SMK JALAN TIGA BANDAR BARU BANGI

PHYSICS FOLIO RADIOACTIVITY

MAISARAH ABDUL RAHMAN 5 CEKAL 2012

Introduction of Radioactivity
Radioactive
It is a material that can give off or emit different types of energy or radiation. This includes : o alpha particles () o beta particles () o gamma rays () which are produced in the atom's nucleus. Some radioactive substances emit one or more types of radiation. The effects of high-level exposures can include burns acute radiation sickness death

Because each type of radiation has different physical properties, the risks and potential effects on health of each are different.

Radioactivity
It is the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. It refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. These atoms are called radionuclides, which are present in the air we breathe the water we drink the food we eat our bodies

The Nucleus of An Atom

The Composition Of The Nucleus

Figure : Rutherford Bohr Model Of The Atom

Neutron, n
actual mass = 1.67 X 10-27 kg relative mass = 1 relative charge = neutral value of charge = 0

Proton, p
actual mass = 1.67 X 10-27 kg relative mass = 1 relative charge = +1 value of charge = +1.6 X 10-19 C

Electron, e
actual mass = 9.11 X 10-31 kg relative mass = 1/1840 relative charge = -1 value of charge = -1.6 X 10-19 C

Orbit
Path taken by electrons going around the nucleus

Nucleus
Consists of protons and neutrons Together, protons and neutrons are called nucleons Nuclear density 1016 kg m-3

Proton Number (Z) and Nucleon Number (A)

An element with a chemical symbol X, nucleon number - A, and proton number - Z, is represented by the symbol :

A - Nucleon number (mass number) = Total number of protons and neutrons Z - Proton number ((atomic number) = Number of protons X - Chemical symbol

Neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. Thus, the proton number also tells us the number of electrons in neutral atom. The number of neutrons, N in an atom is given by ;

Number of neutrons, N = A - Z

Nuclides
Nuclide is any particular type of atom of an element. It is a type of atom whose nuclei have specific numbers of protons and neutrons (both are called nucleons). Therefore, nuclides are composite particles of nucleons. The unstable nuclides are called radionuclides

Nuclides are being used daily. Some of the uses of nuclides (non-radioactive) are as follows : Carbon-14 - Used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of previously living animals and plants. - Injected to study abnormalities of metabolism that underlie diabetes, gout, anaemia, and acromegaly (adult gigantism) and to trace the metabolism of new drugs. - Combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which plants absorb naturally and incorporate into plant fibre by photosynthesis. Carbon-13 - Carries out nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei to determine physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules in which they are contained. Carbon-12 - Used to find molecular mass as Carbon-12 had the advantages of being : a) specific b) fairly common c) non-oxygenated

Nuclides notation is a method of representing an element and the number of its subatomic particles. The mass number of an atom equals the number of protons plus neutrons in its nucleus. All the information about an atom or ion can be shown by nuclide notation. An ion is an atom which has had electrons added or removed from it leaving it with an electrical charge. Examples :

Nuclide Notation for the Sodium Ion

The sodium ion above has atomic number 11 , it has 11 protons in its nucleus.

Isotopes

The mass number is 23. Since it has 11 protons it must therefore have 12 neutrons in its nucleus. The charge on the ion is + (one plus). One electron has been removed so it is left with 10 electrons.

The chloride ion above has atomic number 17 , it has 17 protons in its nucleus.
The mass number is 37. Since it has 17 protons it must therefore have 20 neutrons in its nucleus. The charge on the ion is - (one minus). One electron has been added so it now has 18 electrons.

Isotopes
Isotopes are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. In other words, isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same proton number but different nucleus number. Alternatively, isotopes can be defined as atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release of energy and matter from the nucleus. Radioisotope has unstable nuclei that do not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together. Hence, they are constantly changing to try and stabilize. In the process, they will release energy and matter from their nucleus and often transform into a new element. There are three main types of radiation: Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation

Alpha Decay 1. The reason alpha decay occurs is because the nucleus has too many protons which cause excessive repulsion. 2. In an attempt to reduce the repulsion, a Helium nucleus is emitted. The way it works is that the Helium nuclei are in constant collision with the walls of the nucleus and because of its energy and mass, there exists a nonzero probability of transmission. 3. That is, an alpha particle (Helium nucleus) will tunnel out of the nucleus. Here is an example of alpha emission with americium-241:

Alpha Decay of Americium-241 to Neptunium-237.

Beta Decay

1. Beta decay occurs when the neutron to proton ratio is too great in the nucleus and causes instability. 2. In basic beta decay, a neutron is turned into a proton and an electron. 3. The electron is then emitted. Here's a diagram of beta decay with hydrogen-3:

Alpha Decay of Hydrogen-3 to Helium-3.

1. There is also positron emission when the neutron to proton ratio is too small. 2. A proton turns into a neutron and a positron and the positron is emitted. 3. A positron is basically a positively charged electron. Here's a diagram of positron emission with carbon-11:

Positron Decay of Carbon-11 to Boron-11.

1. The final type of beta decay is known as electron capture. 2. It also occurs when the neutron to proton ratio in the nucleus is too small. 3. The nucleus captures an electron which basically turns a proton into a neutron. Here's a diagram of electron capture with beryllium-7:

Electron Capture of Beryllium-7. It decays to Lithium-7

Gamma Decay 1. Gamma decay occurs because the nucleus is at too high an energy. 2. The nucleus falls down to a lower energy state. 3. In the process, it emits a high energy photon known as a gamma particle. Here's a diagram of gamma decay with helium-3:

Gamma Decay of Helium-3

Unstable isotopes are radioactive isotopes. They will undergo spontaneous decay to emit radioactive rays : alpha particles () beta particles () gamma rays ()

After radioactive decay, the proton number and nucleon number of the isotopes may change. Isotopes are being used daily. Some of the uses of isotopes are as follow :

Uses of Radioisotopes
Isotope Use Carbon-14 Radiometric dating : determination of age of carboncontaining artefact up to about 70,000 years Biological tracer, for example, in studies of photosynthesis Naturally occurring radioisotope Measurement of sources of chloride and determining the age of water up to about 2 million years old Date layers of soil and sand deposited up to about 80 years ago

Chlorine-36

Lead-210

Tritium -

Measure the age of 'young' groundwater up to about 30 years old Titrated water is used to study sewage and liquid wastes

Potassium-40

Potassium-Argon radiometric dating:100 000 to several billion years Rubidium-Strontium radiometric dating: millions of years Radiometric dating : millions to billions of years Biological tracer, for example, in studies of photosynthesis

Rubidium-87 Uranium/Lead Oxygen-18

Sodium-24

Detecting location of leaks in water pipes, studies of body electrolytes Detecting location of leaks in water pipes

Magnesium-27

Potassium-42

Determination of exchanged potassium in blood flow

Chromium-51

Labelling of red blood cells & quantifying gastro-intestinal protein loss Determining the amount of friction in machinery in blood studies, when incorporated into steel Cancer treatment as tumour cells tend to be more susceptible to radiation than other cells Tumour-seeking agent Medical tracer used to locate brain tumours and problems with the lungs, thyroid, liver, spleen, kidney, gall bladder, skeleton, blood pool, bone marrow, salivary & lacrimal glands & heart blood pool & to detect infection Isotope prepared in a nuclear reactor

Iron-59

Cobalt-60

Gallium-67

Technetium-99

Iodine-131

Medical tracer to study & treat the thyroid gland & used in the diagnosis of adrenal medullary & for imaging suspected neural crest and other endocrine tumours Isotope prepared in a nuclear reactor