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STRESS AND DYNAMICS

(M22MAE)

LABORATORY REPORT OF STEEL BAR
UNDER AXIAL LOAD USING STRAIN GAUGE ROSETTE
BY
NIWEIGHA, INEMIE-EBI EBU
SID- 3871340

SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF
AUTOMOTIVE AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MOODLE CO-ORDINATOR:
PROF ASHLEY LEES
29
TH
NOVEMBER, 2011








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TABLE OF CONTENT

Table oI content -------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
List oI Figure ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
List oI Graph ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
List oI Table ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.0 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.0 Background-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6-7
3.0 Apparatus----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7-9
4.0 Procedure----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9-10
5.0Results-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10-13
6.0Discussion---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
7.0Conclusion--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
ReIerences------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18









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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Bonded metallic strain gauge----------------------------------------------------------- 8
Figure 3.2 Common strain gauge-------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Figure 3.3 Wheatstone bridge------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Figure 3.4 FEA analysis on the steel bar------------------------------------------------------------- 15

















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LIST OF GRAPHS
Graph 5.1 Graph oI Mohr`s circle Ior Iorce 1.59KN Ior strain gauges 1, 2 & 3 --------------------- 14
Graph 5.2 Graph oI measured strain, calculated strain () against Iorce (N) --------------------------- 15

















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LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1 Experimental reading oI applied Iorce, measured strain and elongation oI test specimen 10
Table 5.2 Values obtained Irom Mohr`s circle diagram relative to strain gauge 1 14

















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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The aim oI this experiment is to subject a steel bar under axial load using the oriented strain gauge
rosette.
The objectives oI the experiment are:
1. To show understanding oI the use oI strain gauge rosette.
2. To determine the magnitude and direction oI the principal strains on the steel bar with a
strain gauge rosette oriented at an angle loaded axially mounted on tensile testing machine.
3. To determine the elastic constants E`, and Poisson`s ratio V` Ior the give steel bar.
4. To determine the principal strains and stresses and their direction relative to gauge 1.
5. To compare the experimentally obtained elastic modulus with the normally accepted value.
6. To comment on the use and accuracy oI Mohr`s circle.

2.0 BACKGROUND
In engineering design the need to use the right material Ior a particular component is very
essential as in service Iailure oI mechanical parts should be eliminated thereIore the need to test
diIIerent materials to determine their suitability. Engineering materials can be tested Ior their
strength, toughness, hardness, ductility, electrical and thermal conductivity etc.
Stress is a measured internal pressure oI a material when a Iorce acts on it; however, strain is
what happens as a result oI stress that is the amount oI deIormation oI a body due to applied
Iorce (National Instrument, August 1998).
To measure strain in a particular material, it can be by measuring the elastic deIormation or
plastic deIormation due to the application oI predetermined loads at one side while the other end
is clamped or tensile test. According to bowman (2004:21), a material that has undergone a
uniIorm permanent shape change has undergone both elastic and plastic deIormation while the
shape change was occurring. However, as the applied stresses are removed the elastic strain
returns to zero or nearly zero.
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The use oI strain gauge which is a simple way to measure strain in a material is employed Ior
this experiment. Gradual deIormation oI the tested material causes a change in the resistance oI
the strain gauge due to application oI load. Material testing are carried out to determine their
mechanical properties such as strength in tension Ior engineering design and quality control in
production to ascertain iI they meet the required standard. A strain gauge rosette is an
arrangement oI 2 or more closely positioned gauge grids, separately oriented to measure the
normal strain along diIIerent directions in the underlying surIace oI the test part. It is used in
application where the principal strains are unknown (Intertechnology, 2005).

3.0 APPARATUS
The Iollowing equipment and materials are used Ior the experiment:
3.1 Steel bar: A rectangle steel bar oI cross sectional dimension oI 25mm by 6mm was
provided. The strain gauge rosette oriented at 45
0
to the load axis was attached to the test
specimen with 3 wires connected to each oI the strain gauge (Iigure 3.1 shows a bonded metallic
strain gauge).
Steel has a density oI 7800 kg/m
3
, Young modulus oI 200GPa, high thermal conductivity, high
thermal coeIIicient oI expansion, high tensile strength and noted Ior its Iormability (Ashby &
Jones, 2005:90).
3.2 Caliper: It was used to measure the dimension oI the test specimen.
3.3 Instron tensile testing machine: The machine was used to subject the test specimen to axial
load so as to determine the strain the specimen is experiencing.
3.4 Strain gauge: It is chip-like alloy material oI constantan Iamily consisting oI very Iine wire
or metallic Ioil arranged in grid pattern widely used in stress analysis with terminal tabs Ior
soldering. It usually has a shining and dull side.

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Figure 3.1: Bonded Metallic Strain Gauge (National Instrument, 2009)


Figure 3.2: Common strain gauge (Ronald B. Bucinell 2011)
3.5 Wheatstone Strain gauge machine: (Three wire quarter bridge circuit TT-612): It is used to
measure the resistance oI the strain gauge to the material deIormation. It is measured in micro-strain
().
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Figure 3.3: Wheatstone bridge (National Instrument, 2009)

Wire: A wire oI length 540mm is provided to be connected to the strain gauge and strain gauge
machine to measure strain.

4.0 PRO CEDURE
The test specimen is a rectangular steel bar oI dimension 25mm width and 6mm thickness with a
45
0
strain gauge rosette orientated to the load axis. The orientations oI the strain gauge are stated
below:
i. Strain gauge 1 is almost perpendicular to the applied Iorce
ii. Strain gauge 2 is orientated 45
0
to strain gauge 1
iii. Strain gauge 3 is orientated 45
0
to strain gauge 2 that is strain gauge 3 is almost parallel
to the applied Iorce.
In order to avoid the test specimen Irom Iracture during tensile testing, it has to be subjected to load
below it yield strength (see sub-section 3.1). Having known the cross sectional dimension and the
yield strength, the maximum Iorce allowable can be determined which is 30kN. However, the test
specimen was subjected to 70 oI the maximum allowable Iorce oI 19.99Kn.
The Iollowing procedures were Iollowed in the course oI the experiment:
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1. Mark the centre oI the test material and clean the surIace with sand paper in a circular
direction to obtain a smooth surIace Iinish. Measure 15mm Irom the side without hole which
is the clamping area and then to the centre oI the hole as shown in Iig 4.1 below.
2. Separate the wire by their colors at the two ends, peel oII to reveal the metal inside
measuring 10mm then join black and white wires together at one end. Joining the two wires
together allows Ior temperature compensation. Apply solder Ilux Iluid on the terminal oI the
strain gauge and revealed part oI the wire; solder Ilux Iluid helps to achieve good Iusion oI
the components.
3. Using strain gauge soldering technique TT-609 and soldering type 361 Ior lead wire at an
operating temperature oI 150
0
C, melt a portion oI the lead-wire on the exposed wire and on
the two terminals thereaIter place the wires on the terminals and joined them together by
Iusion using the soldering iron.
4. On the 3-wire quarter bridge circuit TT-612, set gauge type to CEA-06-250UW-350 and
gauge Iactor as 2.130/-0.5 thereaIter connect the wire to the circuit with red to positive,
white to negative and black to compensate point and zero the strain gauge (0.0000).
5. On the computer connected to instron tensile testing machine, input the Iorce parameters as
Iollows:
i. Test control
ii. End oI test: 19.99Kn
Clamp the test specimen Iirmly vertically to the instron tensile testing machine. Connect the 3 wires
Irom the strain gauge to the wheat bridge strain gauge machine with red to positive, black to
negative and white to compensation point.
Input the strain gauge Iactor Ior each oI the strain gauge (2.130/-0.5) and ensure the strain gauge
is zero (0.0000). On the computer, click start and take measurements as the machine stops at
intervals according to the set parameters.

Experimental and Theoretical Assumptions
The Iollowing are assumed when perIorming the experiment:
1. The material was steel and it is isotropic and homogeneous.
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2. It has a density oI 7800kg/m
3
, Young`s modulus oI 200GPa and Poisson`s ratio oI 0.3.
3. The advised procedures are correct.
4. The equipment works correctly.
5. The strain gauges adhere Iirmly to the steel bar.
6. The steel bar Iixes Iirmly to the instron machine and loaded correctly.
7. The steel bar is straight with no dent, crack, and scratch or work-hardened.
8. The specimen alignment error to the axis oI gauges is 3
0
.

5.0 RESULTS
5.1 Experimental Results
The experimental reading is presented in table 5.1 below;
Load (KN) Extension
(mm)
Strain gauge
1()
Strain gauge
2 ()
Strain gauge
3 ()
0 0 2 -42 -13
1.59 0.099 -17 28 51
3.811 0.248 -34 51 101
5.553 0.414 -51 73 151
7.286 0.568 -67 94 203
8.88 0.714 -84 114 255
10.74 0.852 -100 135 307
12.42 0.984 -116 157 359
14.08 1.111 -132 178 410
15.63 1.231 -147 199 461
17.36 1.346 -163 221 511
18.94 1.454 -178 241 561
19.99 1.527 -188 255 594
Table 5.1 Experimental reading oI applied Iorce, measured strains and elongation oI test specimen.
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Graph 5.1, shows a Mohr`s circle when a Iorce oI 1.59KN is applied against the measured strains
in 3 strain gauge directions.
From graph 5.1, the maximum principal strain is 100 x 10
-6
orientated at 2
0
anticlockwise Irom
line OA while the minimum principal strain is -18 x 10
-6
at 92.35
0
anticlockwise Irom line OA.
From the graph, the maximum principal strain
pmax
and minimum principal strain
pmin
was
obtained which are 100 and -18 respectively. Also the direction oI both the maximum and
minimum strain was established.

5.2 Calculated Result: Determining stress from Mohr`s circle
Hooke`s law Ior biaxial stress can be used to calculate the principal stresses which are expressed
as Iollows:
o
pmax
(E/1-v
2
) (
pmax
v
pmin
)...eqn 5.1 (intertechnology, 2005)
o
pmax
(E/1-v
2
) (
pmin
v
pmax
)...eqn 5.2 (intertechnology, 2005)

From Hook`s law, the stress o E.....eqn 5.3
(Where E, Young`s modulus is constant oI proportionality and , strain)
o F/A ................eqn 5.4
Where F, is the Iorce applied as indicated by vertical line in 5.1 and A, is the area oI steel bar.
Area, A oI steel bar b.h
A 25mm x 6mm 150mm
2
(0.00015m
2
)
From 5.1, Iorce applied on the steel bar is 1.59KN or 1590N
o F/A substitute the values into the equation
o 1590/0.00015 10.6Mpa
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is the measured strain along strain gauge 3 which is 51.
From equation 5.3, E o/
E 10.6MPa/ 0.00051 207GPa
From graph 5.1, we can determine the Poisson`s ratio v` which is
pmin
/
pmax
, substitute the
values into the equation where
pmin
18 and
pmax
98.
V 18/98 0.183
From eqn 5.1, o
pmax
(207GPa /1-0.183
2
) (0.00098 0.183 x -0.00018)
(207GPa /0.9988) (0.00098 -3.294x10
-5
)
(2.080928487x10
10
) (9.470x10
-4
)
19.706392x10
6

19.7MPa
From eqn 5.2, o
pmax
(207GPa /1-0.183
2
) (-0.00018 0.183 x 0.00098)
(207GPa /0.9988) (-0.00018 1.793x10
-4
)
(2.080928487x10
10
) (-6.6x10
-7
)
-13734.12
-13.734Pa

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Graph 5.2 Graph oI Iorce (N) against measured strain ()

Load
(KN)
Max
principal
strain

p2
()
Min
principal
strain
p1

()
Direction
(0
1
)
relative to
gauge
1(degree)
Direction
(0
2
)
relative
to gauge
1(degree)
Max
principal
stress
o
pmax
(MPa)
Mini
principal
stress
o
pmin
(Pa)
Young`
s
modulu
s (GPa)
Poisson`s
ratio
1.59 98 -18 22 67.5 19.7 -13.7 207 0.183
Table 5.2 values obtained Irom Mohr`s circle diagram relative to strain gauge 1.

300
200
100
0
100
200
300
400
300
600
700
0 3 10 13 20 23
S
t
r
a
|
n

(

)
Iorce (N)
enslon (mm)
Saln gauge 1()
Saln gauge 2 ()
Saln gauge 3 ()
Llnea (enslon (mm))
Llnea (Saln gauge 1())
Llnea (Saln gauge 2 ())
Llnea (Saln gauge 3 ())
l08C (n) ACAlnS1 MASu8 S18Aln ()
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Graph 5.3 shows Mohr`s diagram values with regards to strain gauge 1

Figure 3.4 FEA analysis oI the steel bar

30
0
30
100
130
200
230
Load (kn) Ma
plnclpal
saln p2
()
Mln
plnclpal
saln p1
()
leclon
(01)
elalve o
gauge
1(degee)
leclon
(02)
elalve o
gauge
1(degee)
Ma
plnclpal
sess
opma
(Ma)
Mlnl
plnclpal
sess
opmln
(ka)
?oung's
modulus
(Ca)
S
t
r
a
|
n

g
a
u
g
e

1
Seles1
values obalned fom mohs clcle dlagam
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.0 DISCUSSION
.1 Discussion of Result
From table 5.2, when a Iorce oI 1.59KN is applied to maximum and minimum principal strains
obtained Irom the Mohr`s circle diagram in graph 5.1 are 98 and -18 respectively. Applying
the maximum and minimum principal strains obtained above in Hook`s law Ior biaxial stress, the
maximum principal stresses are 19.7MPa and -13.73Pa.
Also Irom table 5.2, the Young`s modulus is 207GPa when a Iorce oI 1.59KN was applied. The
calculated Young`s modulus is 7 above the theoretically assumed value (200GPa) but still Iall
between the range oI Young`s modulus oI steel (200-210GPa) as stated in various engineering
books. However, Irom Hook`s law in eqn 5.3, the calculated Young`s modulus oI the steel will
increase as the applied Iorce increases.
The calculated Poisson`s ratio Irom the maximum and minimum principal strains Irom the
Mohr`s circle is 0.183 which is 85 accurate to the theoretical assumed value. The relationships
between the measured strains in the 3 directions are linear. The Young`s modulus can also be
obtained by plotting a graph oI stress against strain as in the case oI stress-strain diagram.
The possible events that must have given rise to errors and variation in the experiment and theory
values are as stated bellow:
1. There must have been unseen dent or cracks on the surIace oI the steel.
2. The strain gauge rosette did not adhere Iirmly to the surIace oI the steel bar.
3. The steel bar is not clamped tightly and Iirmly to the instron tensile testing machine.
4. The instron tensile testing machine and the strain gauges are not working correctly.
It is thereIore advisable to avoid above listed cause oI errors which will reduce the experimental
errors and the experiment should be conducted several times so as to arrive at a more accurate value.



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7.0 CONCLUSION
The Mohr`s circle was used to determine the principal strain and stresses in the experiment oI a steel
bar under axial loading using 45
0
rosettes. From the result obtained Irom the experiment, the
Iollowing conclusions are drawn:
1. The maximum principal strain is 98 x10
-6
orientated at 22
0
clockwise Irom line OA.
2. The minimum principal strain is -18 x 10
-6
orientated at 92.35
0
clockwise Irom line OA.
3. The maximum principal stresses are 19.7MPa and -13.734KPa
4. The experimental Young`s modulus is 207GPa and varies Ior theory by 7.
5. The experimental Poisson`s ratio is 0.183 and varies Irom the theory by 15 ().
6. The relationship between the measured strains in the 3 directions is linear.














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REFERENCES
Ashby, M., Cebon, D., ShercliII, D (2010) Materials Engineering, Science, Processing and Design
2
nd
Edition. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann
Bowman, K. (2004), Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Bucinell, R. D. (2011) Calculating principal strain using a rectangular strain gauge rosette |online|
available Irom http://engineering.union.edu/ =curreyj/MER-214Iiles/Analysis oI a Strain Gage
Rosette.pdI |28 November 2011|
Intertechnology (5 January, 2005) strain gauge rosette-selection, application and data reduction
|online| available Irom http://www.intertechnology.com/Vishay/TechNotesTechTips/TN-
515.pdI~ |27 November 2011|
National Instruments (1998), |online| available Irom http://www.eidactics.com/Downloads/ReIs-
Methods/NIStrainGaugetutorial.pdI |26 November 2011|
Strain Gauge |online| available Irom http://www.sensorland.com/howpages |26 November 2011|
The Wheatstone bridge |online| available Irom http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3432
|25 November 2011|
Turner, P. J.and Urry, S. A. (1986) Solving Problems in Solid Mechanics, Longman Singapore
publishers England.