station. As the range exceeds this recommended limit, you may failto initialize and be restricted to RTK float solutions (decimeter accuracy). Radio Frequency (RF) Interference: RF interference may sometimes be a problem both for your GPS reception and your radio system. Some sources of RF interference include:

Radio towers Transmitters Satellite dishes Generators

One should be particularly careful of sources which transmit either near the GPS frequencies (1227 and 1575 MHz) or near harmonics (multiples) of these frequencies. One should also be aware of the RF generated by his own machines.

Loss of Radio Transmission from Base: If, for any reason, there is an interruption in the radio link between a reference receiver and a rover, then your rover is left with an autonomous position. It is very important to set up a network of radios and repeaters, which can provide the uninterrupted radio link needed for the best GPS results.

Some Interesting Links :

GPS : Intermidiate Stuff Discusses Basic Factors Affecting GPS Accuracy

Reference Station Why? We have already discussed that there are different levels of accuracy in GPS positions. For any level except autonomous (which can have a large amount of error in it), you must have a reference receiver, which is stationary, and a rover, which can be

mobile or stationary. The GPS reference station normally operates continuously, 24 hours a day. The coordinates of this station must be known before you can begin using GPS on any of your machines. First a proper site for the reference station is to be selected, then a GPS survey is performed to obtain the known coordinates. This is usually done as part of the installation, either by the installation team or other qualified personnel. Once it is installed, the GPS reference station can perform two functions simultaneously:

Receive data from the satellites Broadcast GPS data to the rovers in the mine

One reference station can support unlimited rovers. The primary constraint may be distance, because your accuracy may suffer if you're working too far from the reference station. This maximum distance will vary with your accuracy requirements and environment. Selecting the Reference Station Some of the features of a good reference site are:

Clear View to the Sky Proximity to your Working Areas This is both a GPS issue and a radio issue. Remember, RTK is generally limited to about 10-15 Km (6-9 miles) for reliable initializations, due primarily ot potential errors from the ionosphere. Therefore, you should select a reference site that is within about 10-15 Km of where your rovers expect to work. Absence of RF Interference Try to place the reference station away from sources of radio interference, which arise from radio towers, transmitters, television or other satellite dishes, highvoltage power lines,and any other obvious source of interference. Minimal Sources of Multipath Multipath at your reference site can cause inaccurate answers or interfere with your rover's ability to initialize. Continuous AC / DC Power Source Stable Monumentation One should have a stable survey monument or other similarly well-defined physical point at the reference station. Without this, we will have to survey and compute new coordinates to the reference station anytime you move the GPS antennae.

Stable Antennae Mount Not only the monument should be stable, but also the GPS antennae itself should be secure and stable to minimize the movement. Accessibility of the station

Reference Station Equipment:

GPS receiver GPS antenna Radio and antenna, Power supply, & Cables

Radios We have seen that each GPS rover must receive information from the reference station to achieve accurate positions. To maintain constant communication between your reference station and rover, you need these items at the reference station and at each rover:

Radio Radio Antenna Cables

The radios are cabled directly into the GPS receiver. Power may be provided to the radio through the GPS receiver. At the reference site, GPS data is broadcast through the radio. At the rover site, the reference GPS data is received by the radio and routed into the rover receiver, where it is processed together with rover's GPS data/ The rover radio can also draw power from the GPS receiver. Repeater Radios: If, for any reason, the reference station transmission cannot reach your rovers, then you must use one or more repeaters. A repeater relays the data from your reference or another repeater. The maximum number of repeaters you can use depends on your type of radio. Repeaters differ from your reference and rover radios in two important ways: they must have their own source of power, and they can be moved as the needs change. The radios draw very low power, but they require uninterrupted power. Because repeaters may need to be moved to accommodate your needs, batteries or compact solar power units are normally used. Frequency and Bandwidth: Most radios used in GPS fall within one of the following frequency ranges:

150-174 MHz (VHF) 406-512 MHz (UHF) 902-928 MHz (spread spectrum)

The lower-frequency radios (150-174 MHZ) tend to have more power, due to design and legal issues (not Physics), However, the bandwidth, which determines the amount of data you can transmit, is narrower in these lower ranges (also due to design, not physics). In the nominal 450 MHz and 900 MHz ranges, the bandwidth is wider. This has positive effects both on the amount of data transmitted and on the number of repeaters possible within the radio network. Radio Range To guarantee steady, uninterrupted transmission over the radio, one should be aware of some of the factors that affect the radio's effective range.

Antenna Height: raising the radio antenna is the easiest and most effective way to increase range. Antenna design: radiating patterns vary, depending on the antenna design. For best performance, be sure you understand how yoour antenna transmits signals. Cable length and type: radio signals suffer loss in cables, so keep the length to a minimum. If you must use long cables, use lowloss cables. Output power: doubling output power does not double your effective range. Be sure one understands the relationship between power and gain before the best system is decided. Obstructions: Buildings, walls and even the machines can block or interrupt radio transmission. The repeaters should be carefully used to help minimize the effect of obstructions.

Grounding The radio antenna may be a target for lightning. To avoid damage, you may wish to ground your reference station antenna. GPS Applications One of the most significant and unique features of the Global Positioning Systems is the fact that the positioning signal is available to users in any position worldwide at any time. With a fully operational GPS system, it can be generated to a large community of likely to grow as there are multiple applications, ranging from surveying, mapping, and navigation to GIS data capture. The GPS will soon be a part of the overall utility of technology. There are countless GPs applications, a few important ones are covered in the following passage. Surveying and Mapping

The high precision of GPS carrier phase measurements, together with appropriate adjustment algorithms, provide an adequate tool for a variety of tasks for surveying and mapping. Using DGPs methods, accurate and timely mapping of almost anything can be carried out. The GPS is used to map cut blocks, road alignments, and environmental hazards such as landslides, forest fires, and oil spills. Applications, such as cadastral mapping, needing a high degree of accuracy also can be carried out using high grade GPS receivers. Continuous kinematic techniques can be used for topographic surveys and accurate linear mapping. Navigation Navigation using GPS can save countless hours in the field. Any feature, even if it is under water, can be located up to one hundred meters simply by scaling coordinates from a map, entering waypoints, and going directly to the site. Examples include road intersections, corner posts, plot canters, accident sites, geological formations, and so on. GPS navigation in helicopters, in vehicles, or in a ship can provide an easy means of navigation with substantial savings. Remote Sensing and GIS It is also possible to integrate GPS positioning into remote-sensing methods such as photogrammetry and aerial scanning, magnetometry, and video technology. Using DGPS or kinematic techniques, depending upon the accuracy required, real time or post-processing will provide positions for the sensor which can be projected to the ground, instead of having ground control projected to an image. GPS are becoming very effective tools for GIS data capture. The GIS user community benefits from the use of GPS for locational data capture in various GIS applications. The GPS can easily be linked to a laptop computer in the field, and, with appropriate software, users can also have all their data on a common base with every little distortion. Thus GPS can help in several aspects of construction of accurate and timely GIS databases. Geodesy Geodetic mapping and other control surveys can be carried out effectively using high-grade GPs equipment. Especially when helicopters were used or when the line of sight is not possible, GPS can set new standards of accuracy and productivity. Military The GPS was primarily developed for real time military positioning. Military applications include airborne, marine, and land navigation. Future of GPS Technology Barring significant new complications due to S/A (Selective Availability) from DOD, the GPS industry is likely to

continue to develop in the civilian community. There are currently more than 50 manufacturers of GPs receivers, with the trend continuing to be towards smaller, less expensive, and more easily operated devices. While highly accurate, portable (hand-held) receivers are already available, current speculation envisions inexpensive and equally accurate 'wristwatch locators' and navigational guidance systems for automobiles. However, there is one future trend that will be very relevant to the GIS user community, namely, community base stations and regional receive networks, as GPS management and technological innovations that will make GPS surveying easier and more accurate. Some Interesting Links :

Introduction to GPS Application This document is an introdution to the NAVSTAR and GLONASS Global Positioning Systems (GPS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and their uses. Who Uses GPS ? A review by Garmin Corporation GPS and Racing Applications GPS receivers have been showing up in race boats for several years.... Remote Sensing

An Introduction Remote Sensing is the science and art of acquiring information (spectral, spatial, temporal) about material objects, area, or phenomenon, without coming into physical contact with the objects, or area, or phenomenon under investigation. Without direct contact, some means of transferring information through space must be utilised. In remote sensing, information transfer is accomplished by use of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). EMR is a form of energy that reveals its presence by the observable effects it produces when it strikes the matter. EMR is considered to span the spectrum of wavelengths from 10-10 mm to cosmic rays up to 1010 mm, the broadcast wavelengths, which extend from 0.30-15 mm. Types 1. In respect to the type of Energy Resources: Passive Remote Sensing: Makes use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from natural sources.

Active remote Sensing: Makes use of sensors that detect reflected responses from objects that are irradiated from artificially-generated energy sources, such as radar. 2. In respect to Wavelength Regions: Remote Sensing is classified into three types in respect to the wavelength regions
1. 2. 3.

Visible and Reflective Infrared Remote Sensing. Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing. Microwave Remote Sensing.

Some Interesting Links :

Remote Sensing An Overview of Remote Sensing Remote Sensing of the Global Environment An Article by David J. Schneider, Michigan Technological University The Concept of Remote Sensing Historical & Technical Perspectives of Remote Sensing RS Introduction and History An Article from Earth Observatory, NASA The philosophical underpinnings of remote sensing The Philosophy behind Remote Sensing can perhaps....- An Article by GDSPDS GOES 3.9um Channel Tutorial An excellent tutorial on Thermal Remote Sensing

Bands Used in Remote Sensing Emission of EMR (Electo-Magnetic Radiation) from gases is due to atoms and molecules in the gas. Atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons, which have discrete energy states. Transition of electrons from one energy state to the other leads to emission of radiation at discrete wavelengths. The resulting spectrum is called line spectrum. Molecules possess rotational and vibrational energy states. Transition between which leads to emission of radiation in a band spectrum. The wavelengths, which are emitted by atoms/molecules, are also the ones, which are absorbed by them. Emission from solids and liquids occurs when they are heated and results in a continuous spectrum. This is called thermal emission and it is an important source of EMR from the viewpoint of remote sensing.

The Electro-Magnetic Radiation (EMR), which is reflected or emitted from an object, is the usual source of Remote Sensing data. However, any medium, such as gravity or magnetic fields, can be used in remote sensing. Remote Sensing Technology makes use of the wide range ElectroMagnetic Spectrum (EMS) from a very short wave "Gamma Ray" to a very long 'Radio Wave'. Wavelength regions of electro-magnetic radiation have different names ranging from Gamma ray, X-ray, Ultraviolet (UV), Visible light, Infrared (IR) to Radio Wave, in order from the shorter wavelengths. The optical wavelength region, an important region for remote sensing applications, is further subdivided as follows: Name Wavelength (mm) Optical wavelength Reflective 1. Portion Visible 2. Near IR 3. Middle IR Far IR (Thermal, Emissive) 0.30-15.0 0.38-3.00 0.38-0.72 0.72-1.30 1.30-3.00 7.00-15.0

Microwave region (1mm to 1m) is another portion of EM spectrum that is frequently used to gather valuable remote sensing information. Spectral Characteristics vis--vis different systems. The sunlight transmission through the atmosphere is effected by absorption and scattering of atmospheric molecules and aerosols. This reduction of the sunlight's intensity s called extinction. The interrelationship between energy sources and atmospheric absorption characteristics is shown in Figure 3

Figure 3(a) shows the spectral distribution of the energy emitted by the sun (black body at 58000 K and by earth features black body at 3000 K). These two curve represent the most common sources of energy used in remote sensing. Figure 3(b) shows the spectral regions in which the atmosphere blocks the energy are shaded. Remote-sensing data acquisition is limited to the unblocked spectral regions called atmospheric windows.

Figure 3(c) shows that the spectral sensitivity range of the eye (the 'visible' range) coincides with an 'atmospheric window' and the peak level of energy from the sun. Figure3 (d) shows the example of atmospheric transmission characteristics and notes some of the important 'atmospheric windows'. An 'atmospheric window' is a portion of Electromagnetic spectrum in which the radiation passing through the atmosphere is not significantly altered by reflection, or absorption, or scattered by atmospheric constituents. Some useful atmospheric windows are given in the table.

The important point to note from the figures is the interaction and the interdependence between the primary sources of Electro-magnetic energy, the atmospheric windows through which source energy may be transmitted to and from the earth's surface features, and the spectral sensitivity of the sensors available to detect and record the energy. One cannot select the sensors to be used in any given remotesensing task arbitrarily; one must instead consider 1. the available spectral sensitivity of the sensors, 2. the presence or absence of atmospheric windows in the spectral range(s) in which one wishes to sense, and 3. the source, magnitude, and spectral composition of the energy availabe in these ranges. Ultimately, however, the choice of spectral range of the sensor must be based on the manner in which the energy interacts with the features under investigation. Energy Interactions, Spectral Reflectance and Colour Readability in Satellite Imagery All matter is composed of atoms and molecules with particular compositions. Therefore, matter will emit or absorb electro-magnetic radiation on a particular wavelength with respect to the inner state. All matter reflects, absorbs, penetrates and emits Electro-magnetic radiation in a unique way. Electro-magnetic radiation through the atmosphere to and from matters on the earth's surface are reflected, scattered, diffracted, refracted, absorbed, transmitted and dispersed. For example, the reason why a leaf looks green is that the chlorophyll absorbs blue and red spectra and reflects the green. The unique characteristics of matter are called spectral characteristics. Energy Interactions When electro-magnetic energy is incident on any given earth surface feature, three fundamental energy interactions with the feature are possible. See Figure 4

Spectral Reflectance & Colour Readability Two points about the above given relationship (expressed in the form of equation) should be noted. 1. The proportions of energy reflected, absorbed, and transmitted will vary for different earth features, depending upon their material type and conditions. These differences permit us to distinguish different features on an image. 2. The wavelength dependency means that, even within a given feature type, the proportion of reflected, absorbed, and transmitted energy will vary at different wavelengths. Thus, two features may be distinguishable in one spectral range and be very different on another wavelength brand. Within the visible portion of the spectrum, these spectral variations result in the visual effect called COLOUR. For example we call blue objects 'blue' when they reflect highly in the 'green' spectral region, and so on. Thus the eye uses spectral variations in the magnitude of reflected energy to discriminate between various objects. A graph of the spectral reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength is called a spectral reflectance curve. The configuration of spectral reflectance curves provides insight characteristics of an object and has a strong influence on the choice of wavelength region(s) in which remote sensing data are acquired for a particular application. This is illustrated in figure 5, which shows highly generalized spectral reflectance curves of deciduous and coniferous trees. (In the discussion, we use the terms deciduous and coniferous somewhat loosely, referring to broad-leaved trees, such as Oak and Maple, as deciduous and to needle-bearing trees, such as pine and spruce, as coniferous.). It should be noted that the curve for each of these object types is plotted as a 'ribbon' (or 'envelope') of values, not as a single line. This is because spectral reflectances vary somewhat within a given material class. That is, the spectral reflectance of one deciduous tree species and another will never be identical. Nor will the spectral reflectance of trees of the same species ever be exactly equal. Figure 6 shows the typical spectral reflectance curves for three basic types of earth feature:

Green vegetation Soil Water.

The lines in this figure represent average reflectance curves compiled by measuring large sample features. It should be noted how distinctive the curves are for each feature. In general, the configuration of these curves is an indicator of the type and condition of the features to which they apply. Although the reflectance of individual features will vary considerably above and below the average, these curves demonstrate some fundamental points concerning spectral reflectance. Colour Discrimination based on Wavelengths of Spectral Reflectances. (IRS-IA/IB LISS I and LISSII*) Band 1 wavelengt h (m) 0.45-0.52 Principal Sensitive to sedimentation, deciduous/coniferous forest cover discrimination, soil vegetation differentiation Green reflectance by healthy vegetation, vegetation vigour, rock-soil discrimination, turbidity and bathymetry in shallow waters Sensitive to chlorophyll absorption: plant species discrimination, differentiation of soil and geological boundary Sensitive to green biomass and moisture in vegetation, land and water contrast, landform/geomorphic studies.

0.52-0.59

0.62-0.68

0.77-0.86

*Spatial Resolution of Linear imaging self scanning (LISS): LISS-I (72.5 m) and LISS-II (36.25m) Electro-Magnetic Remote Sensing of Earth's Resources -Process & Elements Major Components of Remote Sensing Technology: The following are major components of Remote sensing System: 1. Energy Source 2. Passive System: sun, irradiance from earth's materials;

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

3. Active System: irradiance from artificially generated energy sources such as radar. Platforms:(Vehicle to carry the sensor) (truck, aircraft, space shuttle, satellite, etc.) Sensors:(Device to detect electro-magnetic radiation) (camera, scanner, etc.) Detectors: (Handling signal data) (photographic, digital, etc.) Processing:(Handling Signal data) (photographic, digital etc.) Institutionalisation: (Organisation for execution at all stages of remote-sensing technology: international and national orrganisations, centres, universities, etc.).

Platforms The vehicles or carriers for remote sensors are called the platforms. Typical platforms are satellites and aircraft, but they can also include radio-controlled aeroplanes, balloons kits for low altitude remote sensing, as well as ladder trucks or 'cherry pickers' for ground investigations. The key factor for the selection of a platform is the altitude that determines the ground resolution and which is also dependent on the instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of the sensor on board the platform. Salient feature of some important satellite platforms. Feature Landsat1 Landsa s ,2,3 t 4,5 Natre Altitude (km) Sun Sys 919 Sun Sys 705 99 SPOT Sun Sys 832 101 IRS-IA Sun Sys 904 103.2 IRS-IC Sun Sys 817 101.35

Orbital 103.3 period (minutes ) inclinatio 99 n (degrees Temporal 18 resolutio n (days) Revolutio 251 ns

98.2

98.7

99

98.69

16

26

22

24

233

369

307

341

Equatori al crossing (AM) Sensors

09.30

09.30

10.30

10.00

10.30

RBV,MSS

MSS,TM

HRV

LISSI,LISS-II

LISSIII,PAN,WIFS

SENSORS ACTIVE SENSORS (Detect the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation from natural sources.) Passive Non-Scanning Non-Imaging. (They are a type of profile recorder, ex. Microwave Radiometer. Magnetic sensor.Gravimeter.Fou rier Spectrometer. Imaging. (Example of this are the cameras which can be: Monochrome, Natural Colour, Infrared etc.)

PASSIVE SENSORS (Detect reflected responses from objects that are irradiated from artificially-generated energy sources such as radar.) Active Non-Scanning Non-Imaging. (They are a type of profile recorder, ex. Microwave Radiometer.Microwave Altimeter.Laser Water Depth Meter.Laser Distance Meter. Scanning Imaging. (It is a radar ex. Object Plane scanning:

Scanning

Real Aperture Radar.

Imaging. Image Plane scanning.Ex. TV CameraSolid scanner. Object Plane scanning.Ex. Optical Mechanical ScannerMicrowave radiometer.

Synthetic Aperture Radar.

Image Plane Scanning: Passive Phased Array Radar.

Resolution In general resolution is defined as the ability of an entire remotesensing system, including lens antennae, display, exposure, processing, and other factors, to render a sharply defined image. Resolution of a remote-sensing is of different types. 1. Spectral Resolution: of a remote sensing instrument (sensor) is determined by the band-widths of the Electro-magnetic radiation of the channels used. High spectral resolution, thus, is achieved by narrow bandwidths width, collectively, are likely to provide a more accurate spectral signature for discrete objects than broad bandwidth. 2. Radiometric Resolution: is determined by the number of discrete levels into which signals may be divided. 3. Spatial Resolution: in terms of the geometric properties of the imaging system, is usually described as the instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The IFOV is defined as the maximum angle of view in which a sensor can effectively detect electro-magnetic energy. 4. Temporal Resolution: is related ot the repetitive coverage of the ground by the remote-sensing system. The temporal resolution of Landsat 4/5 is sixteen days.

An Ideal Remote Sensing System Having introduced some basic concepts, we now have the necessary elements to conceptualize an ideal remote sensing system. In doing so, we can then appreciate some of the problems encountered in the design and application of the various real remote-sensing systems examined in subsequent chapters. The basic components of an ideal remote-sensing system are shown in figure 8. These include the following components.

A uniform energy source. This source will provide energy over all wavelengths, at a constant, known, high level of output, irrespective of time and place. A non-interfering atmosphere. This will be an atmosphere that will not modify the energy from the source in any manner, whether that energy is on its way to earth's surface or coming from it. Again, ideally this will hold irrespective of wavelength, time, place, and sensing altitude involved.

A series of unique energy/matter interaction at the earth's surface. These interactions will generate reflected and/or emitted signals that are not only selective in respect to wavelengths, but also are known, invariant, and unique to each and every earth surface feature type and subtype of interest. A super sensor. This will be a sensor, highly sensitive to all wavelengths, yielding spatially detailed data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene (a function of wavelength), throughout the spectrum. This super sensor will be simple and reliable, require, virtually no power or space, and be accurate and economical to operate. A real-time data handling system. In this system, the instant the radiance versus wavelength response over a terrain element is generated, it will be processed into an interpretable format and recognized as being unique to the particular terrain element from which it comes. This processing will be performed nearly instantaneously (real time), providing timely information. Because of the consistent nature of the energy/matter interactions, there will be no need for reference data in the analytical procedure. The derived data will provide insight into the physical-chemical-biological state of each feature of interest. Multiple data users. These people will have comprehensive knowledge of both their respective disciplines and of remotesensing data acquisition and analysis techniques. The same set of data will become various forms of information for different users, because of their vast knowledge about the particular earth resources being used.

Unfortunately, an ideal remote-sensing system, as described above, does not exist. Real remote-sensing systems fall short of the ideal at virtually every point in the sequence outlined. Remote Sensing Satellites A satellite with remote sensors to observe the earth is called a remotesensing satellite, or earth observation satellite. Remote-Sensing Satellites are characterised by their altitude, orbit and sensor. TRIOS Series (1960-1965) The Television and Infrared Observation Satelites. NOAA It is the first generation of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellites and was as the first operation operational remote sensing satellite system. The third generation NOAA satellites are also successfully used for

vegetation monitoring, apart from meteorological monitoring. It is equipped with Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensors, and is established at an altitude of 850 km. In polar orbit. GMS Geo-synchronous meteorological satellite. It is established at an altitude of 36,000 km, and its main purpose is meteorological observations Landsat is established at an altitude of 700 Kms is a polar orbit and is used mainly for land area observation. Other remote sensing satellite series in operations are: SPOT, MOS, JERS, ESR, RADARSAT, IRS etc. Some Interesting Links :

Indian Remote Sensing Satellites History of Indian RS Satellites - An Article by Wim Bakker - ITC PHOTOGRAMMETRY

PHOTOGRAMMETRY The compilation below presents a guide to students, their teachers as well as anyone and everyone interested in learning about the science of aerial photogrammetry. The aim is to enable our readers to help them readily access the study material available on the world wide web. Please note that the websites listed here have not been arranged in any particular order. This compilation has been done by Ananya Ghosh, GIS Development. http://www.univie.ac.at/Luftbildarchiv/wgv/intro.htm Introduction to Photogrammetry This brief introduction is written for non-photogrammetrists from University of Vienna . It gives a rough overview about photogrammetry, its history, instruments used and some common techniques. http://www.ipf.tuwien.ac.at/fr/introduction/introduction1.htm Introduction to Photogrammetry This tutorial by Optical Meterology Center(OMC), A brief introduction to photogrammetry, aerial and digital, is provided here. The section on terrestrial photogrammetry enables one to understand the difference between aerial and ground photogrammetry. http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/airphoto/p_gram/p_gram.htm

Small Format Aerial Photography The webpage of James S. Aber, Emporia State University contains an introduction on Small Format Aerial Photography , calculation of scale of an aerial photograph, aerial photo terminologies, stereoscopic vision and calculating height using parallax. http://www.sli.unimelb.edu.au/Horizons/Documents/photo.html Photogrammetry Tutorial The website offers an introduction on aerial photography, aerial survey cameras, geometry of an aerial photograph, geometry of a stereo pair of photographs, parallax bar heighting, map compilation, rectification, orthophotographs, and current developments in photogrammetry. http://www.optical-metrologycentre.com/tech_briefs_photogrammetry.htm Photogrammetry Tutorial This tutorial gives an overview of photogrammetry. It starts with a brief description of the utility and applications of photogrammetry. Further detail include how photogrammetry works, and how accurate it is. There is also a list of benefits and limitations, typical costs, and some pointers to further information. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/T0390E/T0390E08.htm Aerial Photographs and Their Interpretation This is a fairly detailed online study resource from Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United States (FAO), that discusses the types of aerial photographs, their acquisition, terminologies, properties, scale, plotting techniques, and interpretation. Other topics that have been explained include orthophotos, mosaics, and types of aerial photographic films. The liberal dose of explanatory diagrams, make the topics easily comprehensible. Image Processing and Analysis Introduction Image Processing and Analysis can be defined as the "act of examining images for the purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance" Image analyst study the remotely sensed data and attempt through logical process in detecting, identifying, classifying, measuring and evaluating the significance of physical and cultural objects, their patterns and spatial relationship. Digital Data In a most generalized way, a digital image is an array of numbers depicting spatial distribution of a certain field parameters (such as

reflectivity of EM radiation, emissivity, temperature or some geophysical or topographical elevation. Digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Associated with each pixel is a number represented as DN (Digital Number), that depicts the average radiance of relatively small area within a scene. The range of DN values being normally 0 to 255. The size of this area effects the reproduction of details within the scene. As the pixel size is reduced more scene detail is preserved in digital representation. Remote sensing images are recorded in digital forms and then processed by the computers to produce images for interpretation purposes. Images are available in two forms - photographic film form and digital form. Variations in the scene characteristics are represented as variations in brightness on photographic films. A particular part of scene reflecting more energy will appear bright while a different part of the same scene that reflecting less energy will appear black. Digital image consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Associated with each pixel is a number represented as DN (Digital Number), that depicts the average radiance of relatively small area within a scene. The size of this area effects the reproduction of details within the scene. As the pixel size is reduced more scene detail is preserved in digital representation. Data Formats For Digital Satellite Imagery Digital data from the various satellite systems supplied to the user in the form of computer readable tapes or CD-ROM. As no worldwide standard for the storage and transfer of remotely sensed data has been agreed upon, though the CEOS (Committee on Earth Observation Satellites) format is becoming accepted as the standard. Digital remote sensing data are often organised using one of the three common formats used to organise image data . For an instance an image consisting of four spectral channels, which can be visualised as four superimposed images, with corresponding pixels in one band registering exactly to those in the other bands. These common formats are:

Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP) Band Interleaved by Line (BIL) Band Sequential (BQ)

Digital image analysis is usually conducted using Raster data structures - each image is treated as an array of values. It offers advantages for manipulation of pixel values by image processing system, as it is easy to find and locate pixels and their values. Disadvantages becomes apparent when one needs to represent the array of pixels as discrete patches or regions, where as Vector data

structures uses polygonal patches and their boundaries as fundamental units for analysis and manipulation. Though vector format is not appropriate to for digital analysis of remotely sensed data. Image Resolution Resolution can be defined as "the ability of an imaging system to record fine details in a distinguishable manner". A working knowledge of resolution is essential for understanding both practical and conceptual details of remote sensing. Along with the actual positioning of spectral bands, they are of paramount importance in determining the suitability of remotely sensed data for a given applications. The major characteristics of imaging remote sensing instrument operating in the visible and infrared spectral region are described in terms as follow:

Spectral resolution Radiometric resolution Spatial resolution Temporal resolution

Spectral Resolution refers to the width of the spectral bands. As different material on the earth surface exhibit different spectral reflectances and emissivities. These spectral characteristics define the spectral position and spectral sensitivity in order to distinguish materials. There is a tradeoff between spectral resolution and signal to noise. The use of well -chosen and sufficiently numerous spectral bands is a necessity, therefore, if different targets are to be successfully identified on remotely sensed images. Radiometric Resolution or radiometric sensitivity refers to the number of digital levels used to express the data collected by the sensor. It is commonly expressed as the number of bits (binary digits) needs to store the maximum level. For example Landsat TM data are quantised to 256 levels (equivalent to 8 bits). Here also there is a tradeoff between radiometric resolution and signal to noise. There is no point in having a step size less than the noise level in the data. A lowquality instrument with a high noise level would necessarily, therefore, have a lower radiometric resolution compared with a high-quality, high signal-to-noise-ratio instrument. Also higher radiometric resolution may conflict with data storage and transmission rates. Spatial Resolution of an imaging system is defines through various criteria, the geometric properties of the imaging system, the ability to distinguish between point targets, the ability to measure the periodicity of repetitive targets ability to measure the spectral properties of small targets.

The most commonly quoted quantity is the instantaneous field of view (IFOV), which is the angle subtended by the geometrical projection of single detector element to the Earth's surface. It may also be given as the distance, D measured along the ground, in which case, IFOV is clearly dependent on sensor height, from the relation: D = hb, where h is the height and b is the angular IFOV in radians. An alternative measure of the IFOV is based on the PSF, e.g., the width of the PDF at half its maximum value. A problem with IFOV definition, however, is that it is a purely geometric definition and does not take into account spectral properties of the target. The effective resolution element (ERE) has been defined as "the size of an area for which a single radiance value can be assigned with reasonable assurance that the response is within 5% of the value representing the actual relative radiance". Being based on actual image data, this quantity may be more useful in some situations than the IFOV. Other methods of defining the spatial resolving power of a sensor are based on the ability of the device to distinguish between specified targets. Of the concerns the ratio of the modulation of the image to that of the real target. Modulation, M, is defined as: M = Emax -Emin / Emax + Emin Where Emax and Emin are the maximum and minimum radiance values recorded over the image. Temporal resolution refers to the frequency with which images of a given geographic location can be acquired. Satellites not only offer the best chances of frequent data coverage but also of regular coverage. The temporal resolution is determined by orbital characteristics and swath width, the width of the imaged area. Swath width is given by 2htan(FOV/2) where h is the altitude of the sensor, and FOV is the angular field of view of the sensor. How to Improve Your Image? Analysis of remotely sensed data is done using various image processing techniques and methods that includes:

Analog image processing Digital image processing.

Visual or Analog processing techniques is applied to hard copy data such as photographs or printouts. Image analysis in visual techniques adopts certain elements of interpretation, which are as

follow: The use of these fundamental elements of depends not only on the area being studied, but the knowledge of the analyst has of the study area. For example the texture of an object is also very useful in distinguishing objects that may appear the same if the judging solely on tone (i.e., water and tree canopy, may have the same mean brightness values, but their texture is much different. Association is a very powerful image analysis tool when coupled with the general knowledge of the site. Thus we are adept at applying collateral data and personal knowledge to the task of image processing. With the combination of multi-concept of examining remotely sensed data in multispectral, multitemporal, multiscales and in conjunction with multidisciplinary, allows us to make a verdict not only as to what an object is but also its importance. Apart from these analog image processing techniques also includes optical photogrammetric techniques allowing for precise measurement of the height, width, location, etc. of an object. Elements of Image Interpretation Black and White Tone Primary Elements Color Stereoscopic Parallax Size Spatial Arrangement of Tone & Color Shape Texture Pattern Based on Analysis of Primary Elements Contextual Elements Height Shadow Site Association

Digital Image Processing is a collection of techniques for the manipulation of digital images by computers. The raw data received from the imaging sensors on the satellite platforms contains flaws and deficiencies. To overcome these flaws and deficiencies inorder to get the originality of the data, it needs to undergo several steps of processing. This will vary from image to image depending on the type of image format, initial condition of the image and the information of

interest and the composition of the image scene. Digital Image Processing undergoes three general steps:

Pre-processing Display and enhancement Information extraction

Flowchart Pre-processing consists of those operations that prepare data for subsequent analysis that attempts to correct or compensate for systematic errors. The digital imageries are subjected to several corrections such as geometric, radiometric and atmospheric, though all these correction might not be necessarily be applied in all cases. These errors are systematic and can be removed before they reach the user. The investigator should decide which pre-processing techniques are relevant on the basis of the nature of the information to be extracted from remotely sensed data. After pre-processing is complete, the analyst may use feature extraction to reduce the dimensionality of the data. Thus feature extraction is the process of isolating the most useful components of the data for further study while discarding the less useful aspects (errors, noise etc). Feature extraction reduces the number of variables that must be examined, thereby saving time and resources. Image Enhancement operations are carried out to improve the interpretability of the image by increasing apparent contrast among

various features in the scene. The enhancement techniques depend upon two factors mainly

The digital data (i.e. with spectral bands and resolution) The objectives of interpretation

As an image enhancement technique often drastically alters the original numeric data, it is normally used only for visual (manual) interpretation and not for further numeric analysis. Common enhancements include image reduction, image rectification, image magnification, transect extraction, contrast adjustments, band ratioing, spatial filtering, Fourier transformations, principal component analysis and texture transformation. Information Extraction is the last step toward the final output of the image analysis. After pre-processing and image enhancement the remotely sensed data is subjected to quantitative analysis to assign individual pixels to specific classes. Classification of the image is based on the known and unknown identity to classify the remainder of the image consisting of those pixels of unknown identity. After classification is complete, it is necessary to evaluate its accuracy by comparing the categories on the classified images with the areas of known identity on the ground. The final result of the analysis consists of maps (or images), data and a report. These three components of the result provide the user with full information concerning the source data, the method of analysis and the outcome and its reliability. Pre-Processing of the Remotely Sensed Images When remotely sensed data is received from the imaging sensors on the satellite platforms it contains flaws and deficiencies. Pre-processing refers to those operations that are preliminary to the main analysis. Preprocessing includes a wide range of operations from the very simple to extremes of abstractness and complexity. These categorized as follow: 1. 2. 3. 4. Feature Extraction Radiometric Corrections Geometric Corrections Atmospheric Correction

The techniques involved in removal of unwanted and distracting elements such as image/system noise, atmospheric interference and sensor motion from an image data occurred due to limitations in the sensing of signal digitization, or data recording or transmission process. Removal of these effects from the digital data are said to be "restored" to their correct or original condition, although we can, of

course never know what are the correct values might be and must always remember that attempts to correct data what may themselves introduce errors. Thus image restoration includes the efforts to correct for both radiometric and geometric errors. Feature Extraction Feature Extraction does not mean geographical features visible on the image but rather "statistical" characteristics of image data like individual bands or combination of band values that carry information concerning systematic variation within the scene. Thus in a multispectral data it helps in portraying the necessity elements of the image. It also reduces the number of spectral bands that has to be analyzed. After the feature extraction is complete the analyst can work with the desired channels or bands, but inturn the individual bandwidths are more potent for information. Finally such a preprocessing increases the speed and reduces the cost of analysis. Radiometric Corrections Radiometric Corrections are carried out when an image data is recorded by the sensors they contain errors in the measured brightness values of the pixels. These errors are referred as radiometric errors and can result from the 1. Instruments used to record the data 2. From the effect of the atmosphere Radiometric processing influences the brightness values of an image to correct for sensor malfunctions or to adjust the values to compensate for atmospheric degradation. Radiometric distortion can be of two types: 1. The relative distribution of brightness over an image in a given band can be different to that in the ground scene. 2. The relative brightness of a single pixel from band to band can be distorted compared with spectral reflectance character of the corresponding region on the ground. The following methods defines the outline the basis of the cosmetic operations for the removal of such defects: Line-Dropouts A string of adjacent pixels in a scan line contain spurious DN. This can occur when a detector malfunctions permanently or temporarily. Detectors are loaded by receiving sudden high radiance, creating a line or partial line of data with the meaningless DN. Line dropouts are usually corrected either by replacing the defective line by a duplicate

of preceding or subsequent line, or taking the average of the two. If the spurious pixel, sample x, line y has a value DNx,y then the algorithms are simply: DNx,y = DNx,y-1 DNx,y = (DNx,y-1 + DNx,y+1)/2 De-Striping Banding or striping occurs if one or more detectors go out of adjustment in a given band. The systematic horizontal banding pattern seen on images produced by electro-mechanical scanners such as Landsat's MSS and TM results in a repeated patterns of lines with consistently high or low DN. Two reasons can be thus put forward in favor of applying a 'de-striping' correction : 1. The visual appearance and interpretability of the image are thereby improved. 2. Equal pixel values in the image are more likely to represent areas of equal ground leaving radiance, other things being equal. The two different methods of de-striping are as follow: First method entails a construction of histograms for each detector of the problem band, i.e., histograms generated from by the six detectors: these histograms are calculated for the lines 1,7,13,, lines 2, 8, 14, , etc. Then the means and standard deviation are calculated for each of the six histograms. Assuming the proportion of pixels representing different soils, water, vegetation, cloud, etc. are the same for each detector, the means and standard deviations of the 6 histograms should be the same. Stripes, however are characterised by distinct histograms. De-striping then requires equalisation of the means and standard deviation of the six detectors by forcing them to equal selected values - usually the mean and standard deviation for the whole image. The process of histogram matching is also utilised before mosaicking image data of adjacent scenes (recorded at diferent times) so as to accommodate differences in illumination levels, angles etc. A further application is resolution merging, in which a low spatial resolution image is sharpened by merging with high spatial resolution image. Second method is a non-linear in the sense that relationship between radiance rin(received at the detector) and rout (output by the sensor) is not describable in terms of a single linear segments.

Random Noise Odd pixels that have spurious DN crop up frequently in images - if they are particularlt distracting, they can be suppressed by spatial filtering. By definition, these defects can be identified by their marked differences in DN from adjacent pixels in the affected band. Noisy pixels can be replaced by substituting for an average value of the neighborhood DN. Moving windows of 3 x 3 or 5 x 5 pixels are typically used in such procedures. Geometric Corrections Raw digital images often contain serious geometrical distortions that arise from earth curvature, platform motion, relief displacement, nonlinearities in scanning motion. The distortions involved are of two types: 1. Non-systematic Distortion 2. Systematic Distortions Rectification is the process of projecting image data onto a plane and making it conform to a map projection system. Registration is the process of making image data conform to another image. A map coordinate system is not necessarily involved. However rectification involves rearrangement of the input pixels onto a new grid which conforms to the desired map projection and coordinate system. Rectification and Registration therefore involve similar sets of procedures for both the distortions. Non-Systematic Distortions These distortions are caused due to variations in spacecraft variables. These distortion can be evaluated as follow: Distortion Evaluated from Tracking Data

Due to (Fig.1).

The amount of earth rotation during 26 sec required to scan an image results in distortion. The correction for this distortion can be done by scanning 16 successive group of lines, offset towards the west to compensate for the earth rotation, which causes the

parallelogram outline of the restored image. Its is true for TM Image. (Fig.2)

Distortion Evaluated from Ground Control Caused during the spacecraft scan of the ground .

Altitude Variation (Fig.3)

Attitude Variation - pitch, roll & yaw (Fig.4)

Correction Process for Non-systematic Distortions 1. Locating Ground Control Points This process employs identification of geographic features on the image called ground control points (GCPs), whose position are known such as intersection of streams, highways, airport, runways etc. Longitude and latitude of GCPs can be determined by accurate base maps where maps are lacking GPS is used to determine the Latitude and Longitude from navigation satellites. Thus a GCP is located in the field and determing its position using GPS. Accurate GCPs are essential to accurate rectification. GCPs should be

2. Reliably matched between source and reference (e.g., coastline features, road intersection, etc.) 3. Widely disperced throughout the source image 4. Resampling Methods The location of output pixels derived from the ground control points (GCPs) is used to establish the geometry of the output image and its relationship to the input image. Difference between actual GCP location and their position in the image are used to determine the geometric transformation required to restore the image. This transformation can be done by different resampling methods where original pixels are resampled to match the geometric coordinates. Each resampling method employs a different strategy to estimate values at output grid for given known values for the input grid. 5. Nearest Neighbor The simplest strategy is simply to assign each corrected pixel, the value from the nearest uncorrected pixel. It has the advantages of simplicity and the ability to preserve original values in the altered scene, but it may create noticeable errors, which may be severe in linear features where the realignment of pixels is obvious. (Fig. 5).

6. Bilinear Interpolation The strategy for the calculation of each output pixel value is based on a weighted average of the four nearest input pixels. The output image gives a natural look because each output value is based on several input values. There are some changes occurred when

bilinear interpolation creates new pixel value. (Fig.6)

7. Brightness values in the input image are lost 8. As the output image is resampled by averaging over areas, it decreases the spatial resolution of the image 9. Cubic Convolution It is the most sophisticated and complex method of resampling. Cubic convolution uses a weighted average of values within a neighborhood of 25 adjacent pixels. The images produced by this method are generally more attractive but are drastically altered than nearest neighbor and bilinear interpolation.(Fig.7).

10. Image Correction using Mapping Polynomial Polynomial equations are used to convert the source coordinates to rectified coordinate, using 1st and 2nd order transformation . The coffiecients of the polynomial such as ai and bi are calculated by the least square regression method, that will help in relating any point in the map to its corresponding point in the image. x0 = b1 + b2xi + b3yi y0 = a1 + a2xi + a3yi Where (xI yI ) are the input coordinates and (x0 y0 ) are the

output coordinates. Initially few GCPs cofficients are required to calculate the transformation matrix and the inverse transformation that could convert the reference coordinates of the GCPs back to the source coordinate system. This enables determination of RMS error for chosen transformation. The best order of transformation can be obtained using trial and error process while ignoring the highest RMS error from the least square computation. Systematic Distortions Geometric systematic distortions are those effects that are constant and can be predicted in advance. These are of two types: Scan Skew It is caused by forward motion of the spacecraft during the time of each mirror sweep. In this case the ground swath scanned is not normal to the ground track. (Fig.8).

Known Mirror Velocity Variation The known mirror velocity variation are used to correct the minor distortion due to the velocity of the scan mirror not being constant from start to finish of each scan line. (Fig.9)

Cross Track Distortion These generally occur in all the unrestored images accquired by the cross track scanners. They result from sampling pixels along a scan line at constant time intervals. The width of a pixel is proportional to the tangent of the scan angle and therefore is wider at the either margins of the scan line that compresses the pixel. This distortion is restored using trignometric functions.(Fig.10)

Systematic Distortions are well understood ands easily corrected by applying formulas derived by modelling the sources of distortions mathematically. Atmospheric Corrections The output from the instrument on satellite depends on the intensity and spectral distribution of energy that is received at the satellite. The intensity and spectral distribution of energy/radiation has traveled some distance through the atmosphere and accordingly has suffered both attenuation and augmentation in the course of journey. The problem comes whenone is not able to regenerate the correct radiation properties of the target body on the earth surface with the data generated by the remote sensing Effect Of The Atmosphere on Radiation (Radiative Transfer Theory) Fig.11. Effect of the atmosphere in determining various paths for energy to illuminate a pixel and reach the sensor The path radiation coming from the sun to the ground pixel and then being reflected to the sensor. In this on going process, absorption by atmospheric

molecules takes place that converts incoming energy into heat. In particular, molecules of oxygen, carbon-di-oxide, ozone and water attenuate the radiation very strongly in certain wavelengths. Scattering by these atmospheric particles is also the dominant mechanism that leads to radiometric distortion in image data.

Radiative Transfer theory is used to make quantitative calculations of the difference between the satellite received radiance and earth leaving radiance. Radiation traveling in a certain direction is specified by the angle f between that direction and the vertical axis z and setting a differential equation for a small horizontal element of the transmitting medium (the atmosphere) with thickness dz. The resulting differential equation is called the radiative transfer equation. The equation will therefore be different for different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation because of the different relative importance of different physical process at different wavelength. Need for Atmospheric Correction When an image is to be utilized, it is frequently necessary to make corrections in brightness and geometry for accuracy during interpretation and also some of the application may require correction to evaluate the image accurately. The various reason for which correction should be done:

Derive ratios in 2 bands of multi spectral image since the effect of atmospheric scattering depends on the wavelength, the two channels will be unequally affected and the computed ratio will not accurately reflect the true ratio leaving the earth's surface

When land surface reflectance or sea surface temperature is to be determined. When two images taken at different times and needed to be compared or mosaic the images

Correction Methods Rectifying the image data for the degrading effects of the atmosphere entails modeling the scattering and absorption processes that take place. There are number of ways of correcting the image data for atmospheric correction

Ignore the atmosphere Collecting the ground truth measurements of target temperature, reflectance etc and calibrating these values or quantities on the ground and the radiance values by the sensor. Modeling the absorption or scattering effects for the measurement of the composition and temperature profile of the atmosphere. Utilizing the information about the atmosphere inherent to remotely sensed data i.e use the image to correct itself.

Correcting For Atmospheric Scattering This correction is done when the two bands of image are subjected to ratio analysis. Atmospheric scattering scatters short wavelength and causes haze and reduces the contrast ratio of images. This follows two techniques for example TM bands 1 & 7, where TM 1 has the highest component of 1 and the TM7 (infrared) has the least. Both techniques are DN value dependent as TM band 7 is free from scattering effect there it has DN value either 0 or 1 (shadows). 1. In TM 7 the shadows having DN value 0 & 1. Now for each pixel the DN in TM 7 is plotted against TM 1 and a straight line is fitted through the plot using least square techniques. If there was no haze in TM 1 then the line would pass through the origin. But as there is haze the intercept is offset along the band 1. Haze has an additive effect on scene brightness. Therefore to correct the haze effect on TM 1, the value of the intercept offset is subtracted from the DN of each band 1 pixel for the entire image.(Fig 12)

2. The second technique also uses the areas with DN as 0 or 1 in TM 7. The histogram of TM 7 has pixels with 0 where as the histogram of TM 1 lacks the pixel in the range from 0 to 20 approximately because of light scattered into the detector by atmosphere thus this abrupt increase in pixels in TM 1 is subtracted from all the DNs in band 1 to restore effects of atmospheric scattering.(Fig 13)

The amount of atmospheric correction depends upon

Wavelength of the bands Atmospheric conditions

Short wavelength cause more severe scattering. Humid, smoggy and dusty cause more scattering than clear and dry atmospheres. Implementing the Models Documented information on the atmospheric conditions is used to estimate atmospheric using computer codes in standard Atmospheric Models. LOWTRAN, MODTRAN and HITRAN are some standard models providing them with type of sensor, target altitudes and look, the atmospheric correction could be done. Image Enhancement Techniques

Image Enhancement techniques are instigated for making satellite imageries more informative and helping to achieve the goal of image interpretation. The term enhancement is used to mean the alteration of the appearance of an image in such a way that the information contained in that image is more readily interpreted visually in terms of a particular need. The image enhancement techniques are applied either to single-band images or separately to the individual bands of a multiband image set. These techniques can be categorized into two:

Spectral Enhancement Techniques Multi-Spectral Enhancement Techniques

Spectral Enhancement Techniques Density Slicing Density Slicing is the mapping of a range of contiguous grey levels of a single band image to a point in the RGB color cube. The DNs of a given band are "sliced" into distinct classes. For example, for band 4 of a TM 8 bit image, we might divide the 0-255 continuous range into discrete intervals of 0-63, 64-127, 128-191 and 192-255. These four classes are displayed as four different grey levels. This kind of density slicing is often used in displaying temperature maps. Contrast Stretching The operating or dynamic , ranges of remote sensors are often designed with a variety of eventual data applications. For example for any particular area that is being imaged it is unlikely that the full dynamic range of sensor will be used and the corresponding image is dull and lacking in contrast or over bright. Landsat TM images can end up being used to study deserts, ice sheets, oceans, forests etc., requiring relatively low gain sensors to cope with the widely varying radiances upwelling from dark, bright , hot and cold targets. Consequently, it is unlikely that the full radiometric range of brand is utilised in an image of a particular area. The result is an image lacking in contrast - but by remapping the DN distribution to the full display capabilities of an image processing system, we can recover a beautiful image. Contrast Stretching can be displayed in three catagories: Linear Contrast Stretch This technique involves the translation of the image pixel values from the observed range DNmin to DNmax to the full range of the display device(generally 0-255, which is the range of values representable in an 8bit display devices)This technique can be applied to a single band, grey-scale image, where the image data are mapped to the display via all three colors LUTs.

It is not necessary to stretch between DNmax and DNmin - Inflection points for a linear contrast stretch from the 5th and 95th percentiles, or 2 standard deviations from the mean (for instance) of the histogram, or to cover the class of land cover of interest (e.g. water at expense of land or vice versa). It is also straightforward to have more than two inflection points in a linear stretch, yielding a piecewise linear stretch. Histogram Equalisation The underlying principle of histogram equalisation is straightforward and simple, it is assumed that each level in the displayed image should contain an approximately equal number of pixel values, so that the histogram of these displayed values is almost uniform (though not all 256 classes are necessarily occupied). The objective of the histogram equalisation is to spread the range of pixel values present in the input image over the full range of the display device. Gaussian Stretch This method of contrast enhancement is base upon the histogram of the pixel values is called a Gaussian stretch because it involves the fitting of the observed histogram to a normal or Gaussian histogram. It is defined as follow: F(x) = (a/p)0.5 exp(-ax2) Multi-Spectral Enhancement Techniques Image Arithmetic Operations The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are performed on two or more co-registered images of the same geographical area. These techniques are applied to images from separate spectral bands from single multispectral data set or they may be individual bands from image data sets that have been collected at different dates. More complicated algebra is sometimes encountered in derivation of sea-surface temperature from multispectral thermal infrared data (so called split-window and multichannel techniques). Addition of images is generally carried out to give dynamic range of image that equals the input images. Band Subtraction Operation on images is sometimes carried out to co-register scenes of the same area acquired at different times for change detection. Multiplication of images normally involves the use of a single'real'

image and binary image made up of ones and zeros. Band Ratioing or Division of images is probably the most common arithmetic operation that is most widely applied to images in geological, ecological and agricultural applications of remote sensing. Ratio Images are enhancements resulting from the division of DN values of one spectral band by corresponding DN of another band. One instigation for this is to iron out differences in scene illumination due to cloud or topographic shadow. Ratio images also bring out spectral variation in different target materials. Multiple ratio image can be used to drive red, green and blue monitor guns for color images. Interpretation of ratio images must consider that they are "intensity blind", i.e, dissimilar materials with different absolute reflectances but similar relative reflectances in the two or more utilised bands will look the same in the output image. Principal Component Analysis Spectrally adjacent bands in a multispectral remotely sensed image are often highly correlated. Multiband visible/near-infrared images of vegetated areas will show negative correlations between the nearinfrared and visible red bands and positive correlations among the visible bands because the spectral characteristics of vegetation are such that as the vigour or greenness of the vegetation increases the red reflectance diminishes and the near-infrared reflectance increases. Thus presence of correlations among the bands of a multispectral image implies that there is redundancy in the data and Principal Component Analysis aims at removing this redundancy. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) is related to another statistical technique called factor analysis and can be used to transform a set of image bands such that the new bands (called principal components) are uncorrelated with one another and are ordered in terms of the amount of image variation they explain. The components are thus a statistical abstraction of the variability inherent in the original band set. To transform the original data onto the new principal component axes, transformation coefficients (eigen values and eigen vectors) are obtained that are further applied in alinear fashion to the original pixel values. This linear transformation is derived from the covariance matrix of the original data set. These transformation coefficients describe the lengths and directions of the principal axes. Such transformations are generally applied either as an enhancement operation, or prior to classification of data. In the context of PCA, information means variance or scatter about the mean. Multispectral data generally have a dimensionality that is less than the number of

spectral bands. The purpose of PCA is to define the dimensionality and to fix the coefficients that specify the set of axes, which point in the directions of greatest variability. The bands of PCA are often more interpretable than the source data. Decorrelation Stretch Principal Components can be stretched and transformed back into RGB colours - a process known as decorrelation stretching. If the data are transformed into principal components space and are stretched within this space, then the three bands making up the RGB color composite images are subjected to stretched will be at the right angles to each other. In RGB space the three-color components are likely to be correlated, so the effects of stretching are not independent for each color. The result of decorrelation stretch is generally an improvement in the range of intensities and saturations for each color with the hue remaining unaltered. Decorrelation Stretch, like principal component analysis can be based on the covariance matrix or the correlation matrix. The resultant value of the decorrelation stretch is also a function of the nature of the image to which it is applied. The method seems to work best on images of semi-arid areas and it seems to work least well where the area is covered by the image includes both land and sea. Canonical Components PCA is appropriate when little prior information about the scene is available. Canonical component analysis, also referred to as multiple discriminant analysis, may be appropriate when information about particular features of interest is available. Canonical component axes are located to maximize the separability of different user-defined feature types. Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HIS) Transform Hues is generated by mixing red, green and blue light are characterised by coordinates on the red, green and blue axes of the color cube. The hue-saturation-intensity hexcone model, where hue is the dominant wavelength of the perceived color represented by angular position around the top of a hexcone, saturation or purity is given by distance from the central, vertical axis of the hexcone and intensity or value is represented by distance above the apex of the hexcone. Hue is what we perceive as color. Saturation is the degree of purity of the color and may be considered to be the amount of white mixed in with the color. It is sometimes useful to convert from RGB color cube coordinates to HIS hexcone coordinates and vice-versa

The hue, saturation and intensity transform is useful in two ways: first as method of image enhancement and secondly as a means of combining co-registered images from different sources. The advantage of the HIS system is that it is a more precise representation of human color vision than the RGB system. This transformation has been quite useful for geological applications. Fourier Transformation The Fourier Transform operates on a single -band image. Its purpose is to break down the image into its scale components, which are defined to be sinusoidal waves with varying amplitudes, frequencies and directions. The coordinates of two-dimensional space are expressed in terms of frequency (cycles per basic interval). The function of Fourier Transform is to convert a single-band image from its spatial domain representation to the equivalent frequency-domain representation and vice-versa. The idea underlying the Fourier Transform is that the grey-scale valuea forming a single-band image can be viewed as a three-dimensional intensity surface, with the rows and columns defining two axes and the grey-level value at each pixel giving the third (z) dimension. The Fourier Transform thus provides details of

The frequency of each of the scale components of the image The proportion of information associated with each frequency component

Spatial Processing Spatial Filtering Spatial Filtering can be described as selectively emphasizing or suppressing information at different spatial scales over an image. Filtering techniques can be implemented through the Fourier transform in the frequency domain or in the spatial domain by convolution. Convolution Filters Filtering methods exists is based upon the transformation of the image into its scale or spatial frequency components using the Fourier transform. The spatial domain filters or the convolution filters are generally classed as either high-pass (sharpening) or as low-pass (smoothing) filters. Low-Pass (Smoothing) Filters Low-pass filters reveal underlying two-dimensional waveform with a long wavelength or low frequency image contrast at the expense of

higher spatial frequencies. Low-frequency information allows the identification of the background pattern, and produces an output image in which the detail has been smoothed or removed from the original. A 2-dimensional moving-average filter is defined in terms of its dimensions which must be odd, positive and integral but not necessarily equal, and its coefficients. The output DN is found by dividing the sum of the products of corresponding convolution kernel and image elements often divided by the number of kernel elements. A similar effect is given from a median filter where the convolution kernel is a description of the PSF weights. Choosing the median value from the moving window does a better job of suppressing noise and preserving edges than the mean filter. Adaptive filters have kernel coefficients calculated for each window position based on the mean and variance of the original DN in the underlying image. High-Pass (Sharpening) Filters Simply subtracting the low-frequency image resulting from a low pass filter from the original image can enhance high spatial frequencies. High -frequency information allows us either to isolate or to amplify the local detail. If the high-frequency detail is amplified by adding back to the image some multiple of the high frequency component extracted by the filter, then the result is a sharper, de-blurred image. High-pass convolution filters can be designed by representing a PSF with positive centre weightr and negative surrounding weights. A typical 3x3 Laplacian filter has a kernal with a high central value, 0 at each corner, and -1 at the centre of each edge. Such filters can be biased in certain directions for enhancement of edges. A high-pass filtering can be performed simply based on the mathematical concepts of derivatives, i.e., gradients in DN throughout the image. Since images are not continuous functions, calculus is dispensed with and instead derivatives are estimated from the differences in the DN of adjacent pixels in the x,y or diagonal directions. Directional first differencing aims at emphasising edges in image. Frequency Domain Filters The Fourier transform of an image, as expressed by the amplitude spectrum is a breakdown of the image into its frequency or scale components. Filtering of these components use frequency domain

filters that operate on the amplitude spectrum of an image and remove, attenuate or amplify the amplitudes in specified wavebands. The frequency domain can be represented as a 2-dimensional scatter plot known as a fourier spectrum, in which lower frequencies fall at the centre and progressively higher frequencies are plotted outward. Filtering in the frequency domain consists of 3 steps:

Fourier transform the original image and compute the fourier spectrum Select an appropriate filter transfer function (equivalent to the OTF of an optical system) and multiply by the elements of the fourier spectrum. Perform an inverse fourier transform to return to the spatial domain for display purposes.

Image Classification Image Classification has formed an important part of the fields of Remote Sensing, Image Analysis and Pattern Recognition. In some instances, the classification itself may form the object of the analysis. Digital Image Classification is the process of sorting all the pixels in an image into a finite number of individual classes. The classification process is based on following assumptions:

Patterns of their DN, usually in multichannel data (Spectral Classification). Spatial relationship with neighbouring pixels Relationships between the data accquired on different dates.

Pattern Recognition, Spectral Classification, Textural Analysis and Change Detection are different forms of classification that are focused on 3 main objectives: 1. Detection of different kinds of features in an image. 2. Discrimination of distinctive shapes and spatial patterns 3. Identification of temporal changes in image Fundamentally spectral classification forms the bases to map objectively the areas of the image that have similar spectral reflectance/emissivity characteristics. Depending on the type of information required, spectral classes may be associated with identified features in the image (supervised classification) or may be chosen statistically (unsupervised classification). Classification has also seen as a means to compressing image data by reducing the large range of DN in several spectral bands to a few classes in a single image. Classification reduces this large spectral space into relatively

few regions and obviously results in loss of numerical information from the original image. There is no theoretical limit to the dimensionality used for the classification, though obviously the more bands involved, the more computationally intensive the process becomes. It is often wise to remove redundant bands before classification. Classification generally comprises four steps:

Pre-processing, e.g., atmospheric, correction, noise suppression, band ratioing, Principal Component Analysis, etc. Training - selection of the particular features which best describe the pattern Decision - choice of suitable method for comparing the image patterns with the target patterns. Assessing the accuracy of the classification

The informational data are classified into systems: Supervised Unsupervised Supervised Classification In this system each pixel is supervised for the categorization of the data by specifying to the computer algorithm, numerical descriptors of various class types. There are three basic steps involved in typical supervised classification Training Stage The analyst identifies the training area and develops a numerical description of the spectral attributes of the class or land cover type. During the training stage the location, size, shape and orientation of each pixel type for each class. Classification Stage Each pixel is categorised into landcover class to which it closely resembles. If the pixel is not similar to the training data, then it is labeled as unknown. Numerical mathematical approaches to the spectral pattern recognition have been classified into various categories. 1. Measurements on Scatter Diagram Each pixel value is plotted on the graph as the scatter diagram indicating the category of the class. In this case the 2dimensional digital values attributed to each pixel is plottes on the graph

2. Minimum Distance to Mean Classifier/Centroid Classifier This is a simple classification strategies. First the mean vector for each category is determined from the average DN in each band for each class. An unknown pixel can then be classified by computing the distance from its spectral position to each of the means and assigning it to the class with the closest mean. One limitation of this technique is that it overlooks the different degrees of variation. 3. Parallelpiped Classifier For each class the estimate of the maximum and minimum DN in each band is determine. Then parallelpiped are constructeds o as to enclose the scatter in each theme. Then each pixel is tested to see if it falls inside any of the parallelpiped and has limitation 4. A pixel may fall outside the parallelpiped and remained unclassified. 5. Theme data are so strongly corrected such that a pixel vector that plots at some distance from the theme scatter may yet fall within the decision box and be classified erroneously. 6. Sometimes parallelpiped may overlap in which case the decision becomes more complicated then boundary are slipped. 7. Gaussian Maximum Likelihood Classifier This method determines the variance and covariance of each theme providing the probability function. This is then used to classify an unknown pixel by calculating for each class, the probability that it lies in that class. The pixel is then assigned to the most likely class or if its probability value fail to reach any close defined threshold in any of the class, be labeled as unclassified. Reducing data dimensionally before hand is a\one approach to speeding the process up. Unsupervised Classification This system of classification does not utilize training data as the basis of classification. This classifier involves algorithms that examine the unknown pixels in the image and aggregate them into a number of classes based on the natural groupings or cluster present in the image. The classes that result from this type of classification are spectral classes. Unsupervised classification is the identification, labeling and mapping of these natural classes. This method is usually used when there is less information about the data before classification. There are several mathematical strategies to represent the clusters of data in spectral space.

1. Sequential Clustering In this method the pixels are analysed one at a time pixel by pixel and line by line. The spectral distance between each analysed pixel and previously defined cluster means are calculated. If the distance is greater than some threshold value, the pixel begins a new cluster otherwise it contributes to the nearest existing clusters in which case cluster mean is recalculated. Clusters are merged if too many of them are formed by adjusting the threshold value of the cluster means. 2. Statistical Clustering It overlooks the spatial relationship between adjacent pixels. The algorithm uses 3x3 windows in which all pixels have similar vector in space. The process has two steps Testing for homogeneity within the window of pixels under consideration. 2. Cluster merging and deletion
1.

Here the windows are moved one at time through the image avoiding the overlap. The mean and standard derivation are calculated for each band of the window. The smaller the standard deviation for a given band the greater the homogenity of the window. These values are then compared by the user specified parameter for delineating the upper and lower limit of the standard deviation. If the window passes the homogenity test it forms cluster. Clusters are created untill then number exceeds the user defined maximum number of clusters at which point some are merged or deleted according to their weighting and spectral distances. 2. Iso Data Clustering (Iterative Self Organising Data Analysis Techniques) Its repeatedly performs an entire classification and recalculates the statistics. The procedure begins with a set of arbitrarily defined cluster means, usually located evenly through the spectral space. After each iteration new means are calculated and the process is repeated until there is some difference between iterations. This method produces good result for the data that are not normally distributed and is also not biased by any section of the image. 3. RGB Clustering It is quick method for 3 band, 8 bit data. The algorithm plots all pixels in spectral space and then divides this space into 32 x 32 x 32 clusters. A cluster is required to have minimum number of

pixels to become a class. RGB Clustering is not baised to any part of the data.

Projection System Maps are flat, but the surfaces they represent are curved. Transforming, three-dimensional space onto a two dimensional map is called "projection". This process inevitably distorts at least one of the following properties:

Shape, Area, Distance, Direction, and often more.

It is known that a globe is a true representation of the earth, which is divided into various sectors by the lines of latitudes and longitudes. This network is called 'graticule'. A map projection denotes the preparation of the graticule on a flat surface. Theoretically map projection might be defined as "a systematic drawing of parallels of latitude and meridians of longitudes on a plane surface for the whole earth or a part of it on a certain scale so that any point on the earth surface may correspond to that on the drawing." Necessity of Map Projection An ordinary globe is rendered useless for reference to a small country. It is not possible to make a globe on a very large scale. Say, if anyone wants to make a globe on a scale of one inch to a mile, the radius will be 330 ft. It is difficult to make and handle such a globe and uncomfortable to carry it in the field for reference. Not only topographical maps of different scales but also atlas and wall maps would not have been possibly made without the use of certain projections. So a globe is least useful or helpful in the field of practical purposes. Moreover it is neither easy to compare different regions over the globe in detail, nor convenient to measure distances over it. Therefore for different types of maps different projections have been evolved in accordance with the scale and purpose of the map. Selection of Map Projection There is no ideal map projection, but representation for a given

purpose can be achieved. The selection of projection is made on the basis of the following: The location and the extension of the feature of the globe. 1. The shape of the boundary to be projected. 2. The deformations or distortions of a map to be minimized. 3. The mathematical model to be applied to preserve some identity of graphical features. Based on these characteristics the utility of the projection is ascertained. Some Interesting Links :

Map Projection Overview An Article by Peter H. Dana Map Projections An Article by Brian Klinkenberg Map Projection By Worlfram Research Map Projection Tutorial Why are map projections an issue in GIS? - British Columbia

Classification Potentially there exits an unlimited number of map projections possessing one property or the other. The natures of these properties are so complex that they often possess one or more common properties. There is no projection, which can be grouped, in a single class. Moreover, if one attempts to obtain a rational classification of map projection, it will be rather difficult to achieve it. There can be as many classifications as many bases. Depending on different bases the following classifications may be suggested: Basis 1. Method of Construction 2. Preserved qualities 3. Developable surface area Classes 1. Perspective 2. Non-perspective 1. Homolographic / Equal Area 2. Orthomorphic / Conformal 1. Cylindrical 2. Conical 3. Azimuthal / Zenithal

4. Conventional 4. Position of tangent surface 1. Polar 2. Equation/Normal 3. Oblique 1. 2. 3. 4. Gnomonic Stereographic Orthographic Others

5. Position of viewpoint or light

Classification based on methods of construction Mathematically the term 'projection' means the determination of points on the plane as viewed from a fixed point. But in cartography it may not be necessarily restricted to 'perspective' or geometrical projection. On the globe the meridians and parallels are circles. When they are transferred on a plane surface, they become intersecting lines, curved or straight. If we stick a flat paper over the globe, it will not coincide with it over a large surface without being creased. The paper will touch the globe only at one point, so that the other sectors will be projected over plane in a distorted form. The projection with the help of light will give a shadowed picture of the globe which is distorted in those parts which are farther from the point where the paper touches it. The amount of distortion increases with the increase in distance from the tangential point. But only a few of the projections imply this perspective method. The majority of projections represent an arrangement of lines of latitude and longitude in conformity with some principles so as to minimize the amount of distortion. With the help of mathematical calculations true relation between latitude and longitudes is maintained. Thus various processes of non-perspective projections have been devised. Some Interesting Links :

Classification of Map Projection An Article from University of Waterloo

Classification based on preserved qualities While transferring the globe on a plane surface some facts should be kept in view: 1. Preservation of area, 2. Preservation of shape,

3. Preservation of bearing i.e. direction and distance. It is, however, very difficult to make such a projection even for a small country, in which all the above qualities may be well preserved. Any one quality may be thoroughly achieved by a certain map projection only at the cost of others. According to the quality they preserve, projections may be classified into three groups :1. Equal area (Homolographic projection), 2. Correct shape (Orthomorphic or Conformal projection), 3. True bearing (Azimuthal projection). Classification based on developable surface area There are some surfaces over which the sphere may be projected. After projection such surfaces may be cut open onto flat surface. These developable surfaces include 1. Cylinder and 2. Cone. Cylindrical Projection When the graticule is prepared on the surface of a hollow cylinder it is called Cylindrical Projection. 1. Normal Cylindrical Projection - This is a perspective cylindrical projection. When a cylinder is wrapped round the globe so as to touch it along the equator, and the light is placed at the centre, the true cylindrical projection is obtained. Limitations: The scale is true only along the equator. The exaggeration of the parallel scale as well as the meridian scale would be very greatly increasing away from the equator. The poles can't be shown, because their distances from the equator becomes infinite. 2. Simple Cylindrical Projection - It is also called Equidistant Cylindrical Projection as both the parallels and meridians are equidistant. The whole network represents a series of equal squares. All the parallels are equal to the equator and all the meridians are half of the equator in length. The projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic. Limitations : The scale along the equator is true. The meridian scale is correct

everywhere because the parallels are drawn at their true distances. Latitudinal scale increases away from the equator. This leads to great distortion in shape and exaggeration of area in high latitudes. 3. Cylindrical Equal Area Projection - This cylindrical projection was introduced by Lambert. The properties are almost the same. The area between two parallels is made equal to the corresponding surface on the sphere at the cost of great distortion in shape towards higher latitudes; this is why it is an equal area projection. Limitations: Same as (ii). General Properties of Cylindrical Projection

Cylindricals are true at the equator and the distortion increases as on moves towards the poles. Good for areas in the tropics

Conical Projection A cone may be imagined to touch the globe of a convenient size along any circle (other than a great circle) but the most useful case will be the normal one in which the apex of the cone will lie vertically above the pole on the earth's axis produced and the surface of the cone will be tangent to the sphere along some parallel of latitude. It is called 'standard parallel'. If the selected parallel (SP) is nearer the pole the vertex of the cone will be closer to it and subsequently the angle at the apex will be increasing proportionately. When the pole itself becomes the selected parallel, the angle of the apex will become 180 degrees, and the surface of the cone will be similar to the tangent plane of Zenithal Projection. On the other hand, when the selected parallel is nearer to the equator, the vertex of the cone will be moving farther away from the pole. in case equator is the selected parallel, the vertex will be at an infinite distance, and the cone will become a cylinder. Thus the Cylindrical and Zenithal Projections may be regarded as special cases of Conical Projections. Properties

Conics are true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and the pole and the distortion increases away from this standard. Good for Temperate Zone areas

Zenithal Projection In Zenithal Projection a flat paper is supposed to touch the globe at one point and the light may be kept at another point so as to reflect or project the lines of latitude and longitude on the plane. Here the globe is viewed from a point vertically above it, so these are called Zenithal Projections. They are also called 'azimuthal' because the bearings are all true from the central point. In respect of the plane's position touching the globe, Zenithal Projection is of three main classes :1. Normal or Equatorial Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at equator), 2. Polar Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at pole), 3. Oblique Zenithal (where the plane touches the globe at any other point). According to the location of the view point Zenithal Projection is of three types :1. Gnomonic / Central (view point lies at the centre of the globe), 2. Stereographic (view point lies at the opposite pole) 3. Orthographic (view point lies at the infinity). Properties

Azimuthals are true only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst at the edge of the map. Good for polar areas.