The Great Wall of China is a series oI stone and earthen IortiIications in northern China,

built originally to protect the northern borders oI the Chinese Empire against intrusions by
various nomadic groups. Several walls have been built since the 5th century BC that are reIerred
to collectively as the Great Wall, which has been rebuilt and maintained Irom the 5th century BC
through the 16th century. One oI the most Iamous is the wall built between 220206 BC by the
Iirst Emperor oI China, Qin Shi Huang. Little oI that wall remains; the majority oI the existing
wall was built during the Ming Dynasty.
The Great Wall stretches Irom Shanhaiguan in the east, to Lop Lake in the west, along an arc
that roughly delineates the southern edge oI Inner Mongolia. The most comprehensive
archaeological survey, using advanced technologies, has concluded that all the walls measure
8,851.8 km (5,500.3 mi). This is made up oI 6,259.6 km (3,889.5 mi) sections oI actual wall,
359.7 km (223.5 mi) oI trenches and 2,232.5 km (1,387.2 mi) oI natural deIensive barriers such
as hills and rivers.

History
The early walls
The Chinese were already Iamiliar with the techniques oI wall-building by the time oI the Spring
and Autumn Period, which began around the 8th century BC.
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During the Warring States
Period Irom the 5th century BCE to 221 BCE, the states oI Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Yan and
Zhongshan
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all constructed extensive IortiIications to deIend their own borders. Built to
withstand the attack oI small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly by
stamping earth and gravel between board Irames.
Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and uniIied China in 221 BCE, establishing the Qin
Dynasty. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence oI Ieudal lords, he
ordered the destruction oI the wall sections that divided his empire along the Iormer state
borders. To protect the empire against intrusions by the Xiongnu people Irom the north, he
ordered the building oI a new wall to connect the remaining IortiIications along the empire's new
northern Irontier. Transporting the large quantity oI materials required Ior construction was
diIIicult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones Irom the mountains were used
over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used Ior construction in the plains. There are no
surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course oI the Qin Dynasty walls.
Most oI the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very Iew sections remain
today. The human cost oI the construction is unknown, but it has been estimated by some authors
that hundreds oI thousands,
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iI not up to a million, workers died building the Qin wall.
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Later, the Han, Sui, and Northern dynasties all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections oI the
Great Wall at great cost to deIend themselves against northern invaders.
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The Tang and Song
Dynasties did not build any walls in the region.
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The Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties, who ruled
Northern China throughout most oI the 10-13th centuries, had their original power bases north oI
the Great Wall proper; accordingly, they would have no need throughout most oI their history to
build a wall along this line. The Liao carried out limited repair oI the Great Wall in a Iew
areas,
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however the Jin did construct deIensive walls in the 12th century, but those were
located much to the north oI the Great Wall as we know it, within today's Inner and Outer
Mongolia.
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The Ming era

The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty in the 14th century,
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and
Iollowing the Ming army's deIeat by the Oirats in the Battle oI Tumu in 1449. The Ming had
Iailed to gain a clear upper hand over the Manchurian and Mongolian tribes aIter successive
battles, and the long-drawn conIlict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new
strategy to keep the nomadic tribes out by constructing walls along the northern border oI China.
Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall Iollowed the
desert's southern edge instead oI incorporating the bend oI the Huang He.
Unlike the earlier Qin IortiIications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due
to the use oI bricks and stone instead oI rammed earth. As Mongol raids continued periodically
over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinIorce the walls.
Sections near the Ming capital oI Beijing were especially strong.
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During the 1440s1460s, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall". Similar in Iunction to
the Great Wall (whose extension, in a sense, it was), but more basic in construction, the
Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland oI the Liaodong province, protecting it against
potential incursions by Jurched-Mongol Oriyanghan Irom the northwest and the Jianzhou
Jurchens Irom the north. While stones and tiles were used in some parts oI the Liaodong Wall,
most oI it was in Iact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.
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Towards the end oI the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall helped deIend the empire against the
Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even aIter the loss oI all oI Liaodong, the Ming army
under the command oI Yuan Chonghuan held oII the Manchus at the heavily IortiIied
Shanhaiguan pass, preventing the Manchus Irom entering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus
were Iinally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, aIter Beijing had Iallen to Li Zicheng's rebels,
and the gates at Shanhaiguan were opened by the commanding Ming general Wu Sangui, who
hoped to use the Manchus to expel the rebels Irom Beijing. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing,
and deIeated both the rebel-Iounded Shun Dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance,
establishing the Qing Dynasty rule over all oI China.
In 2009, an additional 290 km (180 mi) oI previously undetected portions oI the wall, built
during the Ming Dynasty, were discovered. The newly discovered sections range Irom the
Hushan mountains in the northern Liaoning province, to Jiayuguan in western Gansu province.
The sections had been submerged over time by sandstorms which moved across the arid
region.
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Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the
empire, so construction and repairs on the Great Wall were discontinued. On the other hand, the
so-called Willow Palisade, Iollowing a line similar to that oI the Ming Liaodong Wall, was
constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria. Its purpose, however, was not deIense but rather
migration control.

arly Western reports of the wall
The North AIrican traveler Ibn Battuta, who was in Guangzhou ca. 1346, inquired among the
local Muslims about the wall that, according to the Qur'an, Dhul-Qarnayn had built to contain
Gog and Magog. Ibn Battuta reported that the wall was "sixty days' travel" Irom the city oI
Zeitun (Quanzhou);
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Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb noted Ibn Battuta has conIused the
Great Wall oI China with that built by Dhul-Qarnayn.
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This indicated that Arabs may have
heard about China's Great Wall during earlier periods oI China's history, and associated it with
the Gog and Magog wall oI the Qur'an.
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But, in any event, no one oI Ibn Battuta's Guangzhou
interlocutors had seen the wall or knew anyone who had seen it, which implies that by the late
Yuan the existence oI the Great Wall was not in the people's living memory, at least not in the
Muslim communities in Guangzhou.
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Soon aIter Europeans reached the Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts oI the Great
Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European was to see it with his own eyes Ior
another century. Possibly the earliest description oI the wall, and its signiIicance Ior the deIense
oI the country against the "Tartars" (i.e. Mongols), may be the one contained in the Third
Decada oI Joo de Barros' Asia (published 1563).
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Interestingly, Barros himselI did not travel
to Asia, but was able to use Chinese books brought to Lisbon by Portuguese traders.
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One oI
the earliest records oI a Western traveler entering China via a Great Wall pass (Jiayuguan, in this
case) may be that oI the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Gois, who had reached China's
north-western gate Irom India in 1605.

otable areas
Some oI the Iollowing sections are in Beijing municipality, which were renovated and which are
regularly visited by modern tourists today.
O norLh ass of !uyongguan pass known as Lhe 8adallng When used by Lhe Chlnese Lo proLecL
Lhelr land Lhls secLlon of Lhe wall has had many guards Lo defend Chlna's caplLal 8el[lng Made
of sLone and brlcks from Lhe hllls Lhls porLlon of Lhe CreaL Wall ls 78 meLers (26 fL) hlgh and 3
meLers (16 fL) wlde
O WesL ass of !layuguan (pass) 1hls forL ls near Lhe wesLern edges of Lhe CreaL Wall
O ass of Shanhalguan 1hls forL ls near Lhe easLern edges of Lhe CreaL Wall
O Cne of Lhe mosL sLrlklng secLlons of Lhe Mlng CreaL Wall ls where lL cllmbs exLremely sLeep
slopes lL runs 11 kllomeLers (68 ml) long ranges from 3 Lo 8 meLers (1626 fL) ln helghL and 6
meLers (20 fL) across Lhe boLLom narrowlng up Lo 3 meLers (16 fL) across Lhe Lop Wang[lnglou ls
one of !lnshanllngs 67 waLchLowers 980 meLers (3220 fL) above sea level
O SouLh LasL of !lnshanllng ls Lhe MuLlanyu CreaL Wall whlch wlnds along lofLy cragged
mounLalns from Lhe souLheasL Lo Lhe norLhwesL for approxlmaLely 223 kllomeLers (abouL 13
mlles) lL ls connecLed wlLh !uyongguan ass Lo Lhe wesL and Cubelkou Lo Lhe easL
O 23 km (16 ml) wesL of Lhe Llao 1lan Llng sLands aparL of CreaL Wall whlch ls only 23 sLorles
hlgh Accordlng Lo Lhe records of Lln 1lan Lhe wall was noL only exLremely shorL compared Lo
oLhers buL lL appears Lo be sllver ArcheologlsLs explaln LhaL Lhe wall appears Lo be sllver
because Lhe sLone Lhey used were from Shan xl where many mlnes are found 1he sLone
conLalns exLremely hlgh levels of meLal ln lL causlng lL Lo appear sllver Powever due Lo years of
decay of Lhe CreaL Wall lL ls hard Lo see Lhe sllver parL of Lhe wall Loday
Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity oI the wall, where the Iirst pass oI the
Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan (known as the 'Number One Pass Under Heaven).
3 km north oI Shanhaiguan is Jiaoshan Great Wall, the site oI the Iirst mountain oI the Great
Wall.
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15 km northeast Irom Shanhaiguan, is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion oI the
wall that was built as a bridge.

Characteristics
BeIore the use oI bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built Irom rammed earth, stones, and wood.
During the Ming Dynasty, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas oI the wall, as were
materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight oI the bricks made them easier to
work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more
weight and endure better than rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own weight better than
brick, but is more diIIicult to use. Consequently, stones cut in rectangular shapes were used Ior
the Ioundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways oI the wall. Battlements line the uppermost
portion oI the vast majority oI the wall, with deIensive gaps a little over 30 cm (12 in) tall, and
about 23 cm (9.1 in) wide.
Condition
While some portions north oI Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even
extensively renovated, in many locations the Wall is in disrepair. Those parts might serve as a
village playground or a source oI stones to rebuild houses and roads.
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Sections oI the Wall are
also prone to graIIiti and vandalism. Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way oI
construction.
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More than 60 km (37 mi) oI the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years, due
to erosion Irom sandstorms. In places, the height oI the wall has been reduced Irom more than
Iive meters (16.4 It) to less than two meters. The square lookout towers that characterize the
most Iamous images oI the wall have disappeared completely. Many western sections oI the wall
are constructed Irom mud, rather than brick and stone, and thus are more susceptible to erosion.

Watchtowers and barracks
Communication between the army units along the length oI the Great Wall, including the ability
to call reinIorcements and warn garrisons oI enemy movements, was oI high importance. Signal
towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall Ior their visibility.
Visibility from space
Visibility from the moon
One oI the earliest known reIerences to this myth appears in a letter written in 1754 by the
English antiquary William Stukeley. Stukeley wrote that, "This mighty wall oI Iour score miles
in length (Hadrian's Wall) is only exceeded by the Chinese Wall, which makes a considerable
Iigure upon the terrestrial globe, and may be discerned at the moon."
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The claim was also
mentioned by Henry Norman in 1895 where he states "besides its age it enjoys the reputation oI
being the only work oI human hands on the globe visible Irom the moon."
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The issue oI
"canals" on Mars was prominent in the late 19th century and may have led to the belieI that long,
thin objects were visible Irom space.
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The claim that the Great Wall is visible also appears in
1932's #ipleys Believe it or Not strip
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and in Richard Halliburton's 1938 book Second Book of
Marvels.
The claim the Great Wall is visible has been debunked many times,
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but is still ingrained in
popular culture.
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The wall is a maximum 9.1 m (30 It) wide, and is about the same color as the
soil surrounding it. Based on the optics oI resolving power (distance versus the width oI the iris:
a Iew millimeters Ior the human eye, meters Ior large telescopes) only an object oI reasonable
contrast to its surroundings which is 70 mi (110 km) or more in diameter (1 arc-minute) would
be visible to the unaided eye Irom the moon, whose average distance Irom Earth is 384,393 km
(238,851 mi). The apparent width oI the Great Wall Irom the moon is the same as that oI a
human hair viewed Irom 2 miles (3.2 km) away. To see the wall Irom the moon would require
spatial resolution 17,000 times better than normal (20/20) vision.
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Unsurprisingly, no lunar
astronaut has ever claimed to have seen the Great Wall Irom the moon.
Visibility from low earth orbit
A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible Irom low earth orbit (an altitude oI
as little as 100 miles (160 km)). NASA claims that it is barely visible, and only under nearly
perIect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other man-made objects.
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Other
authors have argued that due to limitations oI the optics oI the eye and the spacing oI
photoreceptors on the retina, it is impossible to see the wall with the naked eye, even Irom low
orbit, and would require visual acuity oI 20/3 (7.7 times better than normal).
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Anecdotal reports
Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it Irom Skylab but discovered he was actually
looking at the Grand Canal oI China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall with binoculars, but
said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye." U.S. Senator Jake Garn claimed to be able to see
the Great Wall with the naked eye Irom a space shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has
been disputed by several U.S. astronauts. Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At
Earth orbit oI 100 miles (160 km) to 200 miles (320 km) high, the Great Wall oI China is,
indeed, visible to the naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science OIIicer aboard the International
Space Station, adds that, "it's less visible than a lot oI other objects. And you have to know
where to look."
In 2001, Neil Armstrong stated about the view Irom Apollo 11: "I do not believe that, at least
with my eyes, there would be any man-made object that I could see. I have not yet Iound
somebody who has told me they've seen the Wall oI China Irom Earth orbit. ...I've asked various
people, particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits around China in the daytime, and
the ones I've talked to didn't see it."
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In October 2003, Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see the Great
Wall oI China. In response, the European Space Agency (ESA) issued a press release reporting
that Irom an orbit between 160 and 320 km, the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye. In an
attempt to Iurther clariIy things, the ESA published a picture oI a part oI the 'Great Wall
photographed Irom Space. However, in a press release a week later (no longer available in the
ESA`s website), they acknowledged that the "Great Wall" in the picture was actually a river.
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Leroy Chiao, a Chinese-American astronaut, took a photograph Irom the International Space
Station that shows the wall. It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had
actually captured it. Based on the photograph, the ina Daily later reported that the Great Wall
can be seen Irom space with the naked eye, under Iavorable viewing conditions, iI one knows
exactly where to look.
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However, the resolution oI a camera can be much higher than the
human visual system, and the optics much better, rendering photographic evidence irrelevant to
the issue oI whether it is visible to the naked eye.
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