SDH Booklet2008

3YNCHRONOUS
4RANSMISSION
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Synchronous
Transmission
Systems (SDH)
A guide
to the SDH world
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automation, control, ano protection
ol power networks.
Foreword
Synchronous Transmission Systems
Synchronous Transmission
Systems
Nortel Networks
Issue 5.0 July 1999
' 1999 Nortel Networks
References:
Diagrams and figures extracted from ITU-T Recommendations are
reproduced with the kind permission of the ITU Telecommunications
Standardisation Sector.
ii
ABB Switzerland Ltd.
Edition 5.2, 2008
Foreword
Systems
Nortel Networks
Issue 5.0 July 1999
References:
ii
Foreword
Systems
Nortel Networks
Issue 5.0 July 1999
References:
ii
iii Foreword
Foreword

This book brings together a wide range of ideas and information to act as
both an educational tool and a useful reference manual. It is aimed
primarily at managers and engineers who need a broad understanding of
the core concepts behind modern transmission networks.

Since this book was first published, the worlds telecommunications
networks have changed considerably. Synchronous transmission systems
now form the basis of the vast majority of networks. With the
introduction of Wave Division Multiplexing we have seen the addition
of an optical layer in the network structure, both for high capacity long
haul transport and for the efficient transfer of a wide range of protocols
in the metropolitan area network.

Despite the difficulties faced by many operators and manufacturers in
the first few years of the 21
st
Century, use of the Internet and data traffic
in general have continued to increase rapidly. This has had a direct
impact on the way networks are being deployed. Much of this book has
been re-written to reflect these changes, but the original focus on core
concepts is retained.

As a world leader in optical communications, line systems and multiplex
equipment, Nortel has a broad expertise covering all aspects of
transmission. Large investments in R&D and regular involvement in
meetings of the major standards bodies have ensured that Nortel has
furthered its position as a world leader in telecommunications systems.
Nortel is committed to the development of a full range of synchronous
and optical transmission products to operate within a Managed
Transmission Network.
Foreword iv

iii Foreword
Foreword



st

Foreword iv

CH-5400 Baden (Switzerland), January 2008
iii Foreword
Foreword



st

Foreword iv

iii Foreword
Foreword



st

Foreword iv

Contents Contents
Table of Contents
Foreword .......................................................................... iii
Table of Contents ............................................................. v
Introduction .......................................................................1
Structure and Use of this Book .......................................................4
Transport Networks ..........................................................5
Evolution of Transport Networks.....................................................5
Transmission Technology .............................................................11
SDH to the Operator ......................................................................19
Basics of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy ..................21
Terms and concepts .......................................................................22
Example of SDH Multiplexing .....................................................28
Explanation of the Multiplexing Structure ....................................29
Introduction to Network Management ..........................................32
Introduction to Protection ..............................................................33
Introduction to Equipment Standardisation ...................................34
Elements of a Synchronous Transmission System ........35
Functionality of a Network Element .............................................35
Types of Network Element ...........................................................39
Regenerators and Repeaters ..........................................................46
Submarine Systems .......................................................................47
SDH Network Architecture and Design ...........................49
Mapping User Connection Demand to a Physical Network .........49
Types of VC-4 Layer Architecture ................................................51
Network Optimisation and Flexibility ...........................................59
VC-12 Layer Design .....................................................................60
Protection ........................................................................67
Introduction ................................................................................... 67
Terms ............................................................................................ 68
Equipment Protection ................................................................... 71
Restoration .................................................................................... 73
Network Protection ....................................................................... 74
Interworking of Protection Schemes ............................................ 92
Network Management .....................................................99
The Physical Management Path .................................................. 101
The TMN Layered Hierarchy ..................................................... 103
Functionality of a Network Management System ...................... 106
Network Management Platform ................................................. 111
The Telecommunication Management Network ........................ 111
High Capacity Networks ...............................................115
Wavelength Division Multiplexing ............................................ 117
STM-64 ....................................................................................... 126
Moving Beyond 2.5 Gbit/s ......................................................... 126
Evolution to the Optical Network ............................................... 130
SDH - A Detailed Description .......................................135
Synchronous Operation .............................................................. 135
Differences Between SDH and SONET ..................................... 137
The STM-1 Frame ...................................................................... 138
European Multiplexing Structure ............................................... 144
Concatenation ............................................................................. 153
Higher Transmission Rates ......................................................... 156
Synchronisation ............................................................157
The Voice Legacy ....................................................................... 158
The Digital Revolution ............................................................... 159
Service Sensitivity to Synchronisation ....................................... 159
Cellular ....................................................................................... 162
Video Services ............................................................................ 163
Synchronisation Across Multiple Operators ............................... 164
v vi
Contents Contents
Table of Contents
Foreword .......................................................................... iii
Introduction .......................................................................1
VC-12 Layer Design .....................................................................60
Protection ........................................................................67
Introduction ................................................................................... 67
Terms ............................................................................................ 68
Restoration .................................................................................... 73
STM-64 ....................................................................................... 126
The STM-1 Frame ...................................................................... 138
Concatenation ............................................................................. 153
The Voice Legacy ....................................................................... 158
Cellular ....................................................................................... 162
Video Services ............................................................................ 163
v vi
1
2
3
4
5
Contents Contents
Table of Contents
Foreword .......................................................................... iii
Introduction .......................................................................1
VC-12 Layer Design .....................................................................60
Protection ........................................................................67
Introduction ................................................................................... 67
Terms ............................................................................................ 68
Restoration .................................................................................... 73
STM-64 ....................................................................................... 126
The STM-1 Frame ...................................................................... 138
Concatenation ............................................................................. 153
The Voice Legacy ....................................................................... 158
Cellular ....................................................................................... 162
Video Services ............................................................................ 163
v vi
vii vi
Contents Contents
Table of Contents
Foreword .......................................................................... iii
Introduction .......................................................................1
VC-12 Layer Design .....................................................................60
Protection ........................................................................67
Introduction ................................................................................... 67
Terms ............................................................................................ 68
Restoration .................................................................................... 73
STM-64 ....................................................................................... 126
The STM-1 Frame ...................................................................... 138
Concatenation ............................................................................. 153
The Voice Legacy ....................................................................... 158
Cellular ....................................................................................... 162
Video Services ............................................................................ 163
v vi
6
7
8
9
10
vii vi
Contents Contents
Synchronous Transmission Systems Synchronous Transmission Systems
Global Timing .............................................................................165
Synchronisation Basics ...............................................................166
External Timing Equipment ........................................................167
Synchronising SDH Networks ....................................................168
Synchronisation Status Messaging ..............................................169
Ethernet over SDH (GFP, LCAS) .................................171
vii viii
Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)................................................171
Resilient Package Ring..................................................................180
vii viii
List of Abbreviations ......................................................185
vii viii
11
12
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
Evolving SDH to support Data-centric
and Wavelength Services
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
viii
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
Contents Contents
Global Timing .............................................................................165
vii viii
vii viii
vii viii
1 1

1 Introduction

Introduction

networks have changed considerably.

Network operators are responding to the end-user demand for sophisti-
cated telecommunications services such as video conferencing, internet
access, business continuity, remote database access and multimedia file
transfer. These services require a flexible network with the availability
on demand of virtually unlimited bandwidth.

The far-reaching effects of the implementation of synchronous transmis-
sion systems are, however, still evolving. Operators now need to deliver
global,
carrier-grade applications and services that merge all the disparate net-
working elements and technologies into a seamless, open network, that
is, a unified network.

Discontinuities are driving the need for unified networks and will cause
unprecedented changes, affecting virtually every type of business institu-
tion.
For example:

Data traffic has now surpassed voice traffic yet the vast major-
ity of network investments in the world are optimised for voice
traffic.

Optical networks make it possible to deliver ever larger streams
of information over the same piece of glass, and this is at the
centre of satisfying a huge demand for bandwidth. Yet access
networks that can deliver this bandwidth over the first critical
1
Introduction 2
mile from users homes to the network are only now being de-
ployed by cable companies, electrical utilities, wireless compa-
nies and telephone companies. The prediction is that average
residential user access speeds will quadruple in the next two
years.

The Internet, with its incredibly low costs per business transac-
tion, is driving a whole new business model. This in turn is
driving new classes of customer relationships, but the networks
needed to support these new models are often not in place.

These and other discontinuities are putting tremendous pressure on net-
work users and providers.

Enterprises of every kind and size are finding their internal and external
bandwidth requirements are exploding. The web offers the potential for
order of magnitude reductions in transaction costs, for example, in the
sale of airline tickets and books over the Internet. Enterprises are driving
to use Information Technology and networks to leverage the low cost of
Internet commerce and high returns of supply chain management sys-
tems.

Carriers and service providers feel similar pressure from these disconti-
nuities. Established carriers are faced with the enormous challenge of
reconfiguring their networks to handle the explosive growth of data.
High speed optical networks are forcing them to move switching away
from the core of their networks to the edge. The line between optical and
wireline switching is blurring. At the same time, carriers are looking for
new ways to leverage the investment in their installed base. New carriers
are starting fresh with data-optimised networks, but they have to find
ways to offer services that are differentiated and provide revenue-
generating value to their customers.

Operators need to deliver unified networks that combine data and te-
lephony, are seamless across the enterprise and carrier, delivering quality
of service, and blending the lines between routing, optical, wireline,
wireless, switching and IP.
1
1 Introduction
2

1 Introduction

Introduction

networks have changed considerably.

Network operators are responding to the end-user demand for sophisti-
cated telecommunications services such as video conferencing, internet
access, business continuity, remote database access and multimedia file
transfer. These services require a flexible network with the availability
on demand of virtually unlimited bandwidth.

The far-reaching effects of the implementation of synchronous transmis-
sion systems are, however, still evolving. Operators now need to deliver
global,
carrier-grade applications and services that merge all the disparate net-
working elements and technologies into a seamless, open network, that
is, a unified network.

Discontinuities are driving the need for unified networks and will cause
unprecedented changes, affecting virtually every type of business institu-
tion.
For example:

Data traffic has now surpassed voice traffic yet the vast major-
ity of network investments in the world are optimised for voice
traffic.

Optical networks make it possible to deliver ever larger streams
of information over the same piece of glass, and this is at the
centre of satisfying a huge demand for bandwidth. Yet access
networks that can deliver this bandwidth over the first critical
1
Introduction 2
mile from users homes to the network are only now being de-
ployed by cable companies, electrical utilities, wireless compa-
nies and telephone companies. The prediction is that average
residential user access speeds will quadruple in the next two
years.

The Internet, with its incredibly low costs per business transac-
tion, is driving a whole new business model. This in turn is
driving new classes of customer relationships, but the networks
needed to support these new models are often not in place.

These and other discontinuities are putting tremendous pressure on net-
work users and providers.

Enterprises of every kind and size are finding their internal and external
bandwidth requirements are exploding. The web offers the potential for
order of magnitude reductions in transaction costs, for example, in the
sale of airline tickets and books over the Internet. Enterprises are driving
to use Information Technology and networks to leverage the low cost of
Internet commerce and high returns of supply chain management sys-
tems.

Carriers and service providers feel similar pressure from these disconti-
nuities. Established carriers are faced with the enormous challenge of
reconfiguring their networks to handle the explosive growth of data.
High speed optical networks are forcing them to move switching away
from the core of their networks to the edge. The line between optical and
wireline switching is blurring. At the same time, carriers are looking for
new ways to leverage the investment in their installed base. New carriers
are starting fresh with data-optimised networks, but they have to find
ways to offer services that are differentiated and provide revenue-
generating value to their customers.

Operators need to deliver unified networks that combine data and te-
lephony, are seamless across the enterprise and carrier, delivering quality
of service, and blending the lines between routing, optical, wireline,
wireless, switching and IP.
1
1 Introduction
3
3 Introduction
The unified network architecture addresses the following needs:

Personal networking - new levels of personal productivity, us-
ers expectations and service demands are defined at this level,

Flexible, high speed access - network access must be compara-
ble to the speeds that users experience within their own Enter-
prise LAN environment, and flexible enough to deliver users
expectations for services wherever they are needed,

Switched infrastructures - switching technology offers reliable,
high performance infrastructures for reliable scalability to meet
rapidly growing demands,

High performance optical networks - the need to deliver huge
amounts of data at ever lower costs per megabyte of switched
data,

Applications and services - the need for networks designed to
deliver high value services and applications to meet user re-
quirements.

The common factors are the massive increase in demand for bandwidth
and the requirement for networks that can carry a variety of types of traffic
across resilient networks.

The implementation of synchronous transmission systems has given opera-
tors a method of meeting these demands. Their networks are more efficient
and enable savings to be made in their operating costs. Embedded man-
agement channels within the transmission make the operation, administra-
tion and maintenance of networks far more efficient and gives operators
the opportunity to dramatically reduce the time and cost of provisioning
new services. The introduction of Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM) techniques provides an optical layer for the synchronous network
which will enable the bandwidth demands to be satisfied.

This book describes the evolution, facilities and features of synchronous
transmission networks and also describes how these will cope with the
demands of the unified networks of the future.
Introduction 4
Structure and Use of this Book

Chapter 2 gives a brief evolution of telecommunications transport net-
works andtransmission technology. If this is familiar, you may wish to
omit reading this chapter.

Chapter 3 describes the basics of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH). Ifyou are familiar with the SDH standards you may wish to omit
reading this chapter.

Chapter 4 details the various types and uses of network elements used
insynchronous transmission systems.

Chapter 5 discusses the network architecture of synchronous transmis-
sionsystems and uses a typical network as an example.

Chapter 6 details the various protection schemes used in synchro-
noustransmission systems to achieve the network resilience demanded
by end users.

Chapter 7 dicusses the management of synchronous networks; the ar-
chitectureof the management system, its functions and facilities provided
at the variouslevels in the architecture.

Chapter 8 describes the high capacity transmission network. Details the
use ofWDM and optical networking.

Chapter 9 gives a more detailed description of the Synchronous Digi-
talHeirarchy.

Chapter 10 discusses the need for synchronisation across the network
anddescribes some of the methods of achieving this.

Chapter 11 EoSDH: Discuss solutions for transmission of IP/Ethernet
over SDH networks (GFP, LCAS)

Chapter 12 is a list of abbreviations.
1 Introduction
4
3 Introduction
The unified network architecture addresses the following needs:

Personal networking - new levels of personal productivity, us-
ers expectations and service demands are defined at this level,

Flexible, high speed access - network access must be compara-
ble to the speeds that users experience within their own Enter-
prise LAN environment, and flexible enough to deliver users
expectations for services wherever they are needed,

Switched infrastructures - switching technology offers reliable,
high performance infrastructures for reliable scalability to meet
rapidly growing demands,

High performance optical networks - the need to deliver huge
amounts of data at ever lower costs per megabyte of switched
data,

Applications and services - the need for networks designed to
deliver high value services and applications to meet user re-
quirements.

The common factors are the massive increase in demand for bandwidth
and the requirement for networks that can carry a variety of types of traffic
across resilient networks.

The implementation of synchronous transmission systems has given opera-
tors a method of meeting these demands. Their networks are more efficient
and enable savings to be made in their operating costs. Embedded man-
agement channels within the transmission make the operation, administra-
tion and maintenance of networks far more efficient and gives operators
the opportunity to dramatically reduce the time and cost of provisioning
new services. The introduction of Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM) techniques provides an optical layer for the synchronous network
which will enable the bandwidth demands to be satisfied.

This book describes the evolution, facilities and features of synchronous
transmission networks and also describes how these will cope with the
demands of the unified networks of the future.
Introduction 4
Structure and Use of this Book

Chapter 2 gives a brief evolution of telecommunications transport net-
works andtransmission technology. If this is familiar, you may wish to
omit reading this chapter.

Chapter 3 describes the basics of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH). Ifyou are familiar with the SDH standards you may wish to omit
reading this chapter.

Chapter 4 details the various types and uses of network elements used
insynchronous transmission systems.

Chapter 5 discusses the network architecture of synchronous transmis-
sionsystems and uses a typical network as an example.

Chapter 6 details the various protection schemes used in synchro-
noustransmission systems to achieve the network resilience demanded
by end users.

Chapter 7 dicusses the management of synchronous networks; the ar-
chitectureof the management system, its functions and facilities provided
at the variouslevels in the architecture.

Chapter 8 describes the high capacity transmission network. Details the
use ofWDM and optical networking.

Chapter 9 gives a more detailed description of the Synchronous Digi-
talHeirarchy.

Chapter 10 discusses the need for synchronisation across the network
anddescribes some of the methods of achieving this.

Chapter 11 EoSDH: Discuss solutions for transmission of IP/Ethernet
over SDH networks (GFP, LCAS)

Chapter 12 is a list of abbreviations.
1 Introduction
5
Transport Networks Transport Networks
Transport Networks
The aim of this chapter is to give the reader a basic introduction to transport
networks; what they are, how they evolved and the technology advances that
have occurred including the emergence of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH). The reader should refer to Chapter 3 for a basic introduction to the terms
and concepts used in SDH.
Evolution of Transport Networks
How do individuals and organisations communicate with each other from far
sides of the world? How do our telephone calls, fax messages, the internet and
video conferences travel across the country or around the globe? A transport
network is the physical means by which this near instantaneous communication
is carried. So how has this global network evolved?
The global transport network began as a mechanism for transporting voice
conversations between telephone handsets. As telecommunications evolved the
type and volume of traffic carried has expanded and the requirements placed on
the transport network have increased. This in turn has driven the development of
transmission technology and the need for transport networks with a high degree
of intelligence. Reliable, flexible networks are required to transport a wide range
of services and to deliver those services at the level of quality demanded by end
users.
Figure 2-1 Video conference across the world
Traffic carried today on networks may be Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN) traffic such as circuit switched voice and data or packet switched data
traffic such as Internet Protocol (IP). Whatever the traffic type there is a need for
a physical transport layer to manage traffic on the network infrastructure which
is typically optical fibre. SDH (along with the North American equivalent,
SONET) is the dominant physical layer technology for optical fibre networks.
SDH is essentially a transport protocol; it is the physical bearer layer of the
network carrying different traffic types and applications between destinations.
These traffic applications can vary from private circuits and Plesiochronous
Digital Hierarchy (PDH) traffic through to Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), Internet Protocol (IP) and data networks. SDH is a major network
development and enabling technology for services in a competitive
environment. Fundamentally new concepts are introduced into the transport
network by SDH, but to understand these we must first outline how transport
networks have evolved.
2
5 6
2 Transport Networks
7 6 7 6
Transport Networks
The aim of this chapter is to give the reader a basic introduction to transport
networks; what they are, how they evolved and the technology advances that
have occurred including the emergence of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH). The reader should refer to Chapter 3 for a basic introduction to the terms
and concepts used in SDH.
Evolution of Transport Networks
How do individuals and organisations communicate with each other from far
sides of the world? How do our telephone calls, fax messages, the internet and
video conferences travel across the country or around the globe? A transport
network is the physical means by which this near instantaneous communication
is carried. So how has this global network evolved?
The global transport network began as a mechanism for transporting voice
conversations between telephone handsets. As telecommunications evolved the
type and volume of traffic carried has expanded and the requirements placed on
the transport network have increased. This in turn has driven the development of
transmission technology and the need for transport networks with a high degree
of intelligence. Reliable, flexible networks are required to transport a wide range
of services and to deliver those services at the level of quality demanded by end
users.
Figure 2-1 Video conference across the world
Traffic carried today on networks may be Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN) traffic such as circuit switched voice and data or packet switched data
traffic such as Internet Protocol (IP). Whatever the traffic type there is a need for
a physical transport layer to manage traffic on the network infrastructure which
is typically optical fibre. SDH (along with the North American equivalent,
SONET) is the dominant physical layer technology for optical fibre networks.
SDH is essentially a transport protocol; it is the physical bearer layer of the
network carrying different traffic types and applications between destinations.
These traffic applications can vary from private circuits and Plesiochronous
Digital Hierarchy (PDH) traffic through to Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), Internet Protocol (IP) and data networks. SDH is a major network
development and enabling technology for services in a competitive
environment. Fundamentally new concepts are introduced into the transport
network by SDH, but to understand these we must first outline how transport
networks have evolved.
2
5 6
7 6 7 6
Simple Telephone Networks
Communication systems began as permanent point to point connections
between two subscribers. These connections carried telephone conversations
from one person to another. It is not difficult to imagine that other people would
want to be included in the system and that each subscriber would want to have
access to all other subscribers when necessary.
Initially each pair of subscribers were connected by a dedicated telephone line
as in Figure 2-2 (a).
Figure 2-2 Point to point and operator networks
As the number of subscribers grew the number of connections required rapidly
increased so dedicated lines very quickly became impractical. A central point
emerged to which all subscribers were connected. At this central point any two
subscribers could be interconnected when it was demanded, but only when it
was demanded, as shown in Figure 2-2 (b). For example when A demands to
speak to C a semi-permanent connection was made between A and C for the
duration of the call. This is the simple function of a switch and from this basic
function telephone exchanges evolved.
Figure 2-3 Early telephone exchange
As more people wanted to be connected to the exchange and the geographical
scope of these telephone networks increased, it became necessary to have
hierarchies of exchanges as shown in Figure 2-4.
These exchanges were typically interconnected by simple point to point
transmission links; this was the transport network. The intelligence of the
network was in the exchange where switching took place, rather than the
transport links themselves. These networks were adequate, although not optimal
for the transport of voice, fax and modem.
A
B
C D
E
A
B
C D
E
Permanent connection
from A to C
Operator makes connection
from A to C for the
duration of the call
(a) 10 transport links (b) 5 transport links
7 8
9 8 9 8
Simple Telephone Networks
Communication systems began as permanent point to point connections
between two subscribers. These connections carried telephone conversations
from one person to another. It is not difficult to imagine that other people would
want to be included in the system and that each subscriber would want to have
access to all other subscribers when necessary.
Initially each pair of subscribers were connected by a dedicated telephone line
as in Figure 2-2 (a).
Figure 2-2 Point to point and operator networks
As the number of subscribers grew the number of connections required rapidly
increased so dedicated lines very quickly became impractical. A central point
emerged to which all subscribers were connected. At this central point any two
subscribers could be interconnected when it was demanded, but only when it
was demanded, as shown in Figure 2-2 (b). For example when A demands to
speak to C a semi-permanent connection was made between A and C for the
duration of the call. This is the simple function of a switch and from this basic
function telephone exchanges evolved.
Figure 2-3 Early telephone exchange
As more people wanted to be connected to the exchange and the geographical
scope of these telephone networks increased, it became necessary to have
hierarchies of exchanges as shown in Figure 2-4.
These exchanges were typically interconnected by simple point to point
transmission links; this was the transport network. The intelligence of the
network was in the exchange where switching took place, rather than the
transport links themselves. These networks were adequate, although not optimal
for the transport of voice, fax and modem.
A
B
C D
E
A
B
C D
E
Permanent connection
from A to C
Operator makes connection
from A to C for the
duration of the call
(a) 10 transport links (b) 5 transport links
7 8
9 8 9 8
Figure 2-4 Exchange hierarchy
The Transport Network Evolution
Transport networks are no longer just the simple point to point links between
exchanges. Operators and users now require intelligent, hierarchical
international networks.
The last few decades have seen an enormous growth in the amount of voice
traffic transported, increasing the load on networks. The most important driver
for the evolution of transport has, however, been the emergence of many
different types of traffic; new, non-voice, services mostly aimed at the business
customer. The personal computer and data explosion has placed demand on
networks not only in terms of traffic volume, but also reliability. The transport
of data files and internet traffic requires integrity so that software at the receiving
end can interpret files.
Businesses rely on these alternative services to maintain a competitive
advantage. They demand ever improved transmission quality, higher reliability
of service and more flexible connection patterns. With these demands a new
dimension of transport network has emerged.
The growth rates of voice services is now relatively low (less than 5% in most
countries), while some new non-voice services are growing by as much as 50%
each year. The higher margins associated with business customers means that
many network operators gain a disproportionate share of their income from
these alternative services. They are understandably keen to improve the quality
and flexibility of the transport network.
Characteristics of Modern Transport Networks
Some of the major developments which have enabled transport networks to meet
todays requirements are:
Digital Multiplexing
This was introduced over twenty years ago and enabled analogue speech signals
to be carried in a digital form over networks. Digital traffic can be carried much
more efficiently and enables performance monitoring for quality purposes.
Optical Fibre
This is commonly deployed in transport networks today. It has a much larger
traffic carrying capacity than copper or coaxial links and has driven down the
costs associated with carrying traffic.
Protection Schemes
These have been standardised to ensure a reliable service. Should a fault or fibre
break occur traffic can be switched to an alternative route, so the end user
experiences no disruption of service.
LE
LE LE LE LE LE LE LE
GSC
GSC GSC GSC
DSC DSC
MSC
Subscribers
MSC
DSC
GSC
LE
Main Switching Centre
Digital Switching Centre
Group Switching Centre
Local Exchange
KEY:
Point to point links
9 10
11 10 11 10
Figure 2-4 Exchange hierarchy
The Transport Network Evolution
Transport networks are no longer just the simple point to point links between
exchanges. Operators and users now require intelligent, hierarchical
international networks.
The last few decades have seen an enormous growth in the amount of voice
traffic transported, increasing the load on networks. The most important driver
for the evolution of transport has, however, been the emergence of many
different types of traffic; new, non-voice, services mostly aimed at the business
customer. The personal computer and data explosion has placed demand on
networks not only in terms of traffic volume, but also reliability. The transport
of data files and internet traffic requires integrity so that software at the receiving
end can interpret files.
Businesses rely on these alternative services to maintain a competitive
advantage. They demand ever improved transmission quality, higher reliability
of service and more flexible connection patterns. With these demands a new
dimension of transport network has emerged.
The growth rates of voice services is now relatively low (less than 5% in most
countries), while some new non-voice services are growing by as much as 50%
each year. The higher margins associated with business customers means that
many network operators gain a disproportionate share of their income from
these alternative services. They are understandably keen to improve the quality
and flexibility of the transport network.
Characteristics of Modern Transport Networks
Some of the major developments which have enabled transport networks to meet
todays requirements are:
Digital Multiplexing
This was introduced over twenty years ago and enabled analogue speech signals
to be carried in a digital form over networks. Digital traffic can be carried much
more efficiently and enables performance monitoring for quality purposes.
Optical Fibre
This is commonly deployed in transport networks today. It has a much larger
traffic carrying capacity than copper or coaxial links and has driven down the
costs associated with carrying traffic.
Protection Schemes
These have been standardised to ensure a reliable service. Should a fault or fibre
break occur traffic can be switched to an alternative route, so the end user
experiences no disruption of service.
LE
LE LE LE LE LE LE LE
GSC
GSC GSC GSC
DSC DSC
MSC
Subscribers
MSC
DSC
GSC
LE
Main Switching Centre
Digital Switching Centre
Group Switching Centre
Local Exchange
KEY:
Point to point links
9 10
11 10 11 10
Ring Topologies
These are being deployed in increasing numbers. This is because should a link
be lost, there is an alternative traffic path the other way around the ring.
Operators can minimise the number of links and optical fibre deployed in the
network. This is very important as the cost of putting new optical fibre cables in
the ground is so high.
Network Management
Management of these networks from a single remote site is an important feature
for operators. Software has been developed which allows all nodes and traffic
paths to be managed from a single site. An operator can now manage a variety
of functions such as provisioning capacity in response to customers demands
and monitoring the quality of the network.
Each of these topics will be discussed in their own right in subsequent chapters.
The rest of this chapter will discuss these major developments in greater detail.
Transmission Technology
Analogue Transmission
Until about 1970 transportation of voice signals was achieved by carrying
analogue signals over copper twisted pairs. Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) was used on long-haul routes to combine multiple traffic signals on a
single coaxial cable.
Digital Transmission
In the early 1970s digital transmission systems began to appear, utilising Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM) - first proposed by Alec Reeves of STC in 1937. PCM
enables analogue speech signals to be represented in a binary form. Using this
method it is possible to convert the standard 300 to 3400 Hz analogue telephone
bandwidth into a 64 kbit/s digital bit stream.
Figure 2-5 shows the principles of PCM. The analogue speech signals are
sampled, quantised (rounded to the nearest integer value) and then encoded to
give a binary pattern which faithfully represents the analogue speech signal from
which it was derived. This binary information can be passed through a digital
transmission system, after which the original analogue speech signal can then be
reconstituted.
Figure 2-5 Pulse Code Modulation
Time Division Multiplexing
Engineers saw the potential to produce more cost-effective transport systems by
combining several PCM channels and transmitting them down the same copper
twisted pair as had previously been occupied by a single analogue signal.
The method used to combine multiple 64 kbit/s digital bit streams into a single
high speed bit stream is known as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). In simple
terms, a byte from each incoming channel is transmitted in turn down the
outgoing higher speed channel, (see Figure 2-6). This process is sometimes
referred to as sequential byte interleaving.
In Europe and many other parts of the world, a standard TDM scheme was
adopted whereby thirty 64 kbit/s channels were combined with two additional
channels carrying control and signalling information, to produce a structure
with a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (for simplicity, referred to as 2 Mbit/s). As the
cost of digital electronics began to fall, major cost savings became possible
through the use of these techniques.
Sampler
0
20
15
10
5
011010010
Quantiser Encoder
11 12
13 12 13 12
Ring Topologies
These are being deployed in increasing numbers. This is because should a link
be lost, there is an alternative traffic path the other way around the ring.
Operators can minimise the number of links and optical fibre deployed in the
network. This is very important as the cost of putting new optical fibre cables in
the ground is so high.
Network Management
Management of these networks from a single remote site is an important feature
for operators. Software has been developed which allows all nodes and traffic
paths to be managed from a single site. An operator can now manage a variety
of functions such as provisioning capacity in response to customers demands
and monitoring the quality of the network.
Each of these topics will be discussed in their own right in subsequent chapters.
The rest of this chapter will discuss these major developments in greater detail.
Transmission Technology
Analogue Transmission
Until about 1970 transportation of voice signals was achieved by carrying
analogue signals over copper twisted pairs. Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) was used on long-haul routes to combine multiple traffic signals on a
single coaxial cable.
Digital Transmission
In the early 1970s digital transmission systems began to appear, utilising Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM) - first proposed by Alec Reeves of STC in 1937. PCM
enables analogue speech signals to be represented in a binary form. Using this
method it is possible to convert the standard 300 to 3400 Hz analogue telephone
bandwidth into a 64 kbit/s digital bit stream.
Figure 2-5 shows the principles of PCM. The analogue speech signals are
sampled, quantised (rounded to the nearest integer value) and then encoded to
give a binary pattern which faithfully represents the analogue speech signal from
which it was derived. This binary information can be passed through a digital
transmission system, after which the original analogue speech signal can then be
reconstituted.
Figure 2-5 Pulse Code Modulation
Time Division Multiplexing
Engineers saw the potential to produce more cost-effective transport systems by
combining several PCM channels and transmitting them down the same copper
twisted pair as had previously been occupied by a single analogue signal.
The method used to combine multiple 64 kbit/s digital bit streams into a single
high speed bit stream is known as Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). In simple
terms, a byte from each incoming channel is transmitted in turn down the
outgoing higher speed channel, (see Figure 2-6). This process is sometimes
referred to as sequential byte interleaving.
In Europe and many other parts of the world, a standard TDM scheme was
adopted whereby thirty 64 kbit/s channels were combined with two additional
channels carrying control and signalling information, to produce a structure
with a bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (for simplicity, referred to as 2 Mbit/s). As the
cost of digital electronics began to fall, major cost savings became possible
through the use of these techniques.
Sampler
0
20
15
10
5
011010010
Quantiser Encoder
11 12
13 12 13 12
Figure 2-6 Time Division Multiplexing
Digital Hierarchy
As demand for voice telephony increased, and levels of traffic in the network
grew ever higher. It became clear that the standard 2 Mbit/s signal was not
sufficient to cope with the traffic loads occurring in the trunk network. In order
to avoid having to use excessively large numbers of 2 Mbit/s links, it was
decided to create a further level of multiplexing. The standard adopted in Europe
involved the combination of four 2 Mbit/s channels to produce a single 8 Mbit/s
channel (more exactly, 8.448 Mbit/s). As the need arose, further levels of
multiplexing were added to the standard at 34 Mbit/s (34.368 Mbit/s),
140 Mbit/s (139.264 Mbit/s), and 565 Mbit/s (564.992 Mbit/s) to produce a full
hierarchy of bit rates.
While the European digital transmission hierarchy was being developed, similar
work was occurring in North America to develop their own hierarchy. Although
the same principles were used, the hierarchy which evolved differed
considerably in that its bit rates were 1.5 Mbit/s (1.544 Mbit/s), 6 Mbit/s
(6.312 Mbit/s), and 45 Mbit/s (44.736 Mbit/s). These differences were to make
interworking between the two hierarchies expensive to achieve. Figure 2-7
shows the comparison between the North American and European transmission
hierarchies.
Figure 2-7 European & North American Transmission Hierarchies
Plesiochronous Transmission
The multiplexing hierarchies described above appear simple enough in
principle, but in practice there are complications. You may have noticed that
multiplexing four 2.048 Mbit/s signals should result in an 8.192 Mbit/s signal
not 8.448 Mbit/s. There are also similar differences at the higher rate signals.
This is because when multiplexing a number of 2 Mbit/s channels they are likely
to have been created by different pieces of equipment, each generating a slightly
1
d
1
c
1
b
1
a
2
d
2
c
2
b
2
a
3
d
3
c
3
b
3
a
4
d
4
c
4
b
4
a
125 s
3
d
2
d
1
d
4
c
3
c
2
c
1
c
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
b
4
a
3
a
2
a
4
d
1
a
125 4 = 31.25 s
To line termination
equipment (LTE) for
transmission
Combined digital signal
running at 256 kbit/s,
showing how bytes
are interleaved
4 into 1 TDM
multiplexer
Analogue to
digital converter
Analogue voice
frequency inputs
Digitised voice channels,
running at 64 kbit/s. Each
channel has exactly the
same bit rate. Four bytes
(A, B, C, D) are shown for
each channel
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel 4
64 kbit/s
x30
x4
x4
x3
x7 x6
x4 x4
x3
* not recognised by ITU-T

x24
x4
DS1 DS2 DS3
DS0
Zero Order
First Order Second Order Third Order Fourth Order
1,544 kbit/s 6,312 kbit/s 44,736 kbit/s *
274,176 kbit/s
2,048 kbit/s 8,448 kbit/s 34,368 kbit/s 139,264 kbit/s
*
564,992 kbit/s
13 14
15 14 15 14
Figure 2-6 Time Division Multiplexing
Digital Hierarchy
As demand for voice telephony increased, and levels of traffic in the network
grew ever higher. It became clear that the standard 2 Mbit/s signal was not
sufficient to cope with the traffic loads occurring in the trunk network. In order
to avoid having to use excessively large numbers of 2 Mbit/s links, it was
decided to create a further level of multiplexing. The standard adopted in Europe
involved the combination of four 2 Mbit/s channels to produce a single 8 Mbit/s
channel (more exactly, 8.448 Mbit/s). As the need arose, further levels of
multiplexing were added to the standard at 34 Mbit/s (34.368 Mbit/s),
140 Mbit/s (139.264 Mbit/s), and 565 Mbit/s (564.992 Mbit/s) to produce a full
hierarchy of bit rates.
While the European digital transmission hierarchy was being developed, similar
work was occurring in North America to develop their own hierarchy. Although
the same principles were used, the hierarchy which evolved differed
considerably in that its bit rates were 1.5 Mbit/s (1.544 Mbit/s), 6 Mbit/s
(6.312 Mbit/s), and 45 Mbit/s (44.736 Mbit/s). These differences were to make
interworking between the two hierarchies expensive to achieve. Figure 2-7
shows the comparison between the North American and European transmission
hierarchies.
Figure 2-7 European & North American Transmission Hierarchies
Plesiochronous Transmission
The multiplexing hierarchies described above appear simple enough in
principle, but in practice there are complications. You may have noticed that
multiplexing four 2.048 Mbit/s signals should result in an 8.192 Mbit/s signal
not 8.448 Mbit/s. There are also similar differences at the higher rate signals.
This is because when multiplexing a number of 2 Mbit/s channels they are likely
to have been created by different pieces of equipment, each generating a slightly
1
d
1
c
1
b
1
a
2
d
2
c
2
b
2
a
3
d
3
c
3
b
3
a
4
d
4
c
4
b
4
a
125 s
3
d
2
d
1
d
4
c
3
c
2
c
1
c
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
b
4
a
3
a
2
a
4
d
1
a
125 4 = 31.25 s
To line termination
equipment (LTE) for
transmission
Combined digital signal
running at 256 kbit/s,
showing how bytes
are interleaved
4 into 1 TDM
multiplexer
Analogue to
digital converter
Analogue voice
frequency inputs
Digitised voice channels,
running at 64 kbit/s. Each
channel has exactly the
same bit rate. Four bytes
(A, B, C, D) are shown for
each channel
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel 4
64 kbit/s
x30
x4
x4
x3
x7 x6
x4 x4
x3
* not recognised by ITU-T

x24
x4
DS1 DS2 DS3
DS0
Zero Order
First Order Second Order Third Order Fourth Order
1,544 kbit/s 6,312 kbit/s 44,736 kbit/s *
274,176 kbit/s
2,048 kbit/s 8,448 kbit/s 34,368 kbit/s 139,264 kbit/s
*
564,992 kbit/s
13 14
15 14 15 14
different bit rate. Before the 2 Mbit/s channels can be bit interleaved they must
all be brought up to the same bit rate by adding dummy information bits, or
justification bits. The same problems with synchronisation as described above
occur at every level of the multiplexing hierarchy, so justification bits are added
at each stage. This process is known as plesiochronous operation, after the
Greek meaning almost synchronous and has led to the name Plesiochronous
Digital Hierarchy (PDH) being applied to this type of network. The operation of
a plesiochronous multiplexer is shown in Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8 Plesiochronous Multiplexing
The problem of flexibility in a plesiochronous network is illustrated by
considering what a network operator may need to do in order to be able to
provide a business customer with a 2 Mbit/s leased line. If a higher speed
structure passes near the customer, the operation of providing a single 2 Mbit/s
line from within the higher speed structure would seem straightforward enough.
In practice, however, it is not so simple.
The use of justification bits at each level in the PDH means that identifying the
exact location of the 32 channels that make up the 2 Mbit/s line within, for
example, a 140 Mbit/s structure is impossible. In order to access a single
2 Mbit/s line, the 140 Mbit/s structure must be completely demultiplexed down
to its 64 constituent 2 Mbit/s lines via 34 and 8 Mbit/s stages. Once the required
2 Mbit/s line has been identified and extracted, the remaining 2 Mbit/s lines
must then be multiplexed again up to 140 Mbit/s. This is shown in Figure 2-9.
Obviously this problem with the drop and insert of channels does not make for
very flexible connection patterns or rapid provisioning of services, while the
multiplexer mountains required are extremely expensive.
Figure 2-9 Plesiochronous Drop and Insert
This illustrates one of the main limitations of PDH; the inability to identify
individual channels in a high speed bit stream. Another limitation of PDH
relates to management; the PDH frame structure has insufficient provision for
carrying network management information. These limitations are not critical in
a network dominated by voice traffic, but as more sophisticated services become
popular, PDH can no longer cope.
4 3 2 1
3 2 1
4 3 2 1 J J
J 3 2 1 J J
master
oscillator
not many justification bits
added (two shown)
bit rate
adaptation
bit rate
adoption
many justification bits
added (three shown)
slow incoming
2 Mbit/s channel
bits
fast incoming
2 Mbit/s channel
Bit Interleaver
timing
Customer
2.048 Mbit/s
8.448 Mbit/s
34.368 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
LTE
140
34
34
8
8
2
140 Mbit/s
LTE
140
34
34
8
8
2
15 16
17 16 17 16
different bit rate. Before the 2 Mbit/s channels can be bit interleaved they must
all be brought up to the same bit rate by adding dummy information bits, or
justification bits. The same problems with synchronisation as described above
occur at every level of the multiplexing hierarchy, so justification bits are added
at each stage. This process is known as plesiochronous operation, after the
Greek meaning almost synchronous and has led to the name Plesiochronous
Digital Hierarchy (PDH) being applied to this type of network. The operation of
a plesiochronous multiplexer is shown in Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8 Plesiochronous Multiplexing
The problem of flexibility in a plesiochronous network is illustrated by
considering what a network operator may need to do in order to be able to
provide a business customer with a 2 Mbit/s leased line. If a higher speed
structure passes near the customer, the operation of providing a single 2 Mbit/s
line from within the higher speed structure would seem straightforward enough.
In practice, however, it is not so simple.
The use of justification bits at each level in the PDH means that identifying the
exact location of the 32 channels that make up the 2 Mbit/s line within, for
example, a 140 Mbit/s structure is impossible. In order to access a single
2 Mbit/s line, the 140 Mbit/s structure must be completely demultiplexed down
to its 64 constituent 2 Mbit/s lines via 34 and 8 Mbit/s stages. Once the required
2 Mbit/s line has been identified and extracted, the remaining 2 Mbit/s lines
must then be multiplexed again up to 140 Mbit/s. This is shown in Figure 2-9.
Obviously this problem with the drop and insert of channels does not make for
very flexible connection patterns or rapid provisioning of services, while the
multiplexer mountains required are extremely expensive.
Figure 2-9 Plesiochronous Drop and Insert
This illustrates one of the main limitations of PDH; the inability to identify
individual channels in a high speed bit stream. Another limitation of PDH
relates to management; the PDH frame structure has insufficient provision for
carrying network management information. These limitations are not critical in
a network dominated by voice traffic, but as more sophisticated services become
popular, PDH can no longer cope.
4 3 2 1
3 2 1
4 3 2 1 J J
J 3 2 1 J J
master
oscillator
not many justification bits
added (two shown)
bit rate
adaptation
bit rate
adoption
many justification bits
added (three shown)
slow incoming
2 Mbit/s channel
bits
fast incoming
2 Mbit/s channel
Bit Interleaver
timing
Customer
2.048 Mbit/s
8.448 Mbit/s
34.368 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
LTE
140
34
34
8
8
2
140 Mbit/s
LTE
140
34
34
8
8
2
15 16
17 16 17 16
The Emergence of SDH Standards
Synchronous transmission systems have been developed so that operators can
deploy flexible, resilient networks. The dropping and insertion of channels can
be achieved in a single multiplexer. Provision for a network management
capability is defined in the standards. In fact, a concerted standards effort has
been involved in the development of SDH. The opportunity of defining this set
of standards has been used to address a number of other problems. For example
the need to define standard interfaces between equipment for multi-vendor
interoperability and the need to facilitate interworking between North American
and European transmission hierarchies.
This standards work culminated in CCITT (now ITU-T) Recommendations
G.707, G.708, and G.709 covering the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy which
were published in 1989. In North America, ANSI published its SONET
standards, which can now be thought of as a subset of the worldwide SDH
standards.
The ITU-T recommendations define a number of basic transmission rates within
the SDH. The first of these is 155.52 Mbit/s, normally referred to as STM-1
(where STM stands for Synchronous Transport Module ). Higher transmission
rates of STM-4, STM-16 and STM-64 (622.08 Mbit/s, 2488.32 Mbit/s and
9953.28 Mbit/s respectively) are also defined, with further levels proposed for
study.
The recommendations also define a multiplexing structure whereby an STM-1
signal can carry a number of lower rate signals as a payload. Existing PDH
signals can be carried over this SDH network as a payload. This process will be
explained in more detail in the next chapter.
The Open Systems Interconnect Model
The seven layer Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model defined by the
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), is widely used to represent
the functions of different network systems and applications, interoperability
between equipment and interactions between networks. It can be used to
represent how these applications and protocols interact as it progresses through
the network.
Figure 2-10 The OSI model
Within this model SDH is essentially a transport protocol and is the dominant
technology for the physical or bearer layer. SDH can act as the physical bearer
layer for applications in layers 2 to 4 such as ATM or IP or act as layers 1 to 4
and transport higher level applications directly. Its role is to manage the
utilisation of the fibre infrastructure efficiently, detect failures and recover from
them transparently to the higher layers.
One of the most common network layer protocols is IP. Using this as an
example, IP routers are layer 3 network devices which work on an end to end
basis, routing and forwarding packets to their destination. Routers will
automatically discover network topology and select the best paths, however, to
ensure that these end to end paths are resilient to transient failures, such as the
loss of packets due to congestion, restoration based on routers is inherently slow.
The network therefore relies on the underlying layers, in particular the physical
SDH layer, to detect failures and restore traffic over a backup path in a very short
time. In the case of SDH this is typically 50 ms.
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
(typically IP)
(typically Frame Relay
(SDH)
Solution
Communications
The means of
establishing/
maintaining
a connection
Infrastructure
The
What the PC sees
or ATM)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
17 18
19 18 19 18
The Emergence of SDH Standards
Synchronous transmission systems have been developed so that operators can
deploy flexible, resilient networks. The dropping and insertion of channels can
be achieved in a single multiplexer. Provision for a network management
capability is defined in the standards. In fact, a concerted standards effort has
been involved in the development of SDH. The opportunity of defining this set
of standards has been used to address a number of other problems. For example
the need to define standard interfaces between equipment for multi-vendor
interoperability and the need to facilitate interworking between North American
and European transmission hierarchies.
This standards work culminated in CCITT (now ITU-T) Recommendations
G.707, G.708, and G.709 covering the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy which
were published in 1989. In North America, ANSI published its SONET
standards, which can now be thought of as a subset of the worldwide SDH
standards.
The ITU-T recommendations define a number of basic transmission rates within
the SDH. The first of these is 155.52 Mbit/s, normally referred to as STM-1
(where STM stands for Synchronous Transport Module ). Higher transmission
rates of STM-4, STM-16 and STM-64 (622.08 Mbit/s, 2488.32 Mbit/s and
9953.28 Mbit/s respectively) are also defined, with further levels proposed for
study.
The recommendations also define a multiplexing structure whereby an STM-1
signal can carry a number of lower rate signals as a payload. Existing PDH
signals can be carried over this SDH network as a payload. This process will be
explained in more detail in the next chapter.
The Open Systems Interconnect Model
The seven layer Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model defined by the
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), is widely used to represent
the functions of different network systems and applications, interoperability
between equipment and interactions between networks. It can be used to
represent how these applications and protocols interact as it progresses through
the network.
Figure 2-10 The OSI model
Within this model SDH is essentially a transport protocol and is the dominant
technology for the physical or bearer layer. SDH can act as the physical bearer
layer for applications in layers 2 to 4 such as ATM or IP or act as layers 1 to 4
and transport higher level applications directly. Its role is to manage the
utilisation of the fibre infrastructure efficiently, detect failures and recover from
them transparently to the higher layers.
One of the most common network layer protocols is IP. Using this as an
example, IP routers are layer 3 network devices which work on an end to end
basis, routing and forwarding packets to their destination. Routers will
automatically discover network topology and select the best paths, however, to
ensure that these end to end paths are resilient to transient failures, such as the
loss of packets due to congestion, restoration based on routers is inherently slow.
The network therefore relies on the underlying layers, in particular the physical
SDH layer, to detect failures and restore traffic over a backup path in a very short
time. In the case of SDH this is typically 50 ms.
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
(typically IP)
(typically Frame Relay
(SDH)
Solution
Communications
The means of
establishing/
maintaining
a connection
Infrastructure
The
What the PC sees
or ATM)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
17 18
19 18 19 18
SDH to the Operator
SDH is not just the current technology most common in transmission systems,
it has also brought about a new dimension in the transport network itself. SDH
Systems and Standards have been developed to ensure that the needs of the
operator are met. So what are these requirements which other technologies
cannot meet?
Reliability
Operators rely on the protection schemes of SDH to offer their customers high
availability of service and guarantee high levels of network performance.
Growth to High Capacity and Bandwidth Management
As the operators business grows the traffic carried by an operator will grow in
volume and type, so the network must adapt, have a flexible architecture and
manage bandwidth to ensure efficient utilisation of the fibre infrastructure. The
architecture of SDH networks commonly consists of tiers or layers and the
functionality depends on the tier. For example the highest layer is often referred
to as the backbone and will carry high speed traffic over long distances. SDH
technology now offers very high capacity systems to accommodate this traffic
such as STM-64 bit rate and integrated Wave Division Multiplex (WDM)
solutions.
Flexibility
Operators need to offer their customers flexibility by adjusting the network to
accommodate changes in traffic patterns. SDH network elements must offer a
variety of functions and be easily configured. Today SDH network elements are
often universal offering add/drop multiplexing with cross-connect capabilities
to allow the routing and grooming of traffic.
Synchronisation
Network operators must deliver synchronised timing to all the nodes in the
network to ensure that information passed from one node to another is not lost.
Synchronisation is of growing concern to operators with advances in technology
which are increasingly sensitive to timing (Fax, data, ATM, video compression).
Synchronisation is becoming more critical as SDH provides an ideal way of
networking.
Network Management
Software control operators must ensure a reliable service for their customers. It
is essential that the network can monitor the performance and quality of links at
a central site so that it can be rapidly adapted in the event of a failure. As
operators gain more customers they must be able to remotely provision traffic
circuits for these customers from a remote site. Provision of software channels
within the SDH format, allows this software control to be implemented.
Each of the topics highlighted are considered in greater detail in subsequent
chapters of this book.
19 20
21 20 21 20
SDH to the Operator
SDH is not just the current technology most common in transmission systems,
it has also brought about a new dimension in the transport network itself. SDH
Systems and Standards have been developed to ensure that the needs of the
operator are met. So what are these requirements which other technologies
cannot meet?
Reliability
Operators rely on the protection schemes of SDH to offer their customers high
availability of service and guarantee high levels of network performance.
Growth to High Capacity and Bandwidth Management
As the operators business grows the traffic carried by an operator will grow in
volume and type, so the network must adapt, have a flexible architecture and
manage bandwidth to ensure efficient utilisation of the fibre infrastructure. The
architecture of SDH networks commonly consists of tiers or layers and the
functionality depends on the tier. For example the highest layer is often referred
to as the backbone and will carry high speed traffic over long distances. SDH
technology now offers very high capacity systems to accommodate this traffic
such as STM-64 bit rate and integrated Wave Division Multiplex (WDM)
solutions.
Flexibility
Operators need to offer their customers flexibility by adjusting the network to
accommodate changes in traffic patterns. SDH network elements must offer a
variety of functions and be easily configured. Today SDH network elements are
often universal offering add/drop multiplexing with cross-connect capabilities
to allow the routing and grooming of traffic.
Synchronisation
Network operators must deliver synchronised timing to all the nodes in the
network to ensure that information passed from one node to another is not lost.
Synchronisation is of growing concern to operators with advances in technology
which are increasingly sensitive to timing (Fax, data, ATM, video compression).
Synchronisation is becoming more critical as SDH provides an ideal way of
networking.
Network Management
Software control operators must ensure a reliable service for their customers. It
is essential that the network can monitor the performance and quality of links at
a central site so that it can be rapidly adapted in the event of a failure. As
operators gain more customers they must be able to remotely provision traffic
circuits for these customers from a remote site. Provision of software channels
within the SDH format, allows this software control to be implemented.
Each of the topics highlighted are considered in greater detail in subsequent
chapters of this book.
19 20
21 20 21 20
Basics of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Basics of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
Basics of the Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy
SDH and the North American equivalent, SONET are the dominant
technologies in the physical transport layer of todays optical fibre networks.
Their role is to transport and manage many traffic types over the physical
infrastructure. The protocol for this is defined by the SDH standards and the
terms SDH transmission and SDH transport are in common use to describe
traffic conforming to these standards.
With reference to the seven layer OSI model outlined in Chapter 2, SDH is
commonly viewed as layer 1, the physical transport layer protocol. In this role
it acts as the physical bearer for applications in layers 2 to 4, that is, it is the way
in which traffic in higher layers such as ATM and IP is transported. In simple
terms consider SDH transmission as a pipe which carries t raffic in the form of
packages of information . These packages are the applications such as PDH,
ATM or IP.
Figure 3-1 SDH Transmission Pipe
SDH allows for the transport of many different types of traffic; voice, video,
multimedia and packet based data applications such as IP. Its role, however, is
essentially the same, to manage the utilisation of the fibre infrastructure. This
means managing the bandwidth efficiently whilst carrying a variety of traffic
types, to detect failures and recover from them transparently to the higher layers.
The aim of the first part of this chapter is to provide those new to the subject of
SDH and transmission with an explanation of the terms and concepts commonly
used in SDH.
The second part of the chapter will explain the SDH multiplexing structure in
simple terms, that is how and in what form information is conveyed over the
SDH hierarchy.
Terms and concepts
Basic Terminology
A Transport Network can be viewed as the links and associated equipment
which enable traffic to be carried between customers or nodes in a network. At
these nodes a higher layer function may be carried out, such as switching or
routing. Remember that many links may connect different nodes or customers
and these may share the same particular physical transport link. Capacity on this
transport link can be reserved. For example, an end customer may lease a certain
amount of dedicated capacity from the operator, termed a leased line or private
circuit.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) has been defined in Chapter 2. In simple
terms several digital streams of information are combined by taking a byte of
information from each incoming channel in turn and transmitting these signals
on the same channel at a higher speed. This method is used to combine 64 kbit/s
digital channels into a single high speed bit stream (usually 2 Mbit/s).
Network elements are equipments located at each node in the SDH transport
network, which perform some function on the traffic carried such as
multiplexing or routing. Chapter 4 describes network elements and their
functions in more detail.
3
ATM
Traffic
PDH
Traffic
PDH
Traffic
IP
Traffic
SDH PIPE
21 22
3 Basics of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
23 22 23 22
Basics of the Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy
SDH and the North American equivalent, SONET are the dominant
technologies in the physical transport layer of todays optical fibre networks.
Their role is to transport and manage many traffic types over the physical
infrastructure. The protocol for this is defined by the SDH standards and the
terms SDH transmission and SDH transport are in common use to describe
traffic conforming to these standards.
With reference to the seven layer OSI model outlined in Chapter 2, SDH is
commonly viewed as layer 1, the physical transport layer protocol. In this role
it acts as the physical bearer for applications in layers 2 to 4, that is, it is the way
in which traffic in higher layers such as ATM and IP is transported. In simple
terms consider SDH transmission as a pipe which carries t raffic in the form of
packages of information . These packages are the applications such as PDH,
ATM or IP.
Figure 3-1 SDH Transmission Pipe
SDH allows for the transport of many different types of traffic; voice, video,
multimedia and packet based data applications such as IP. Its role, however, is
essentially the same, to manage the utilisation of the fibre infrastructure. This
means managing the bandwidth efficiently whilst carrying a variety of traffic
types, to detect failures and recover from them transparently to the higher layers.
The aim of the first part of this chapter is to provide those new to the subject of
SDH and transmission with an explanation of the terms and concepts commonly
used in SDH.
The second part of the chapter will explain the SDH multiplexing structure in
simple terms, that is how and in what form information is conveyed over the
SDH hierarchy.
Terms and concepts
Basic Terminology
A Transport Network can be viewed as the links and associated equipment
which enable traffic to be carried between customers or nodes in a network. At
these nodes a higher layer function may be carried out, such as switching or
routing. Remember that many links may connect different nodes or customers
and these may share the same particular physical transport link. Capacity on this
transport link can be reserved. For example, an end customer may lease a certain
amount of dedicated capacity from the operator, termed a leased line or private
circuit.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) has been defined in Chapter 2. In simple
terms several digital streams of information are combined by taking a byte of
information from each incoming channel in turn and transmitting these signals
on the same channel at a higher speed. This method is used to combine 64 kbit/s
digital channels into a single high speed bit stream (usually 2 Mbit/s).
Network elements are equipments located at each node in the SDH transport
network, which perform some function on the traffic carried such as
multiplexing or routing. Chapter 4 describes network elements and their
functions in more detail.
3
ATM
Traffic
PDH
Traffic
PDH
Traffic
IP
Traffic
SDH PIPE
21 22
23 22 23 22
A tributary is a stream of traffic which is combined along with other tributary
streams by the multiplexing function to give a smaller number of output traffic
streams, see Figure 3-2.
An aggregate signal is the term associated with the output traffic stream, see
Figure 3-2.
.
Figure 3-2 Multiplexing Function
The tributaries of an SDH network element are the traffic interfaces into the
SDH network. SDH network elements support many non-SDH tributaries
enabling the efficient transport of many traffic types. For example at the lower
or access layer of the network, an SDH network element may offer some of the
following tributaries to carry traffic directly:
PDH rate interfaces such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s and 140 Mbit/s
Analogue voice interfaces
Ethernet interfaces to take in direct IP and data from LANs
ISDN/ HDSL (High-speed Digital Subscriber Line) interfaces
The Synchronous Transport Module
So how are these tributary signals conveyed in SDH? The following section
shows how information is packaged into a synchronous transport module in
order that it can be transported and managed across the network.
A Container is the basic element of the SDH signal. It consists of the bytes of
information from a PDH signal which are packaged into a container. There are
several types of container, each corresponding to a to a PDH signal rate.
The Path Overhead. Each container has some control information associated
with it. This information is generated at the originating node of the path and is
terminated at the termination node of the path. The information allows the
operator to label the traffic so as to trace the signal through the network and
identify it for protection and performance monitoring purposes.
Virtual Container refers to the package of the container and its associated path
overhead. Returning to the pipe analogy, the virtual container can be viewed as
the PDH traffic package which is carried along the SDH pipe .
There are different types of Virtual Container or VC. A VC-12 is built up of a
C-12 container which contains a 2 Mbit/s PDH signal, a VC-3 carries a C-3
container which contains a 34 Mbit/s PDH signal and a VC-4 carries a
140 Mbit/s PDH signal in a C-4 container. This is described in detail in the
following sections.
SDH
(e.g. STM-1)
PDH
signals
(e.g. 2, 34 M)
IP LAN
traffic
ATM
aggregate traffic
STM-n (e.g. STM-4)
aggregate traffic
STM-n (e.g. STM-4)
Tributary traffic
Container
Container
Path overhead
Container
Path
ovhd
Virtual Container
23 24
25 24 25 24
A tributary is a stream of traffic which is combined along with other tributary
streams by the multiplexing function to give a smaller number of output traffic
streams, see Figure 3-2.
An aggregate signal is the term associated with the output traffic stream, see
Figure 3-2.
.
Figure 3-2 Multiplexing Function
The tributaries of an SDH network element are the traffic interfaces into the
SDH network. SDH network elements support many non-SDH tributaries
enabling the efficient transport of many traffic types. For example at the lower
or access layer of the network, an SDH network element may offer some of the
following tributaries to carry traffic directly:
PDH rate interfaces such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s and 140 Mbit/s
Analogue voice interfaces
Ethernet interfaces to take in direct IP and data from LANs
ISDN/ HDSL (High-speed Digital Subscriber Line) interfaces
The Synchronous Transport Module
So how are these tributary signals conveyed in SDH? The following section
shows how information is packaged into a synchronous transport module in
order that it can be transported and managed across the network.
A Container is the basic element of the SDH signal. It consists of the bytes of
information from a PDH signal which are packaged into a container. There are
several types of container, each corresponding to a to a PDH signal rate.
The Path Overhead. Each container has some control information associated
with it. This information is generated at the originating node of the path and is
terminated at the termination node of the path. The information allows the
operator to label the traffic so as to trace the signal through the network and
identify it for protection and performance monitoring purposes.
Virtual Container refers to the package of the container and its associated path
overhead. Returning to the pipe analogy, the virtual container can be viewed as
the PDH traffic package which is carried along the SDH pipe .
There are different types of Virtual Container or VC. A VC-12 is built up of a
C-12 container which contains a 2 Mbit/s PDH signal, a VC-3 carries a C-3
container which contains a 34 Mbit/s PDH signal and a VC-4 carries a
140 Mbit/s PDH signal in a C-4 container. This is described in detail in the
following sections.
SDH
(e.g. STM-1)
PDH
signals
(e.g. 2, 34 M)
IP LAN
traffic
ATM
aggregate traffic
STM-n (e.g. STM-4)
aggregate traffic
STM-n (e.g. STM-4)
Tributary traffic
Container
Container
Path overhead
Container
Path
ovhd
Virtual Container
23 24
25 24 25 24
Nesting: a virtual container can contain other virtual containers and this is
referred to as nesting. For example a VC-4 can be packaged with 63 VC-12s.
This simplifies the transport and management of this signal across the network.
Synchronous Transport Modules: a signal is packaged in a virtual container,
but how is it actually transported on the transport link? To actually carry the
virtual containers over the network several of them are placed in a Synchronous
Transport Module or STM.
The virtual containers are placed in the payload area of the STM. Going back
to the initial analogy, the STMs can be visualised as pipes which make up the
network and the virtual container as the packages which are carried through the
pipes.
The basic unit of SDH is the STM-1 frame. Four STM-1 frames are interleaved
or multiplexed to give an STM-4 frame which has a faster rate of transmission.
STM-16 and STM-64 offer even higher rates and so transport a greater number
of signals in a payload. So STM-4, STM-16 and STM-64 can be visualised as
increasingly fatter pipes as shown in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3 STM Traffic Pipes
Section overhead: information bytes are added to the STM frame providing a
communication channel between adjacent nodes enabling control of
transmission over the link. It allows the two nodes to talk to each other so that
in the event of a section failure, for example, protection switching occurs.
VC-12 VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-4
Virtual Containers
Payload Area
Synchronous Transport Module
STM-1
STM-4
STM-64
Virtual Containers
Payload Area
Section
Overhead
25 26
27 26 27 26
pipes.
VC-12 VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-4
Virtual Containers
Payload Area
STM-1
STM-4
STM-64
Virtual Containers
Payload Area
Section
Overhead
25 26
27 26 27 26
pipes.
VC-12 VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
VC-4
Virtual Containers
Payload Area
STM-1
STM-4
STM-64
Virtual Containers
Payload Area
Section
Overhead
25 26
A Path or Trail is used to refer to the end to end circuit for the traffic, this is the
route taken by a virtual container across the network.
A Section is defined as the transport link between two adjacent nodes. A path
is comprised of a number of sections.
Figure 3-4 shows the relationship between path and sections.
Figure 3-4 Paths and Sections
Going back to our initial analogy of a pipe, the sections can be visualised as the
lengths of pipe between the network element nodes and the path as the route
the virtual container packages take over these sections of pipe. The end users
traffic will be transported in virtual container packages on a certain path, over
several pipe sections. (This is a simplistic definition, in fact paths and sections
are different layers of the transport network, this is explained in Chapter 5.)
An STM is dedicated to a single section, hence the section overhead is processed
in each node and a new STM with new overhead is constructed for the next
section. The virtual container in contrast follows a path over several sections, so
the path overhead remains with the container on its end to end path.
Example of SDH Multiplexing
Summarising the previous section, information will enter the SDH network as a
digital stream of information. Information from this signal is mapped into a
container, each container then has some control information added, known as
the path overhead. The combination of this signal and the overhead is referred to
as a virtual container. The virtual containers form the payload of the
Synchronous Transport Module (STM) which also has control information
called the section overhead.
Figure 3-5 Example of SDH Multiplexing
Section
Section
Section
Path
SDH Local
Network
SDH Regional
Network
SDH Backbone
Network
London
Edinburgh
2 Mbit/s
STM-1
STM-1
STM-4
STM-16/64
SDH Regional
Network
STM-4
SDH Local
Network
STM-1
VC-12
STM-4
STM-16/64
2 Mbit/s
27 28
29 28 29 28
A Path or Trail is used to refer to the end to end circuit for the traffic, this is the
route taken by a virtual container across the network.
A Section is defined as the transport link between two adjacent nodes. A path
is comprised of a number of sections.
Figure 3-4 shows the relationship between path and sections.
Figure 3-4 Paths and Sections
Going back to our initial analogy of a pipe, the sections can be visualised as the
lengths of pipe between the network element nodes and the path as the route
the virtual container packages take over these sections of pipe. The end users
traffic will be transported in virtual container packages on a certain path, over
several pipe sections. (This is a simplistic definition, in fact paths and sections
are different layers of the transport network, this is explained in Chapter 5.)
An STM is dedicated to a single section, hence the section overhead is processed
in each node and a new STM with new overhead is constructed for the next
section. The virtual container in contrast follows a path over several sections, so
the path overhead remains with the container on its end to end path.
Example of SDH Multiplexing
Summarising the previous section, information will enter the SDH network as a
digital stream of information. Information from this signal is mapped into a
container, each container then has some control information added, known as
the path overhead. The combination of this signal and the overhead is referred to
as a virtual container. The virtual containers form the payload of the
Synchronous Transport Module (STM) which also has control information
called the section overhead.
Figure 3-5 Example of SDH Multiplexing
Section
Section
Section
Path
SDH Local
Network
SDH Regional
Network
SDH Backbone
Network
London
Edinburgh
2 Mbit/s
STM-1
STM-1
STM-4
STM-16/64
SDH Regional
Network
STM-4
SDH Local
Network
STM-1
VC-12
STM-4
STM-16/64
2 Mbit/s
27 28
29 28 29 28
Referring to Figure 3-5:
(1) Information enters the network as a 2 Mbit/s digital stream. It will be
accommodated in a VC-12 virtual container.
(2) An SDH network element will multiplex this signal along with other
tributary signals into a faster rate aggregate signal. In this example this is an
STM-1 signal at 155 Mbit/s. This is in the SDH local network.
(3) This signal can then be further multiplexed to give an STM-4 signal at
622 Mbit/s in the next layer and so on up to STM-64 when it is carried at
10 GBit/s. At this fast rate many signals can be transported in a single fibre, this
is referred to as the backbone network and will transport the information to
anywhere in the country.
(4) The 2 Mbit/s signal can be extracted and delivered to its destination or if the
destination is a terminating equipment, the aggregate signal is demultiplexed to
retrieve the 2 Mbit/s signal.
The SDH multiplexing structure defines the standard routes for mapping the
signal containers into an STM, the basic unit of which is an STM-1 frame
(155 Mbit/s). A number of other basic transmission rates are defined, related by
a multiplication factor of four. These are 622 Mbit/s known as STM-4,
2.5 Gbit/s known as STM-16 and 10 Gbit/s or STM-64, with further levels
proposed for study
But why increase the rate of transmission from STM-1 (155 Mbit/s) to STM-16
(2.5 Gbit/s) or STM-64 (10 Gbit/s)? To transport information from one end of
the country to another requires a fibre from one end to the other. Installing fibre
is very expensive, so to limit the fibre deployed, it is important to carry as much
information on one fibre as possible, that is, transport at a faster rate.
Explanation of the Multiplexing Structure
The SDH multiplexing structure defines how information is packaged to build
an STM-1 frame. This route for mapping containers into an STM-N signal is
defined in the ITU-T recommendations. An overview follows, for a more
detailed description refer to Chapter 5.
We have said that virtual containers are packaged into STMs by network
elements. For the network element at the far end to extract a virtual container it
must know the exact location of the virtual container within the payload of the
STM. A pointer denotes this location. In a synchronous network all the
equipment is synchronised to an overall network clock. The timing of the
plesiochronous signals that make up the virtual container may vary in frequency
and/or phase from the network clock. As a result, the location of a virtual
container within the STM frame may not be fixed, so a pointer is associated with
each virtual container to indicate its position within the STM payload.
SDH Frame: STM-1, the basic element of SDH, comprises 2430 bytes of
information. This is arranged in an array of 270 columns by 9 rows. Within this
is contained the STM-1 payload, pointers and section overhead.
The make up of the STM payload is defined by the SDH mapping structure.
Customers transmission rates are mapped into containers (C) and a path
overhead (POH) added to give a virtual container (VC). These are formed into
tributary units (TU) which consist of the virtual container plus pointer. The
pointer indicates the position of virtual container within the tributary unit.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
AU Pointer(s)
STM-1 Payload
9 Rows
(RSOH)
Section
Overhead
(MSOH)
Section
Overhead
270 Columns (Bytes)
29 30
31 30 31 30
Referring to Figure 3-5:
(1) Information enters the network as a 2 Mbit/s digital stream. It will be
accommodated in a VC-12 virtual container.
(2) An SDH network element will multiplex this signal along with other
tributary signals into a faster rate aggregate signal. In this example this is an
STM-1 signal at 155 Mbit/s. This is in the SDH local network.
(3) This signal can then be further multiplexed to give an STM-4 signal at
622 Mbit/s in the next layer and so on up to STM-64 when it is carried at
10 GBit/s. At this fast rate many signals can be transported in a single fibre, this
is referred to as the backbone network and will transport the information to
anywhere in the country.
(4) The 2 Mbit/s signal can be extracted and delivered to its destination or if the
destination is a terminating equipment, the aggregate signal is demultiplexed to
retrieve the 2 Mbit/s signal.
The SDH multiplexing structure defines the standard routes for mapping the
signal containers into an STM, the basic unit of which is an STM-1 frame
(155 Mbit/s). A number of other basic transmission rates are defined, related by
a multiplication factor of four. These are 622 Mbit/s known as STM-4,
2.5 Gbit/s known as STM-16 and 10 Gbit/s or STM-64, with further levels
proposed for study
But why increase the rate of transmission from STM-1 (155 Mbit/s) to STM-16
(2.5 Gbit/s) or STM-64 (10 Gbit/s)? To transport information from one end of
the country to another requires a fibre from one end to the other. Installing fibre
is very expensive, so to limit the fibre deployed, it is important to carry as much
information on one fibre as possible, that is, transport at a faster rate.
Explanation of the Multiplexing Structure
The SDH multiplexing structure defines how information is packaged to build
an STM-1 frame. This route for mapping containers into an STM-N signal is
defined in the ITU-T recommendations. An overview follows, for a more
detailed description refer to Chapter 5.
We have said that virtual containers are packaged into STMs by network
elements. For the network element at the far end to extract a virtual container it
must know the exact location of the virtual container within the payload of the
STM. A pointer denotes this location. In a synchronous network all the
equipment is synchronised to an overall network clock. The timing of the
plesiochronous signals that make up the virtual container may vary in frequency
and/or phase from the network clock. As a result, the location of a virtual
container within the STM frame may not be fixed, so a pointer is associated with
each virtual container to indicate its position within the STM payload.
SDH Frame: STM-1, the basic element of SDH, comprises 2430 bytes of
information. This is arranged in an array of 270 columns by 9 rows. Within this
is contained the STM-1 payload, pointers and section overhead.
The make up of the STM payload is defined by the SDH mapping structure.
Customers transmission rates are mapped into containers (C) and a path
overhead (POH) added to give a virtual container (VC). These are formed into
tributary units (TU) which consist of the virtual container plus pointer. The
pointer indicates the position of virtual container within the tributary unit.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
AU Pointer(s)
STM-1 Payload
9 Rows
(RSOH)
Section
Overhead
(MSOH)
Section
Overhead
270 Columns (Bytes)
29 30
31 30 31 30
The tributary units are packed into tributary unit groups (TUGs) and
administrative unit groups (AUGs) according to the SDH multiplexing
structure rules shown in Figure 3-6. Note that this sequential packaging can
result in the nesting of smaller virtual containers within larger ones.
Figure 3-6 SDH Multiplexing Structure
Network Simplification. The SDH multiplexing rules ensure that the exact
position of the virtual container within the payload can be identified at each
node. This has the advantage that each node can directly access any virtual
container in the payload without the need to unpack and pack the whole payload.
The multiplexer mountains which were a feature of PDH networks are no
longer required.
Using the Multiplex Structure. Following the multiplexing structure an
STM-1 signal can be formed in different ways. The VC-4 which will form the
payload of the STM frame could contain: one 140 Mbit/s signals, three
34 Mbit/s signals, 63 2 Mbit/s signals or combinations of the above, provided
the overall capacity is not exceeded.
Higher order rates: When a transmission rate higher than STM-1 is required,
it is achieved by using a simple byte-interleaved multiplexing scheme to achieve
rates of 622 Mbit/s (STM-4), 2.5 Gbit/s (STM-16) and 10 Gbit/s STM-64). The
standardised rates are summarised in the following table.
Introduction to Network Management
Network elements perform the multiplexing and routing of traffic from end
customers to carry it across the network, but how does the telecom operator
control this? The SDH frame structure contains channels which can be used to
fully control the network remotely by software. The network can be configured
and monitored from a central point, this is the function of network management.
An operator needs to be able to provide circuits rapidly for their customers as
traffic patterns change. They also need to be able to monitor these circuits and
STM-N AUG AU-4
x N x 1
x 3
TUG-3
AU-3 VC-3
x 3
TU-3 VC-3
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2
TU-12
TU-11
VC-12
VC-11
C-3
C-2
C-12
C-11
C-4
x 1
x 7
x 7
x 1
x 3
x 4
139264
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
44736
34368
6312
2048
1544
pointer processing
multiplexing
aligning
mapping
SONET specific options
ETSI specific options
VC-4
Table 3-1 SDH Transmission Rates
Bit Rate PDH Europe SDH
Name Container Transport
10 Gbit/s STM-64
2.5 GBit/s STM-16
622 MBit/s STM-4
155 MBit/s STM-1
140 MBit/s E4 VC-4
34 MBit/s E3 VC-3
8 Mbit/s E2
2 MBit/s E1 VC-12
64 kBit/s E0
31 32
33 32 33 32
The tributary units are packed into tributary unit groups (TUGs) and
administrative unit groups (AUGs) according to the SDH multiplexing
structure rules shown in Figure 3-6. Note that this sequential packaging can
result in the nesting of smaller virtual containers within larger ones.
Network Simplification. The SDH multiplexing rules ensure that the exact
position of the virtual container within the payload can be identified at each
node. This has the advantage that each node can directly access any virtual
container in the payload without the need to unpack and pack the whole payload.
The multiplexer mountains which were a feature of PDH networks are no
longer required.
Using the Multiplex Structure. Following the multiplexing structure an
STM-1 signal can be formed in different ways. The VC-4 which will form the
payload of the STM frame could contain: one 140 Mbit/s signals, three
34 Mbit/s signals, 63 2 Mbit/s signals or combinations of the above, provided
the overall capacity is not exceeded.
Higher order rates: When a transmission rate higher than STM-1 is required,
it is achieved by using a simple byte-interleaved multiplexing scheme to achieve
rates of 622 Mbit/s (STM-4), 2.5 Gbit/s (STM-16) and 10 Gbit/s STM-64). The
standardised rates are summarised in the following table.
Introduction to Network Management
Network elements perform the multiplexing and routing of traffic from end
customers to carry it across the network, but how does the telecom operator
control this? The SDH frame structure contains channels which can be used to
fully control the network remotely by software. The network can be configured
and monitored from a central point, this is the function of network management.
An operator needs to be able to provide circuits rapidly for their customers as
traffic patterns change. They also need to be able to monitor these circuits and
STM-N AUG AU-4
x N x 1
x 3
TUG-3
AU-3 VC-3
x 3
TU-3 VC-3
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2
TU-12
TU-11
VC-12
VC-11
C-3
C-2
C-12
C-11
C-4
x 1
x 7
x 7
x 1
x 3
x 4
139264
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
44736
34368
6312
2048
1544
pointer processing
multiplexing
aligning
mapping
VC-4
Table 3-1 SDH Transmission Rates
Bit Rate PDH Europe SDH
Name Container Transport
10 Gbit/s STM-64
2.5 GBit/s STM-16
622 MBit/s STM-4
155 MBit/s STM-1
140 MBit/s E4 VC-4
34 MBit/s E3 VC-3
8 Mbit/s E2
2 MBit/s E1 VC-12
64 kBit/s E0
31 32
33 32 33 32
react should a fault occur. A single network management screen located at a
central site enables operators to control and monitor the network. This
centralised control can provide a great saving in time spent by maintenance
personnel in travelling to sites and can increase the reliability of the network.
Within the SDH section overhead, channels are dedicated to network
management. These channels form a part of the communication network
between the management system and the network elements called the Data
Communications Network or DCN.
A typical network management system consists of a hierarchy of element
managers at a lower layer managing a domain of the network, and network
managers sitting above several element managers, offering one point of access
and a central view of the network. The functionality of these layers differs.
This is a simplified introduction to network management. A more detailed
description and discussion of related issues is given in Chapter 7.
Introduction to Protection
With the increase in the amount of traffic which can be carried over a single fibre
and the increasing proportion of high value business traffic, protection is
becoming a more important issue. An operator needs to demonstrate to their
customers that they will be able to reliably carry traffic across their network.
Failures in network transport mechanisms, though rare, do occur and the
network can be vulnerable to natural disasters and accidents such excavation and
breakage of the optical fibre cable.
Reliability and resilience of networks is crucial. Traffic must be protected so that
the instant a failure occurs, the traffic can be re-routed onto an alternative path
with no disruption to service. This has lead to the increasing requirement for fast
protection switching techniques. There are several mechanisms defined in
standards and these are explained in the Chapter 6.
Introduction to Equipment Standardisation
A major standards effort has supported the development of synchronous
transmission. Network operators wanted to avoid being locked into vendors
proprietary solutions. In North America, a situation existed where fibre-optic
transmission equipment manufacturers had each developed their own
proprietary method of encoding signals in their systems. As a result, network
planning and OA&M (Operations, Administration, and Maintenance) became
very complicated, while network restoration in an emergency was at best
difficult.
In order to move away from proprietary interfaces and achieve true
interconnectivity between vendors, subcommittee T1X1 of the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) began work in 1985 on developing a
Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) based on a proposal by Bellcore. In
1986, the CCITT (now the ITU-T) became interested in the work being carried
out on SONET and after much debate on how to incorporate both the USA and
European transmission hierarchies into a single scheme, the worldwide SDH
standards were agreed and published in 1989. Since then, an ongoing standards
effort has been maintained.
33 34
35 34 35 34
react should a fault occur. A single network management screen located at a
central site enables operators to control and monitor the network. This
centralised control can provide a great saving in time spent by maintenance
personnel in travelling to sites and can increase the reliability of the network.
Within the SDH section overhead, channels are dedicated to network
management. These channels form a part of the communication network
between the management system and the network elements called the Data
Communications Network or DCN.
A typical network management system consists of a hierarchy of element
managers at a lower layer managing a domain of the network, and network
managers sitting above several element managers, offering one point of access
and a central view of the network. The functionality of these layers differs.
This is a simplified introduction to network management. A more detailed
description and discussion of related issues is given in Chapter 7.
Introduction to Protection
With the increase in the amount of traffic which can be carried over a single fibre
and the increasing proportion of high value business traffic, protection is
becoming a more important issue. An operator needs to demonstrate to their
customers that they will be able to reliably carry traffic across their network.
Failures in network transport mechanisms, though rare, do occur and the
network can be vulnerable to natural disasters and accidents such excavation and
breakage of the optical fibre cable.
Reliability and resilience of networks is crucial. Traffic must be protected so that
the instant a failure occurs, the traffic can be re-routed onto an alternative path
with no disruption to service. This has lead to the increasing requirement for fast
protection switching techniques. There are several mechanisms defined in
standards and these are explained in the Chapter 6.
Introduction to Equipment Standardisation
A major standards effort has supported the development of synchronous
transmission. Network operators wanted to avoid being locked into vendors
proprietary solutions. In North America, a situation existed where fibre-optic
transmission equipment manufacturers had each developed their own
proprietary method of encoding signals in their systems. As a result, network
planning and OA&M (Operations, Administration, and Maintenance) became
very complicated, while network restoration in an emergency was at best
difficult.
In order to move away from proprietary interfaces and achieve true
interconnectivity between vendors, subcommittee T1X1 of the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) began work in 1985 on developing a
Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) based on a proposal by Bellcore. In
1986, the CCITT (now the ITU-T) became interested in the work being carried
out on SONET and after much debate on how to incorporate both the USA and
European transmission hierarchies into a single scheme, the worldwide SDH
standards were agreed and published in 1989. Since then, an ongoing standards
effort has been maintained.
33 34
35 34 35 34
Elements of a Synchronous Transmission System Elements of a Synchronous Transmission System
Elements of a Synchronous
Transmission System
There are three basic functions of SDH transmission equipment; line
termination, multiplexing and cross-connection. In the past, these functions
were provided by separate pieces of equipment, but with the introduction of
SDH it is possible to combine these functions in a single network element. This
chapter will first outline these functions and their role in an SDH network, then
discuss the types of network element.
Functionality of a Network Element
Multiplexing
In Chapter 2 the concept of multiplexing was introduced, that is the combining
of several lower speed signals into a single higher speed signal, thus ensuring
maximum utilisation of the physical infrastructure. Synchronous transmission
systems use Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
Line Termination/ Transmission
In one direction the digital tributary signals are terminated, multiplexed and the
transmitted as a higher bit rate signal. In the opposite direction the higher bit rate
signal is terminated, demultiplexed and the digital tributary signals
reconstituted. These are the tasks of Line Terminals. Synchronous transmission
networks typically use optical fibre as the physical transport links so this
requires the termination and transmission of optical signals.
In PDH systems the termination, multiplexing and transmission tasks required
separate pieces of equipment, but in SDH these functions can be combined in a
single network element.
Figure 4-1 STM-4 Multiplexing Function
Cross-connection
Cross-connection in a synchronous network involves setting up semi-permanent
interconnections between different channels in a network element. This enables
traffic to be routed down to the virtual container level. If the operator needs to
change traffic circuits on the network, routing can be achieved by changing
connections. The different connection types are detailed in the subsequent
sections of this chapter.
This description would seem to suggest that cross-connection is similar to
switching, but there are fundamental differences between the two. The main
difference is that a switch operates as a temporary connection which is set up
under the control of the end user, while cross-connection is a transmission
technique used to set up a semi-permanent connection under the control of the
network operator via a Network Manager. The operator will change these
semi-permanent connections as traffic patterns change.
4
STM-1 STM-1
STM-4 on
regional
tier
Tributary traffic
from local tier
STM-1 STM-1
STM-4 on
regional
tier
35 36
4 Elements of a Synchronous Transmission System
37 36 37 36
Elements of a Synchronous
Transmission System
There are three basic functions of SDH transmission equipment; line
termination, multiplexing and cross-connection. In the past, these functions
were provided by separate pieces of equipment, but with the introduction of
SDH it is possible to combine these functions in a single network element. This
chapter will first outline these functions and their role in an SDH network, then
discuss the types of network element.
Functionality of a Network Element
Multiplexing
In Chapter 2 the concept of multiplexing was introduced, that is the combining
of several lower speed signals into a single higher speed signal, thus ensuring
maximum utilisation of the physical infrastructure. Synchronous transmission
systems use Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
Line Termination/ Transmission
In one direction the digital tributary signals are terminated, multiplexed and the
transmitted as a higher bit rate signal. In the opposite direction the higher bit rate
signal is terminated, demultiplexed and the digital tributary signals
reconstituted. These are the tasks of Line Terminals. Synchronous transmission
networks typically use optical fibre as the physical transport links so this
requires the termination and transmission of optical signals.
In PDH systems the termination, multiplexing and transmission tasks required
separate pieces of equipment, but in SDH these functions can be combined in a
single network element.
Figure 4-1 STM-4 Multiplexing Function
Cross-connection
Cross-connection in a synchronous network involves setting up semi-permanent
interconnections between different channels in a network element. This enables
traffic to be routed down to the virtual container level. If the operator needs to
change traffic circuits on the network, routing can be achieved by changing
connections. The different connection types are detailed in the subsequent
sections of this chapter.
This description would seem to suggest that cross-connection is similar to
switching, but there are fundamental differences between the two. The main
difference is that a switch operates as a temporary connection which is set up
under the control of the end user, while cross-connection is a transmission
technique used to set up a semi-permanent connection under the control of the
network operator via a Network Manager. The operator will change these
semi-permanent connections as traffic patterns change.
4
STM-1 STM-1
STM-4 on
regional
tier
Tributary traffic
from local tier
STM-1 STM-1
STM-4 on
regional
tier
35 36
37 36 37 36
Figure 4-2 Cross-connect
For example a business customer may have traffic circuits transiting the network
from A to B. Business operations at site D may be expanded and in the future the
customer wants these traffic circuits instead to be transported to site D.
The cross-connect function, does not necessarily mean the need for a separate
piece of equipment. SDH cross-connect functionality can reside in almost any
network element, the most obvious being an add-drop multiplexer which is
described later.
Other Terms used for SDH Network Element Functionality:
Consolidation: is when traffic on partially filled paths may be reorganised onto
a single more heavily loaded path.
Figure 4-3 Consolidation
Grooming is when incoming traffic, which is directed towards a variety of
destinations is reorganised. Traffic for specific destinations is reorganised onto
paths with other traffic allocated for that destination. Or traffic of a specific type
such as ATM or data traffic from several destinations can be separated from
PSTN traffic and transported on a different path.
Figure 4-4 Grooming
Types of Connection
Uni-directional is a one way connection through the SDH network
element, for example send traffic only
Bi-directional is two way connection through the network element,
send and receive
Drop and Continue is a connection where the signal is dropped to a
tributary at the network element but it also continues on in the
aggregate signal to other network elements. This type of connection
can be used for broadcast and protection mechanisms, see Figure 4-5
and Chapter 6.
Broadcast Connection: is a connection whereby an incoming virtual
container is connected to more than one outgoing virtual container. In
essence one incoming signal to the network element can be
transmitted to several sites from the virtual container. This type of
connection can be used for the broadcast of video, see Figure 4-5.
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
(a)
(b)
SDH Network
Element
Customer
Site A
Customer
Site D
Customer
Site C
Customer
Site B
SDH
Multiplexer
Partially
filled
traffic
paths
Groomer
Mixed
traffic
paths
Groomed
traffic
paths
Network
Element
37 38
39 38 39 38
Figure 4-2 Cross-connect
For example a business customer may have traffic circuits transiting the network
from A to B. Business operations at site D may be expanded and in the future the
customer wants these traffic circuits instead to be transported to site D.
The cross-connect function, does not necessarily mean the need for a separate
piece of equipment. SDH cross-connect functionality can reside in almost any
network element, the most obvious being an add-drop multiplexer which is
described later.
Other Terms used for SDH Network Element Functionality:
Consolidation: is when traffic on partially filled paths may be reorganised onto
a single more heavily loaded path.
Figure 4-3 Consolidation
Grooming is when incoming traffic, which is directed towards a variety of
destinations is reorganised. Traffic for specific destinations is reorganised onto
paths with other traffic allocated for that destination. Or traffic of a specific type
such as ATM or data traffic from several destinations can be separated from
PSTN traffic and transported on a different path.
Figure 4-4 Grooming
Types of Connection
Uni-directional is a one way connection through the SDH network
element, for example send traffic only
Bi-directional is two way connection through the network element,
send and receive
Drop and Continue is a connection where the signal is dropped to a
tributary at the network element but it also continues on in the
aggregate signal to other network elements. This type of connection
can be used for broadcast and protection mechanisms, see Figure 4-5
and Chapter 6.
Broadcast Connection: is a connection whereby an incoming virtual
container is connected to more than one outgoing virtual container. In
essence one incoming signal to the network element can be
transmitted to several sites from the virtual container. This type of
connection can be used for the broadcast of video, see Figure 4-5.
VC-12
VC-12
VC-12
(a)
(b)
SDH Network
Element
Customer
Site A
Customer
Site D
Customer
Site C
Customer
Site B
SDH
Multiplexer
Partially
filled
traffic
paths
Groomer
Mixed
traffic
paths
Groomed
traffic
paths
Network
Element
37 38
39 38 39 38
Figure 4-5 Broadcast with Drop and Continue
Types of Network Element
ITU-T Recommendation G.782 identifies examples of SDH equipment
providing combinations of SDH functions. These are classified into
multiplexers (of which there are seven variants) and cross-connects (where there
are three variants). For simplicity, three types of SDH network elements will be
considered: line systems, add-drop multiplexers and digital cross-connects.
Line terminals
The simplest type of SDH network element is a line terminal. This will
implement only the line termination and multiplexing functions, thus their
deployment is typically in point to point configurations. Several tributary
streams will be combined at the line terminal to give an aggregate stream at a
higher speed and this will be transmitted on an optical link. Network elements
are required at the two end points of this link and a fixed connection for customer
circuits is set up between these two termination points.
Figure 4-6 Terminal Multiplexer
Add-Drop Multiplexers
Add-Drop Multiplexers (ADM) offer cross-connection as well as the line
termination and multiplexer functionality. In SDH it is possible to extract
(drop) a virtual container and in the reverse direction insert ( add ) a virtual
container into the STM signal directly without unpacking the signal as explained
in Chapter 3. This fundamental advantage of synchronous systems means that it
is possible to flexibly connect signals between the network element interfaces
(aggregate or tributary). This routing capability allows cross-connect
functionality to be distributed around the network rather than being
concentrated in large dedicated cross-connects.
In the line terminal case, the links set up were fixed point to point circuits. The
added functionality of ADMs allows a more flexible network to be set up and the
route by which customer circuits transit the network can be easily changed.
This flexibility can be demonstrated by an ADM chain network. Consider the
transport link as a bus route, at each stop (ADM) the passenger (traffic circuit)
on the bus network can choose to jump off or stay on the bus.
Broadcast
Centre
City A
City B
City C
Drop & Continue
Drop & Continue
STM-1
STM-1
Tributary
STM-4 aggregate traffic
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
traffic
Tributary
traffic
39 40
41 40 41 40
Figure 4-5 Broadcast with Drop and Continue
Types of Network Element
ITU-T Recommendation G.782 identifies examples of SDH equipment
providing combinations of SDH functions. These are classified into
multiplexers (of which there are seven variants) and cross-connects (where there
are three variants). For simplicity, three types of SDH network elements will be
considered: line systems, add-drop multiplexers and digital cross-connects.
Line terminals
The simplest type of SDH network element is a line terminal. This will
implement only the line termination and multiplexing functions, thus their
deployment is typically in point to point configurations. Several tributary
streams will be combined at the line terminal to give an aggregate stream at a
higher speed and this will be transmitted on an optical link. Network elements
are required at the two end points of this link and a fixed connection for customer
circuits is set up between these two termination points.
Figure 4-6 Terminal Multiplexer
Add-Drop Multiplexers
Add-Drop Multiplexers (ADM) offer cross-connection as well as the line
termination and multiplexer functionality. In SDH it is possible to extract
( drop) a virtual container and in the reverse direction insert ( add ) a virtual
container into the STM signal directly without unpacking the signal as explained
in Chapter 3. This fundamental advantage of synchronous systems means that it
is possible to flexibly connect signals between the network element interfaces
(aggregate or tributary). This routing capability allows cross-connect
functionality to be distributed around the network rather than being
concentrated in large dedicated cross-connects.
In the line terminal case, the links set up were fixed point to point circuits. The
added functionality of ADMs allows a more flexible network to be set up and the
route by which customer circuits transit the network can be easily changed.
This flexibility can be demonstrated by an ADM chain network. Consider the
transport link as a bus route, at each stop (ADM) the passenger (traffic circuit)
on the bus network can choose to jump off or stay on the bus.
Broadcast
Centre
City A
City B
City C
Drop & Continue
Drop & Continue
STM-1
STM-1
Tributary
STM-4 aggregate traffic
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
STM-1
traffic
Tributary
traffic
39 40
41 40 41 40
Figure 4-7 Add/Drop Chain
In an ADM individual traffic circuits can be taken out of the aggregate stream
while the rest of the traffic is passed along the chain. This creates a bus structure,
a signal can jump off or stay on the bus at each ADM stop. Many ADMs can
be connected by the bus and the connectivity of each ADM, that is whether the
traffic circuit is dropped at the stop or passed on can be changed. Thus a flexible
connection between several points is created, rather than a fixed line between
every two points. If a customer wants to route their traffic circuit to a different
node, the request can be carried out remotely by reconfiguring the connections
in the ADM.
Figure 4-8 Types of Connections
Different types of multiplexer offer different levels of cross-connectivity. An
ADM as described will perform the simple add-drop function whereby some
virtual containers can be dropped, others can be inserted and the remainder are
passed through unchanged. ADMs can also offer time slot interchange: which
cross-connects one virtual container from one place on the East side to a
different place on the West side. Connections can also be made between
tributary ports, thus providing cross-connect functionality between tributaries,
also referred to as hairpinning.
Ring Deployment of an ADM
An ADM is particularly suitable for setting up a ring network. Signals are fed
into the ring via the tributary interfaces of an ADM, then coupled into the higher
rate aggregate signal of the ring for transportation to the other nodes.
Rings are a common network configuration because they can increase the
survivability of the network. Networks can be subject to node failure or link
breakages so resilience is required to prevent the loss of traffic.
How is this achieved? In a point to point network each link must be duplicated
to provide an alternative path for the traffic should there be a failure. In a ring
network traffic can simply be diverted the other way round the ring as shown in
Figure 4-9. In SDH this reconfiguration can occur by action at the network
element without the intervention of external network management.
or
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
(a) Drop traffic: get off bus.
Aggregate to tributary
connection.
(b) Add traffic: get on bus.
Tributary to aggregate
connection.
(c) Pass aggregate traffic on:
stay on bus. Aggregate to
aggregate connection.
(d) Local traffic connected to
different local path. Tributary
to tributary connection.
Fibre Ring
Tributaries
Working traffic
Protection route
Mux
SDH
Tributaries
Mux
SDH
Mux
SDH
Mux
SDH
41 42
43 42 43 42
In an ADM individual traffic circuits can be taken out of the aggregate stream
while the rest of the traffic is passed along the chain. This creates a bus structure,
a signal can jump off or stay on the bus at each ADM stop. Many ADMs can
be connected by the bus and the connectivity of each ADM, that is whether the
traffic circuit is dropped at the stop or passed on can be changed. Thus a flexible
connection between several points is created, rather than a fixed line between
every two points. If a customer wants to route their traffic circuit to a different
node, the request can be carried out remotely by reconfiguring the connections
in the ADM.
Figure 4-8 Types of Connections
Different types of multiplexer offer different levels of cross-connectivity. An
ADM as described will perform the simple add-drop function whereby some
virtual containers can be dropped, others can be inserted and the remainder are
passed through unchanged. ADMs can also offer time slot interchange: which
cross-connects one virtual container from one place on the East side to a
different place on the West side. Connections can also be made between
tributary ports, thus providing cross-connect functionality between tributaries,
also referred to as hairpinning.
Ring Deployment of an ADM
An ADM is particularly suitable for setting up a ring network. Signals are fed
into the ring via the tributary interfaces of an ADM, then coupled into the higher
rate aggregate signal of the ring for transportation to the other nodes.
Rings are a common network configuration because they can increase the
survivability of the network. Networks can be subject to node failure or link
breakages so resilience is required to prevent the loss of traffic.
How is this achieved? In a point to point network each link must be duplicated
to provide an alternative path for the traffic should there be a failure. In a ring
network traffic can simply be diverted the other way round the ring as shown in
Figure 4-9. In SDH this reconfiguration can occur by action at the network
element without the intervention of external network management.
or
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
(a) Drop traffic: get off bus.
Aggregate to tributary
connection.
(b) Add traffic: get on bus.
Tributary to aggregate
connection.
(c) Pass aggregate traffic on:
stay on bus. Aggregate to
aggregate connection.
(d) Local traffic connected to
different local path. Tributary
to tributary connection.
Fibre Ring
Tributaries
Working traffic
Protection route
Mux
SDH
Tributaries
Mux
SDH
Mux
SDH
Mux
SDH
41 42
43 42 43 42
Hubbing Deployment
An ADM may be configured as a hub for use in multi-site network applications.
the purpose of the hub is to consolidate several spurs onto the higher capacity
optical aggregate. This arrangement eliminates the cost and complexity of
multi-terminal configurations and redundant cross-connections.
Figure 4-10 Fibre Hub
Multiplexer Types
Multiplexers can be classified in various ways, for example by the type and
flexibility of connections that can be made. Multiplexers are commonly
classified by the bit rate of the aggregate signal supported. For example an
STM-4 multiplexer will accept tributary signals at a variety of PDH and SDH
rates (2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 45 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s and STM-1) and multiplex
these into an STM-4 aggregate signal.
Multiplexers may also be classified as full and partial access systems. A full
access ADM can access any of the traffic in its STM-N aggregate payload. That
is, all aggregate traffic can be connected internally and all passed to the tributary
ports. In contrast a partial access multiplexer is only able to access and connect
to its tributary ports a portion of its aggregate traffic, the remainder of the traffic
is connected straight through the multiplexer on the aggregate signal.
Multiplexers can be upgraded. This typically refers to the replacement of the
aggregate ports with aggregate ports which transmit at a faster rate. For example
an STM-1 multiplexer may have its aggregate cards replaced with STM-4
aggregate cards. The aggregate signal rate of the multiplexer is increased to
STM-4, but only a portion of the aggregate traffic can be connected to the
tributaries of each multiplexer. In this case the multiplexer has become a partial
access multiplexer, see Figure 4-11.
Figure 4-11 Partial Access
The ability to upgrade the multiplexer to higher aggregate bit rate allows the
network operator to upgrade links to a higher speed as the traffic capacity
demand increases. Flexibility is, however, constrained because only a portion of
the aggregate traffic can be accessed by a multiplexer. Traffic connections
between aggregates and tributaries are limited and so it is more difficult to
accommodate changing traffic patterns. Some multiplexers are designed so that
the effective cross-connect capacity i ncreases, that is the connections are
increased as the multiplexer aggregate rate is upgraded.
Dedicated Cross-connects
As described above the cross-connectivity of ADMs allows the
cross-connection function to be distributed throughout the network, but it is also
possible to have stand-alone cross-connect equipment. Digital Cross-connects
or DXCs are the most complex and expensive kind of SDH equipment.
It is not the inclusion of the cross-connect functional block(s) which
distinguishes the cross-connects from the ADMs, but the presence of the higher
order and lower order connection supervision. That is, the distinguishing feature
of a DXC is its ability to provide supervision of the connections.
SDH
Multiplexer
Optical
Aggregates
Optical
Electrical
Tributaries
Tributaries
STM-16
Only four of the 16 VC-4s
can be accessed
43 44
45 44 45 44
Hubbing Deployment
An ADM may be configured as a hub for use in multi-site network applications.
the purpose of the hub is to consolidate several spurs onto the higher capacity
optical aggregate. This arrangement eliminates the cost and complexity of
multi-terminal configurations and redundant cross-connections.
Figure 4-10 Fibre Hub
Multiplexer Types
Multiplexers can be classified in various ways, for example by the type and
flexibility of connections that can be made. Multiplexers are commonly
classified by the bit rate of the aggregate signal supported. For example an
STM-4 multiplexer will accept tributary signals at a variety of PDH and SDH
rates (2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 45 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s and STM-1) and multiplex
these into an STM-4 aggregate signal.
Multiplexers may also be classified as full and partial access systems. A full
access ADM can access any of the traffic in its STM-N aggregate payload. That
is, all aggregate traffic can be connected internally and all passed to the tributary
ports. In contrast a partial access multiplexer is only able to access and connect
to its tributary ports a portion of its aggregate traffic, the remainder of the traffic
is connected straight through the multiplexer on the aggregate signal.
Multiplexers can be upgraded. This typically refers to the replacement of the
aggregate ports with aggregate ports which transmit at a faster rate. For example
an STM-1 multiplexer may have its aggregate cards replaced with STM-4
aggregate cards. The aggregate signal rate of the multiplexer is increased to
STM-4, but only a portion of the aggregate traffic can be connected to the
tributaries of each multiplexer. In this case the multiplexer has become a partial
access multiplexer, see Figure 4-11.
Figure 4-11 Partial Access
The ability to upgrade the multiplexer to higher aggregate bit rate allows the
network operator to upgrade links to a higher speed as the traffic capacity
demand increases. Flexibility is, however, constrained because only a portion of
the aggregate traffic can be accessed by a multiplexer. Traffic connections
between aggregates and tributaries are limited and so it is more difficult to
accommodate changing traffic patterns. Some multiplexers are designed so that
the effective cross-connect capacity i ncreases, that is the connections are
increased as the multiplexer aggregate rate is upgraded.
Dedicated Cross-connects
As described above the cross-connectivity of ADMs allows the
cross-connection function to be distributed throughout the network, but it is also
possible to have stand-alone cross-connect equipment. Digital Cross-connects
or DXCs are the most complex and expensive kind of SDH equipment.
It is not the inclusion of the cross-connect functional block(s) which
distinguishes the cross-connects from the ADMs, but the presence of the higher
order and lower order connection supervision. That is, the distinguishing feature
of a DXC is its ability to provide supervision of the connections.
SDH
Multiplexer
Optical
Aggregates
Optical
Electrical
Tributaries
Tributaries
STM-16
Only four of the 16 VC-4s
can be accessed
43 44
45 44 45 44
All DXCs provide cross-connect functionality and it would be unusual to deploy
a DXC without full cross-connection between all inputs and outputs, whereas
many ADMs provide a limited cross-connection function. DXCs also
incorporate those multiplexing and line termination functions which are
essential for interfacing between the cross-connect matrix and the rest of the
network.
There are two types of dedicated SDH cross-connects, generally referred to as
4/1 DXCs and 4/4 DXCs.
4/1 DXCs can usually accept combinations of 2, 155 and 622 Mbit/s inputs and
can cross-connect VC-12s, and many will also be able to cross-connect VC-2s,
VC-3s and VC-4s. These more complex pieces of equipment are often referred
to as 4/3/1 DXCs. 4/1 DXCs are, therefore, installed at points in the network
where:
major path and circuit reorganisation is necessary for example,
between the core and regional networks
where connection supervision is required for example, at the
gateway to another network.
4/1 cross-connects extract virtual containers from a variety of SDH links
(mainly STM-1, STM-4 and STM-16) and reroute them.
- 4/4 DXCs are usually designed to accept inputs at 140, 155 or 622 Mbit/s and
are optimised to switch VC-4s only. 4/4 cross-connects are core network
devices, providing such capabilities as high level path management and network
restoration.
Three factors limit the traffic capacity of a DXC: the number and size of the
tributary ports, and the size of the internal switching core. In practice, port
capacity tends to be exhausted before core switching capacity, and is the main
reason for cross-connect upgrading.
The flexibility of DXCs means that they can be deployed in any configuration.
The provision of the supervision capability, however, makes the DXC a
complex, and expensive, network element and the addition of support for self
healing ring protocols increases the complexity. It is, therefore, more usual to
build self healing rings with ADMs where the addition of the ring protocols is
less complex since the connection supervision functions are not present.
Regenerators and Repeaters
Network elements may also be configured to extend the length of the span
between nodes, rather than performing the traffic interchange functions.
As signals travel along a transmission link they will degrade and noise can
accumulate. Multiplexers can be configured to regenerate the aggregate signal
and optical amplifiers can be used as repeaters to re-power the optical signal.
A multiplexer configured as a regenerator converts the optical signal to an
electrical signal which is regenerated (cleaned up). The regenerated signal is
converted back to an optical aggregate signal and transmitted. For example, a
backbone STM-16 link between two cities where STM-16 ADMs are located at
the two cities, but the intermediate span is long and the signal may be degraded
to the point where the receiving ADM can no longer faithfully reconstitute the
transmitted signal. An ADM configured as a regenerator is introduced at a
location midway between the two cities to regenerate the signal and remove the
possible introduction of errors, see Figure 4-12.
Figure 4-12 Regeneration
Optical amplifiers are an alternative option to extend the reach of the optical
signal. These operate as repeaters, re-powering the signal. No conversion to the
electrical constituent signals is undergone. Although the span is extended by
powering the signal it is not cleaned up, so depending on the length of the link
and type of fibre, regenerators may also be required.
SDH
Mux
SDH
Mux
Regenerator
Signal
degradation
Clean
Signal
45 46
47 46 47 46
All DXCs provide cross-connect functionality and it would be unusual to deploy
a DXC without full cross-connection between all inputs and outputs, whereas
many ADMs provide a limited cross-connection function. DXCs also
incorporate those multiplexing and line termination functions which are
essential for interfacing between the cross-connect matrix and the rest of the
network.
There are two types of dedicated SDH cross-connects, generally referred to as
4/1 DXCs and 4/4 DXCs.
4/1 DXCs can usually accept combinations of 2, 155 and 622 Mbit/s inputs and
can cross-connect VC-12s, and many will also be able to cross-connect VC-2s,
VC-3s and VC-4s. These more complex pieces of equipment are often referred
to as 4/3/1 DXCs. 4/1 DXCs are, therefore, installed at points in the network
where:
major path and circuit reorganisation is necessary for example,
between the core and regional networks
where connection supervision is required for example, at the
gateway to another network.
4/1 cross-connects extract virtual containers from a variety of SDH links
(mainly STM-1, STM-4 and STM-16) and reroute them.
- 4/4 DXCs are usually designed to accept inputs at 140, 155 or 622 Mbit/s and
are optimised to switch VC-4s only. 4/4 cross-connects are core network
devices, providing such capabilities as high level path management and network
restoration.
Three factors limit the traffic capacity of a DXC: the number and size of the
tributary ports, and the size of the internal switching core. In practice, port
capacity tends to be exhausted before core switching capacity, and is the main
reason for cross-connect upgrading.
The flexibility of DXCs means that they can be deployed in any configuration.
The provision of the supervision capability, however, makes the DXC a
complex, and expensive, network element and the addition of support for self
healing ring protocols increases the complexity. It is, therefore, more usual to
build self healing rings with ADMs where the addition of the ring protocols is
less complex since the connection supervision functions are not present.
Regenerators and Repeaters
Network elements may also be configured to extend the length of the span
between nodes, rather than performing the traffic interchange functions.
As signals travel along a transmission link they will degrade and noise can
accumulate. Multiplexers can be configured to regenerate the aggregate signal
and optical amplifiers can be used as repeaters to re-power the optical signal.
A multiplexer configured as a regenerator converts the optical signal to an
electrical signal which is regenerated ( cleaned up). The regenerated signal is
converted back to an optical aggregate signal and transmitted. For example, a
backbone STM-16 link between two cities where STM-16 ADMs are located at
the two cities, but the intermediate span is long and the signal may be degraded
to the point where the receiving ADM can no longer faithfully reconstitute the
transmitted signal. An ADM configured as a regenerator is introduced at a
location midway between the two cities to regenerate the signal and remove the
possible introduction of errors, see Figure 4-12.
Figure 4-12 Regeneration
Optical amplifiers are an alternative option to extend the reach of the optical
signal. These operate as repeaters, re-powering the signal. No conversion to the
electrical constituent signals is undergone. Although the span is extended by
powering the signal it is not cleaned up, so depending on the length of the link
and type of fibre, regenerators may also be required.
SDH
Mux
SDH
Mux
Regenerator
Signal
degradation
Clean
Signal
45 46
47 46 47 46
Submarine Systems
Short-haul unrepeatered submarine links will employ the same standards as land
based systems. In the case of long haul repeatered submarine transmission
systems special measures need to be taken in order to maintain the very high
reliability levels required for submerged repeaters.
For synchronous transmission systems the SDH specifies a relatively high level
of processing required within a repeater. This is a problem in submarine systems
but can be overcome by wrapping the STM-1 signal within a submarine based
signal frame which uses very simple signalling systems to reduce processing
within repeaters and hence increase reliability.
Figure 4-13 A Synchronous Transmission Network
Optical
Amplifier
S
u
bm
arin
e
S
ystem
Microwave
System
Microwave
System
SDH Cross-connection
Submarine Line Equipment
Microwave Line Equipment Synchronous Multiplexer
Microwave
System
Optical
Amplifier
47 48
49 48 49 48
Submarine Systems
Short-haul unrepeatered submarine links will employ the same standards as land
based systems. In the case of long haul repeatered submarine transmission
systems special measures need to be taken in order to maintain the very high
reliability levels required for submerged repeaters.
For synchronous transmission systems the SDH specifies a relatively high level
of processing required within a repeater. This is a problem in submarine systems
but can be overcome by wrapping the STM-1 signal within a submarine based
signal frame which uses very simple signalling systems to reduce processing
within repeaters and hence increase reliability.
Figure 4-13 A Synchronous Transmission Network
Optical
Amplifier
S
u
bm
arin
e
S
ystem
Microwave
System
Microwave
System
SDH Cross-connection
Submarine Line Equipment
Microwave Line Equipment Synchronous Multiplexer
Microwave
System
Optical
Amplifier
47 48
49 48 49 48
Network Architecture Network Architecture
SDH Network Architecture and Design
This chapter provides an overview of the common styles of SDH network
architecture and discusses their properties.
Mapping User Connection Demand to a
Physical Network
Networks can be viewed as a set of layers in which the lower layers provide a
connection service to higher level clients. Figure 5-1 illustrates an example of
how a Circuit Demand (expressed in terms of 2 Mbit/s connection
requirements) is mapped on to Fibre Links in the network.
In this example there are three stages to the mapping process:
1 The 2 Mbit/s connection requirements are expressed as VC-12
connection requirements (a trivial mapping in this case).
2 The VC-12 demand must be mapped on to the VC-4 layer, that is, a
set of VC-4 connections and VC-12 flexibility nodes must be defined
to carry this VC-12 demand.
3 The resulting VC-4 layer must be mapped on to the physical links,
that is, a set of STM-N multiplex sections and VC-4 flexibility points
must be defined to carry the VC-4 demand.
In other applications there may be further mapping processes. For example, at
the client level it may be necessary to map 64 kbit/s demand on to 2 Mbit/s
trunks and at the physical link level the STM-N multiplex sections may be
mapped on to a WDM optical layer.
Figure 5-1 Mapping Demand to Physical Network
The mapping stages are the essence of the network design process. They are
usually complex tasks with many choices. The choices are of two forms
Choice of architecture - How will the links and nodes be structured to
implement at layer, for example, Star, Mesh, Ring
Optimisation of Design - What links and nodes will be used in the
chosen architecture and how will traffic be routed.
This chapter is primarily concerned with the choice of architecture and
concentrates on the most common architectures to illustrate keys points.
5
A
F
B
E
C
D
G
Circuit Demand
Fibre Links
A
B
F
D
E
G
C
Circuit Demand
VC12 Layer
VC4 Layer
Sections/Links
N
E
T
W
O
R
K

D
E
S
I
G
N
49 50
5 Network Architecture
51 50 51 50
SDH Network Architecture and Design
This chapter provides an overview of the common styles of SDH network
architecture and discusses their properties.
Mapping User Connection Demand to a
Physical Network
Networks can be viewed as a set of layers in which the lower layers provide a
connection service to higher level clients. Figure 5-1 illustrates an example of
how a Circuit Demand (expressed in terms of 2 Mbit/s connection
requirements) is mapped on to Fibre Links in the network.
In this example there are three stages to the mapping process:
1 The 2 Mbit/s connection requirements are expressed as VC-12
connection requirements (a trivial mapping in this case).
2 The VC-12 demand must be mapped on to the VC-4 layer, that is, a
set of VC-4 connections and VC-12 flexibility nodes must be defined
to carry this VC-12 demand.
3 The resulting VC-4 layer must be mapped on to the physical links,
that is, a set of STM-N multiplex sections and VC-4 flexibility points
must be defined to carry the VC-4 demand.
In other applications there may be further mapping processes. For example, at
the client level it may be necessary to map 64 kbit/s demand on to 2 Mbit/s
trunks and at the physical link level the STM-N multiplex sections may be
mapped on to a WDM optical layer.
Figure 5-1 Mapping Demand to Physical Network
The mapping stages are the essence of the network design process. They are
usually complex tasks with many choices. The choices are of two forms
Choice of architecture - How will the links and nodes be structured to
implement at layer, for example, Star, Mesh, Ring
Optimisation of Design - What links and nodes will be used in the
chosen architecture and how will traffic be routed.
This chapter is primarily concerned with the choice of architecture and
concentrates on the most common architectures to illustrate keys points.
5
A
F
B
E
C
D
G
Circuit Demand
Fibre Links
A
B
F
D
E
G
C
Circuit Demand
VC12 Layer
VC4 Layer
Sections/Links
N
E
T
W
O
R
K

D
E
S
I
G
N
49 50
51 50 51 50
The most essential consideration when designing a network today, is the rapid
traffic growth that is taking place. It is vital that the networks being deployed are
scaleable and can be upgraded without the need for costly re-design.
The mapping of the VC-4 layer on to fibre links is examined first since this is
most closely related to the physical network.
Types of VC4 Layer Architecture
This section presents a number of VC4 layer architectures.
Flat VC4 Mesh Architecture
The physical network comprises a mesh of fibre links between nodes. The
simplest and most obvious architecture is a VC-4 routing mesh that corresponds
exactly to the physical network, as shown in Figure 5-2. The links in the mesh
are multiplex sections corresponding to the fibre links. The nodes are shown as
circles and comprise a VC-4 cross-connect and line terminals that feed each
incident fibre. Nodes with only two incident links such as B and H, where
traffic is dropped from and inserted into the signal, can be implemented by an
Add/Drop Multiplexer or back to back line terminals, rather than a full cross-
connect and line system.
The properties of this architecture are:
Figure 5-2 Flat VC-4 Mesh Architecture
Protection by simple end-to-end diversity presents several problems.
Planning for diversity is difficult in a large network. The network
shown in Figure 5-2 can obviously support diverse connections
between each node pair, but if the working path from A-M is via
nodes I,J,K this prevents a alternate diverse path from A-M being
routed. The solution, as shown in Figure 5-2, in this simple network
is obvious, but it becomes much harder to plan diversity in large
networks and complex routing algorithms must be employed.
Planning can be simplified if the network can be broken up into
subnetworks. The mesh architecture, however, does not exhibit any
natural subnetwork boundaries and imposing them limits routing
flexibility eroding one of the strengths of a mesh.
It is difficult to keep track of both working and protection paths and
to ensure that diversity is maintained during any network
rearrangement.
Demand Mapping Simple and direct
Routing Flexible, but routes pass through every intermediate node.
Nodes Complex - Multiple line terminals and cross-connect
Subnetworking Difficult to segment into subnetworks, no natural boundaries
Protection method End to End path diversity, requires careful planning to ensure
path diversity.
Protection overhead 2.5 x equipment & link usage (see text below)
Demand Growth In general growth in one demand requires several links and
nodes to grow (this is generally true of all architectures).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
4/4
4/4
Cross-connect Node
ADM Node
Line Terminal
VC4 (4/4)
Cross-connect
I
51 52
53 52 53 52
The most essential consideration when designing a network today, is the rapid
traffic growth that is taking place. It is vital that the networks being deployed are
scaleable and can be upgraded without the need for costly re-design.
The mapping of the VC-4 layer on to fibre links is examined first since this is
most closely related to the physical network.
Types of VC4 Layer Architecture
This section presents a number of VC4 layer architectures.
Flat VC4 Mesh Architecture
The physical network comprises a mesh of fibre links between nodes. The
simplest and most obvious architecture is a VC-4 routing mesh that corresponds
exactly to the physical network, as shown in Figure 5-2. The links in the mesh
are multiplex sections corresponding to the fibre links. The nodes are shown as
circles and comprise a VC-4 cross-connect and line terminals that feed each
incident fibre. Nodes with only two incident links such as B and H, where
traffic is dropped from and inserted into the signal, can be implemented by an
Add/Drop Multiplexer or back to back line terminals, rather than a full cross-
connect and line system.
The properties of this architecture are:
Figure 5-2 Flat VC-4 Mesh Architecture
Protection by simple end-to-end diversity presents several problems.
Planning for diversity is difficult in a large network. The network
shown in Figure 5-2 can obviously support diverse connections
between each node pair, but if the working path from A-M is via
nodes I,J,K this prevents a alternate diverse path from A-M being
routed. The solution, as shown in Figure 5-2, in this simple network
is obvious, but it becomes much harder to plan diversity in large
networks and complex routing algorithms must be employed.
Planning can be simplified if the network can be broken up into
subnetworks. The mesh architecture, however, does not exhibit any
natural subnetwork boundaries and imposing them limits routing
flexibility eroding one of the strengths of a mesh.
It is difficult to keep track of both working and protection paths and
to ensure that diversity is maintained during any network
rearrangement.
Demand Mapping Simple and direct
Routing Flexible, but routes pass through every intermediate node.
Nodes Complex - Multiple line terminals and cross-connect
Subnetworking Difficult to segment into subnetworks, no natural boundaries
Protection method End to End path diversity, requires careful planning to ensure
path diversity.
Protection overhead 2.5 x equipment & link usage (see text below)
Demand Growth In general growth in one demand requires several links and
nodes to grow (this is generally true of all architectures).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
4/4
4/4
Cross-connect Node
ADM Node
Line Terminal
VC4 (4/4)
Cross-connect
I
51 52
53 52 53 52
Simple end-to-end path diversity yields poor availability in large
networks; typically more than 300 km path length.
The protection path is always longer than the working path.
Protection by path diversity, therefore, requires more than twice the
resources that are used by the working path. Typically the protection
and working paths together will need 2.5 times the resources of a
simple working path.
Hierarchical or Express VC-4 Mesh Architecture
One of the problems of the flat mesh architecture is that routes pass through
every intermediate node. A node that only contributes a small amount of traffic
might still have large amounts of equipment just to handle the traffic in transit.
This can be avoided by the use of Express routes that link the larger nodes and
bypass intermediate nodes as shown by the blue lines in Figure 5-3. The result
is a more efficient mesh architecture and in general a more manageable one.
Figure 5-3 Express Links
The ad hoc solution of using express links can be extended to the point where
the express links and nodes form an new layer in the mesh architecture as shown
in Figure 5-4. The mesh has been divided into a Core Network layer of high
capacity links between a few key nodes and a lower capacity feeder mesh layer
connecting the remaining nodes. It may then also become natural to partition the
feeder mesh into different regional subnetworks which interconnect to the core
network at major nodes.
Figure 5-4 Express Link Core Network
The hierarchical mesh architecture is a more efficient implementation of a mesh
but some of the intrinsic routing flexibility is lost. This may not be a such bad
thing, since routing becomes more structured and easier to manage. It also
provides natural boundaries for subnetworks. This allows scope for segmented
protection schemes such as Subnetwork Connection Protection (SNCP) which
simplify management of path diversity and improve availability, though dual
node SNCP interworking is difficult to arrange.
The remaining attributes of the hierarchical mesh are as described in the
previous section.
A
B
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
Express Link
Design Issues
Identify Major Nodes and Routes
Build Express or Bypass links
- Reduces traffic through intermediate
cross-connects
Define rules for interconnect into
Express links
- Where
- Single Entry/Exit
Major Node
I
E
Express or
Regional Network
Design Issues
Express Links form Core Network
Remaining Network can be divided
into Regions
Path protection difficult to segment
- Dual Head SNCP
Core Network
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
I
53 54
55 54 55 54
Simple end-to-end path diversity yields poor availability in large
networks; typically more than 300 km path length.
The protection path is always longer than the working path.
Protection by path diversity, therefore, requires more than twice the
resources that are used by the working path. Typically the protection
and working paths together will need 2.5 times the resources of a
simple working path.
Hierarchical or Express VC-4 Mesh Architecture
One of the problems of the flat mesh architecture is that routes pass through
every intermediate node. A node that only contributes a small amount of traffic
might still have large amounts of equipment just to handle the traffic in transit.
This can be avoided by the use of Express routes that link the larger nodes and
bypass intermediate nodes as shown by the blue lines in Figure 5-3. The result
is a more efficient mesh architecture and in general a more manageable one.
Figure 5-3 Express Links
The ad hoc solution of using express links can be extended to the point where
the express links and nodes form an new layer in the mesh architecture as shown
in Figure 5-4. The mesh has been divided into a Core Network layer of high
capacity links between a few key nodes and a lower capacity feeder mesh layer
connecting the remaining nodes. It may then also become natural to partition the
feeder mesh into different regional subnetworks which interconnect to the core
network at major nodes.
Figure 5-4 Express Link Core Network
The hierarchical mesh architecture is a more efficient implementation of a mesh
but some of the intrinsic routing flexibility is lost. This may not be a such bad
thing, since routing becomes more structured and easier to manage. It also
provides natural boundaries for subnetworks. This allows scope for segmented
protection schemes such as Subnetwork Connection Protection (SNCP) which
simplify management of path diversity and improve availability, though dual
node SNCP interworking is difficult to arrange.
The remaining attributes of the hierarchical mesh are as described in the
previous section.
A
B
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
Express Link
Design Issues
Build Express or Bypass links
- Reduces traffic through intermediate
cross-connects
Define rules for interconnect into
Express links
- Where
- Single Entry/Exit
Major Node
I
E
Express or
Regional Network
Design Issues
Express Links form Core Network
Remaining Network can be divided
into Regions
Path protection difficult to segment
- Dual Head SNCP
Core Network
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
I
53 54
55 54 55 54
VC-4 Ring Architectures
The ring architecture is the other common way to implement the VC-4 layer. A
number of intersecting or overlapping rings are constructed using the available
fibre resources as shown in Figure 5-5. Rings normally offer reduced physical
interconnectivity but provide implicit diversity.
A connection from node A to node B can be confined to the top ring, while one
from node A to node F passes across two rings. A connection across a ring is
protected by a complementary connection the other way round the ring. Where
two rings meet the connection can either pass through one node or a matched
node connection scheme can be employed whereby two nodes on each ring (for
example, nodes C and E in Figure 5-5) act as main and standby nodes for ring
interconnection.
This arrangement provides the higher availability of SNCP protection schemes
whilst avoiding vulnerability to single node failure.
Figure 5-5 VC-4 Ring Architectures
The choice of what nodes form each ring (that is, the ring cover of a network)
is in theory a difficult task. In practice it is simplified since rings are usually
constructed to link either geographically close nodes or nodes that share a traffic
community of interest.
The main properties of a ring architecture are as follows:
At nodes where traffic just enters or exits a ring (rather than passing between
rings) the traffic routing can be managed by the ring ADM itself. At more
complex nodes where rings interconnect (for example, node E), some form of
additional routing flexibility may be required. If, however, the number of rings
to interconnect is small (for example, three or four rings) it is possible to use
direct connection and ADMs to achieve this routing (see the Direct connection
inset in Figure 5-6). A larger number of rings will at some point require a 4/4
cross-connect to route traffic between ADMs; a significant additional cost (see
the Via Cross-connect inset in Figure 5-6).
ADM
Design Issues
Reduced physical connectivity
Implicit diversity
Rings matched to traffic and/or
topological groups
- Implicit subnetworks
Routing via ADM
Range of Protection schemes
- Path
- SNCP
- MS-SPRings (effectively
SNCP)
Matched node interworking
Simple intermediate nodes
- Traffic growth requires one
of more rings to grow
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
Demand Mapping Demand is mapped on to rings (rather than links), routing
round the rings is simple.
Routing Less Flexible, routes pass through every intermediate node
on a ring.
Nodes Simple - most nodes are just ADMs
Subnetworking Rings form natural subnetworks
Protection method Variety of methods possible:
Path protection - End to End path diversity
SNCP - Removes end to end diversity requirement
MS-SPRing - effectively a more efficient SNCP
Matched Node interworking - SNCP without
interconnecting node vulnerability
Protection overhead MS-SPRing systems allow more efficient protection than path
or SNCP schemes, that is, less than 100% overhead.
Demand Growth In general growth in one demand requires entire ring (or
rings) to grow.
55 56
57 56 57 56
VC-4 Ring Architectures
The ring architecture is the other common way to implement the VC-4 layer. A
number of intersecting or overlapping rings are constructed using the available
fibre resources as shown in Figure 5-5. Rings normally offer reduced physical
interconnectivity but provide implicit diversity.
A connection from node A to node B can be confined to the top ring, while one
from node A to node F passes across two rings. A connection across a ring is
protected by a complementary connection the other way round the ring. Where
two rings meet the connection can either pass through one node or a matched
node connection scheme can be employed whereby two nodes on each ring (for
example, nodes C and E in Figure 5-5) act as main and standby nodes for ring
interconnection.
This arrangement provides the higher availability of SNCP protection schemes
whilst avoiding vulnerability to single node failure.
Figure 5-5 VC-4 Ring Architectures
The choice of what nodes form each ring (that is, the ring cover of a network)
is in theory a difficult task. In practice it is simplified since rings are usually
constructed to link either geographically close nodes or nodes that share a traffic
community of interest.
The main properties of a ring architecture are as follows:
At nodes where traffic just enters or exits a ring (rather than passing between
rings) the traffic routing can be managed by the ring ADM itself. At more
complex nodes where rings interconnect (for example, node E), some form of
additional routing flexibility may be required. If, however, the number of rings
to interconnect is small (for example, three or four rings) it is possible to use
direct connection and ADMs to achieve this routing (see the Direct connection
inset in Figure 5-6). A larger number of rings will at some point require a 4/4
cross-connect to route traffic between ADMs; a significant additional cost (see
the Via Cross-connect inset in Figure 5-6).
ADM
Design Issues
Reduced physical connectivity
Implicit diversity
Rings matched to traffic and/or
topological groups
- Implicit subnetworks
Routing via ADM
Range of Protection schemes
- Path
- SNCP
- MS-SPRings (effectively
SNCP)
Matched node interworking
Simple intermediate nodes
- Traffic growth requires one
of more rings to grow
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
Demand Mapping Demand is mapped on to rings (rather than links), routing
round the rings is simple.
Routing Less Flexible, routes pass through every intermediate node
on a ring.
Nodes Simple - most nodes are just ADMs
Subnetworking Rings form natural subnetworks
Protection method Variety of methods possible:
Path protection - End to End path diversity
SNCP - Removes end to end diversity requirement
MS-SPRing - effectively a more efficient SNCP
Matched Node interworking - SNCP without
interconnecting node vulnerability
Protection overhead MS-SPRing systems allow more efficient protection than path
or SNCP schemes, that is, less than 100% overhead.
Demand Growth In general growth in one demand requires entire ring (or
rings) to grow.
55 56
57 56 57 56
Figure 5-6 Node Interconnection Arrangements
One way to minimise the ring count and the consequent need for cross-connects,
is to use a higher capacity ring system. For example, STM-64 rings can carry
four times the capacity of the equivalent STM-16 rings. Thus the use of STM-64
systems can remove the need for many cross-connects in the network. The use
of a large number of WDM systems to carry equivalent bandwidth, however,
will require the use of more cross-connects.
Ring networks have been found to frequently offer cost savings over mesh
networks. This arises from the simplicity and lower cost of nodes and the
efficiency of shared protection schemes such as MS-SPRings.
Hierarchical or Express VC 4 Ring Architecture
Just as the efficiency of a mesh network can be improved by the use of express
links so the same principle can be applied to ring networks by constructing
express rings. Express rings only enable traffic access at key nodes; an
example is shown in Figure 5-7.
The express ring connects nodes C,E,I,K. Access to other nodes is via the other
rings also connected to the key nodes. The express ring uses fewer ADMs than
the other rings and focuses traffic on to these ADMs. This allows high capacity
ADMs to be cost effectively deployed at appropriate locations with smaller
locations served by other low capacity rings. As in the express mesh network the
express ring can be regarded as forming a higher level in the transmission
hierarchy.
Figure 5-7 An Express Ring
ADM
Design Issues
Interconnect nodes
Ring capacity increase
- Higher rates STM-4/16/64
- Stacking Rings
High Cap (STM-64) ADMs
minimise need for Cross-connect
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
4/4
Direct connection Via Cross-connect
ADM
Design Issues
Define Express Ring
- Define interconnect nodes
- Eliminates intermediate nodes
(and rings)
Express ring uses fewer and
larger ADMs
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
57 58
59 58 59 58
Figure 5-6 Node Interconnection Arrangements
One way to minimise the ring count and the consequent need for cross-connects,
is to use a higher capacity ring system. For example, STM-64 rings can carry
four times the capacity of the equivalent STM-16 rings. Thus the use of STM-64
systems can remove the need for many cross-connects in the network. The use
of a large number of WDM systems to carry equivalent bandwidth, however,
will require the use of more cross-connects.
Ring networks have been found to frequently offer cost savings over mesh
networks. This arises from the simplicity and lower cost of nodes and the
efficiency of shared protection schemes such as MS-SPRings.
Hierarchical or Express VC 4 Ring Architecture
Just as the efficiency of a mesh network can be improved by the use of express
links so the same principle can be applied to ring networks by constructing
express rings. Express rings only enable traffic access at key nodes; an
example is shown in Figure 5-7.
The express ring connects nodes C,E,I,K. Access to other nodes is via the other
rings also connected to the key nodes. The express ring uses fewer ADMs than
the other rings and focuses traffic on to these ADMs. This allows high capacity
ADMs to be cost effectively deployed at appropriate locations with smaller
locations served by other low capacity rings. As in the express mesh network the
express ring can be regarded as forming a higher level in the transmission
hierarchy.
Figure 5-7 An Express Ring
ADM
Design Issues
Interconnect nodes
Ring capacity increase
- Higher rates STM-4/16/64
- Stacking Rings
High Cap (STM-64) ADMs
minimise need for Cross-connect
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
4/4
Direct connection Via Cross-connect
ADM
Design Issues
Define Express Ring
- Define interconnect nodes
- Eliminates intermediate nodes
(and rings)
Express ring uses fewer and
larger ADMs
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
57 58
59 58 59 58
Network Optimisation and Flexibility
When changing from a flat mesh to a hierarchical mesh and from a flat ring to
a hierarchical ring, the transmission design usually becomes more efficient and
more closely linked to the traffic patterns in the network. As in most instances
there is a compromise between flexibility and optimisation as illustrated by
Figure 5-8. At one extreme a highly optimised design would incur minimum
capital cost, but changes in traffic patterns might require site visits and
unscheduled introduction of new systems leading to high operational costs. At
the other extreme a network that is heavily over-provided can absorb changes in
traffic patterns with lower operational requirements, but is more costly to build.
In practice the lowest effective annual cost is found somewhere between these
extremes, but it is a difficult design task to allow enough flexibility for
reasonable traffic variation.
Figure 5-8 Optimisation Versus Flexibility
VC-12 Layer Design
Previous sections were concerned with the design of the VC-4 layer network,
but in many networks there will be some large point-to-point demands and also
many that require less than a few tens of 2 Mbit/s trunks. It would be far too
inefficient to route these latter demands in a complete VC-4, so there is another
stage of the design process concerned with mapping the VC-12 demand on to
the VC-4 layer (see Figure 5-1).
Note: The VC-12 or Lower Order (LO) design process is more
significant in ETSI SDH networks than in SONET networks. In SONET
the basic Higher Order VC is the VC-3, which at 45 Mbit/s capacity is
one third of the size of a VC-4. Many more demands are sufficiently large
to be carried in a partially filled VC-3 than in a VC-4, consequently a
smaller proportion of SONET traffic is carried in the LO VC layer.
In many network architectures it is possible to reduce the VC-12 routed traffic
to a relatively small proportion of the network traffic. For example, it is common
for traffic hubbing to two or three centres on a regional MS-SPRing, which
minimises the VC-12 traffic.
The first step is to segregate the traffic demand into large and small point-to-
point demands, as shown in Figure 5-9. The large demands are carried by Direct
VC-4 from source to destination. The remaining small demands constitute the
traffic routed in the VC-12 layer.
Cost
Optimised Design Flexible Design
Total Annual Cost
Capital Cost
(Amortised)
Operational Cost
Excess Capacity
Non hierarchical
Capacity matches traffic
Hierarchy matches traffic
59 60
61 60 61 60
Network Optimisation and Flexibility
When changing from a flat mesh to a hierarchical mesh and from a flat ring to
a hierarchical ring, the transmission design usually becomes more efficient and
more closely linked to the traffic patterns in the network. As in most instances
there is a compromise between flexibility and optimisation as illustrated by
Figure 5-8. At one extreme a highly optimised design would incur minimum
capital cost, but changes in traffic patterns might require site visits and
unscheduled introduction of new systems leading to high operational costs. At
the other extreme a network that is heavily over-provided can absorb changes in
traffic patterns with lower operational requirements, but is more costly to build.
In practice the lowest effective annual cost is found somewhere between these
extremes, but it is a difficult design task to allow enough flexibility for
reasonable traffic variation.
Figure 5-8 Optimisation Versus Flexibility
VC-12 Layer Design
Previous sections were concerned with the design of the VC-4 layer network,
but in many networks there will be some large point-to-point demands and also
many that require less than a few tens of 2 Mbit/s trunks. It would be far too
inefficient to route these latter demands in a complete VC-4, so there is another
stage of the design process concerned with mapping the VC-12 demand on to
the VC-4 layer (see Figure 5-1).
Note: The VC-12 or Lower Order (LO) design process is more
significant in ETSI SDH networks than in SONET networks. In SONET
the basic Higher Order VC is the VC-3, which at 45 Mbit/s capacity is
one third of the size of a VC-4. Many more demands are sufficiently large
to be carried in a partially filled VC-3 than in a VC-4, consequently a
smaller proportion of SONET traffic is carried in the LO VC layer.
In many network architectures it is possible to reduce the VC-12 routed traffic
to a relatively small proportion of the network traffic. For example, it is common
for traffic hubbing to two or three centres on a regional MS-SPRing, which
minimises the VC-12 traffic.
The first step is to segregate the traffic demand into large and small point-to-
point demands, as shown in Figure 5-9. The large demands are carried by Direct
VC-4 from source to destination. The remaining small demands constitute the
traffic routed in the VC-12 layer.
Cost
Optimised Design Flexible Design
Total Annual Cost
Capital Cost
(Amortised)
Operational Cost
Excess Capacity
Non hierarchical
Capacity matches traffic
Hierarchy matches traffic
59 60
61 60 61 60
Figure 5-9 Traffic Segregation
The VC-12 layer is illustrated in Figure 5-10. It is implemented as a partial mesh
of VC-4 links carrying VC-12s that are routed in VC-12 flexibility nodes
(shown as the circles in the VC-12 layer). Several points should be noted:
The VC-12 layer is a logical (not physical) partial mesh comprising
logical VC-4 links between nodes with VC-12 routing capability. The
VC-4 links will very likely pass through intermediate nodes without
routing.
As the VC-12 layer is a logical layer it can have a completely
different topology from the underlying VC-4 layer. In Figure 5-10 the
VC-4 layer is implemented as a ring, whereas the VC-12 layer is a
mesh.
The VC-12 routing nodes can either be true 4/1 cross-connects, or in
many cases an STM-4 or STM-16 ADM with VC-12 routing
capability can be used with considerable cost savings.
Figure 5-10 Comparison of VC-4 and VC-12 Layers
Traffic Demand
e.g. VC-4 Rings
e.g. VC-12 Mesh
Threshold
< Threshold
4/1
Direct VC-4
LO Managed VC-4
Segregate
Direct VC-4
Small VC-12 Demand
Design VC-12 Layer
LO Managed VC-4
Total VC-4
Design VC-4 Layer
4/1
VC-12 Layer
Design Issues
Identify Best VC-12 Routing Nodes
Define VC-4 highways linking Nodes
Route VC-12 traffic, generate VC-4
demand on highways
Design VC-4 layer network
Possible iteration of VC-12 design
Link protection can be done in VC-4 level
A
B
C
E
F
G
H
J
K
I
VC-4 Highway
VC-4 Layer (Rings)
C
4/1
61 62
63 62 63 62
Figure 5-9 Traffic Segregation
The VC-12 layer is illustrated in Figure 5-10. It is implemented as a partial mesh
of VC-4 links carrying VC-12s that are routed in VC-12 flexibility nodes
(shown as the circles in the VC-12 layer). Several points should be noted:
The VC-12 layer is a logical (not physical) partial mesh comprising
logical VC-4 links between nodes with VC-12 routing capability. The
VC-4 links will very likely pass through intermediate nodes without
routing.
As the VC-12 layer is a logical layer it can have a completely
different topology from the underlying VC-4 layer. In Figure 5-10 the
VC-4 layer is implemented as a ring, whereas the VC-12 layer is a
mesh.
The VC-12 routing nodes can either be true 4/1 cross-connects, or in
many cases an STM-4 or STM-16 ADM with VC-12 routing
capability can be used with considerable cost savings.
Figure 5-10 Comparison of VC-4 and VC-12 Layers
Traffic Demand
e.g. VC-4 Rings
e.g. VC-12 Mesh
Threshold
< Threshold
4/1
Direct VC-4
LO Managed VC-4
Segregate
Direct VC-4
Small VC-12 Demand
Design VC-12 Layer
LO Managed VC-4
Total VC-4
Design VC-4 Layer
4/1
VC-12 Layer
Design Issues
Identify Best VC-12 Routing Nodes
Define VC-4 highways linking Nodes
Route VC-12 traffic, generate VC-4
demand on highways
Design VC-4 layer network
Possible iteration of VC-12 design
Link protection can be done in VC-4 level
A
B
C
E
F
G
H
J
K
I
VC-4 Highway
VC-4 Layer (Rings)
C
4/1
61 62
63 62 63 62
In a green field network the optimisation of a mesh VC-12 layer of any
reasonable size can be a complex task. It involves:
Choosing which nodes have VC-12 routing capability
What nodes to associate with routing hubs
What links to provide between them.
To do this properly requires a powerful network optimisation tool. Furthermore
the resulting optimal design may be sensitive to changes in traffic
distributions.
In practice the optimisation problem is often simplified since either one is
adding to an established network or the primary routing nodes have been
identified. An established network will have a known VC-12 layer topology. The
location of primary routing nodes may have already been determined by the
availability of suitable buildings or interconnect locations.
This leads to the architecture in Figure 5-11 where two locations have been
predetermined as sites for 4/1 cross-connects. Individual nodes are assigned to
a cross-connect. The creation of VC-12 highways is then a relatively simple
task.
In the architecture shown in Figure 5-11 the VC-12 layer is now a star network.
The VC-4 links between the nodes. however, can be protected using VC-4
protection schemes, so the availability is still good. Also, the underlying VC-4
network is a ring network so there is scope for further optimisation. Consider the
connections from A and B to E. In practice the connection from A to E may be
routed round a ring that passes through node B, as shown in Figure 5-12. If the
demands from A to E and B to E are small (for example 10 to 20 VC-12s) there
is scope for combining the A to E demand with the B to E demand at node B and
forming a collector VC-4 that starts at A, collects additional traffic at B and
finishes at E as shown in the lower inset diagram in Figure 5-12. A similar
treatment could also be applied to the connections from C to E and D to E
provided that these also carry a small number of VC-12s.
Figure 5-11 Predetermined Cross-Connect Sites
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
VC-12 Layer
Design Issues
Identify 4/1 Hubs
Major Nodes
Well Connected
Assign Nodes to Hubs
Home traffic and generate VC-4
highway requirements
If link protection in VC-4 level, can limit
number of nodes on path
Issues
Simple
No guarantee of optimisation
Reflects real network structure
VC-4 from each node, possible low fill
A
B
C
E
F
G
H
J
K
I
V
C
-
4

H
i
g
h
w
a
y
VC-4 Layer (Rings)
D
L
M
4/1
4/1
63 64
65 64 65 64
In a green field network the optimisation of a mesh VC-12 layer of any
reasonable size can be a complex task. It involves:
Choosing which nodes have VC-12 routing capability
What nodes to associate with routing hubs
What links to provide between them.
To do this properly requires a powerful network optimisation tool. Furthermore
the resulting optimal design may be sensitive to changes in traffic
distributions.
In practice the optimisation problem is often simplified since either one is
adding to an established network or the primary routing nodes have been
identified. An established network will have a known VC-12 layer topology. The
location of primary routing nodes may have already been determined by the
availability of suitable buildings or interconnect locations.
This leads to the architecture in Figure 5-11 where two locations have been
predetermined as sites for 4/1 cross-connects. Individual nodes are assigned to
a cross-connect. The creation of VC-12 highways is then a relatively simple
task.
In the architecture shown in Figure 5-11 the VC-12 layer is now a star network.
The VC-4 links between the nodes. however, can be protected using VC-4
protection schemes, so the availability is still good. Also, the underlying VC-4
network is a ring network so there is scope for further optimisation. Consider the
connections from A and B to E. In practice the connection from A to E may be
routed round a ring that passes through node B, as shown in Figure 5-12. If the
demands from A to E and B to E are small (for example 10 to 20 VC-12s) there
is scope for combining the A to E demand with the B to E demand at node B and
forming a collector VC-4 that starts at A, collects additional traffic at B and
finishes at E as shown in the lower inset diagram in Figure 5-12. A similar
treatment could also be applied to the connections from C to E and D to E
provided that these also carry a small number of VC-12s.
Figure 5-11 Predetermined Cross-Connect Sites
A
B
C
D
F G
J
K
L
M
I
E
VC-12 Layer
Design Issues
Identify 4/1 Hubs
Major Nodes
Well Connected
Assign Nodes to Hubs
Home traffic and generate VC-4
highway requirements
If link protection in VC-4 level, can limit
number of nodes on path
Issues
Simple
No guarantee of optimisation
Reflects real network structure
VC-4 from each node, possible low fill
A
B
C
E
F
G
H
J
K
I
V
C
-
4

H
i
g
h
w
a
y
VC-4 Layer (Rings)
D
L
M
4/1
4/1
63 64
65 64 65 64
Figure 5-12 VC-4 Collectors
The use of collector VC-4s:
Increases the fill of the VC-4s making more efficient use of transport
Reduces the number of VC-4 ports on the hubbing cross-connect
Allows full routing flexibility
A connection from node A to B is achieved via the collector alone. A connection
from node A to C is implemented via the A and C node collectors and the hub
cross-connect at E. The ADMs used to manage the collector can logically be
divided into VC-12 and VC-4 management ADMs. They can be implemented
either as two physical LO and HO boxes or by a combined multiplexer that
performs VC-12 management and has a sufficiently high bandwidth, that is,
STM-4 or STM-16, aggregates.
A B
C D
F
E
VC-12 Layer
Design Issues
Group VC-4 highways into common
collectors
Ring membership simplifies task
May need to protect collectors in VC-12
layer
A
B
C
E
VC-4 Layer (Rings)
D
4/1
4/1
4/1
C
E D
A B
VC-4 Collectors
HO Mux
LO Mux
65 66
67 66 67 66
Figure 5-12 VC-4 Collectors
The use of collector VC-4s:
Increases the fill of the VC-4s making more efficient use of transport
Reduces the number of VC-4 ports on the hubbing cross-connect
Allows full routing flexibility
A connection from node A to B is achieved via the collector alone. A connection
from node A to C is implemented via the A and C node collectors and the hub
cross-connect at E. The ADMs used to manage the collector can logically be
divided into VC-12 and VC-4 management ADMs. They can be implemented
either as two physical LO and HO boxes or by a combined multiplexer that
performs VC-12 management and has a sufficiently high bandwidth, that is,
STM-4 or STM-16, aggregates.
A B
C D
F
E
VC-12 Layer
Design Issues
Group VC-4 highways into common
collectors
Ring membership simplifies task
May need to protect collectors in VC-12
layer
A
B
C
E
VC-4 Layer (Rings)
D
4/1
4/1
4/1
C
E D
A B
VC-4 Collectors
HO Mux
LO Mux
65 66
67 66 67 66
Protection Protection
Protection
Introduction
With the evolution of modern society we have become increasingly more
dependent on the transmission network. Businesses have spread geographically
and become global. They rely on transmission links for the transport of data and
voice traffic. Not only has the volume of traffic increased, but the end customer
has become more demanding. A highly reliable service from operators is
required. For example, a loss of traffic for a few seconds can result in a bank
losing large sums of money.
What happens if a link fails? For example a fibre break can occur if a fibre duct
is severed by a mechanical excavator. Even with this type of failure the end user
will not tolerate a loss of service. Alternatively a power cut may cause
equipment to fail or essential maintenance may lead to equipment down time.
The very high capacity of SDH links means that a single link failure can have a
huge impact on the services supplied by the network unless it is adequately
protected. A resilient network ensuring that traffic can be restored automatically
in the event of failure is, therefore, of prime importance. SDH transmission
systems enable deployment of standard automatic protection schemes.
The subject of network protection has many terms and concepts. Moreover for
some terms there is no universally accepted meaning. This chapter defines these
terms and concepts and then discusses common protection schemes and how
these inter-work
Terms
Subnetwork: A single network may be viewed as the interconnection of
multiple subnetworks. A ring is a simple example of a subnetwork. These
subnetworks may be organised into different geographical areas or subnetworks
belonging to different operators.
Survivability: A network may be described as survivable if there is no single
point of failure between any two nodes. A simple example is shown in
Figure 6-1. The provision of main and alternative traffic paths between any two
end nodes means that the network is survivable in the presence of a single point
of failure.
Figure 6-1 Survivability
Availability: Availability is a measure of the proportion of the time that a
network is able to provide service to the end customer. It indicates how often or
consistently the network can offer the transport functions which the service
requires for its successful use by the end customer. Since this is of importance
to the customer, it contributes to the definition of service level agreements.
6
A A
B
B
Diverse
protection
path
Line
break
Diverse protection
path now carries
traffic
A - B is an end to end VC-12 path across network
(i) (ii)
67 68
6 Protection
69 68 69 68
Protection
Introduction
With the evolution of modern society we have become increasingly more
dependent on the transmission network. Businesses have spread geographically
and become global. They rely on transmission links for the transport of data and
voice traffic. Not only has the volume of traffic increased, but the end customer
has become more demanding. A highly reliable service from operators is
required. For example, a loss of traffic for a few seconds can result in a bank
losing large sums of money.
What happens if a link fails? For example a fibre break can occur if a fibre duct
is severed by a mechanical excavator. Even with this type of failure the end user
will not tolerate a loss of service. Alternatively a power cut may cause
equipment to fail or essential maintenance may lead to equipment down time.
The very high capacity of SDH links means that a single link failure can have a
huge impact on the services supplied by the network unless it is adequately
protected. A resilient network ensuring that traffic can be restored automatically
in the event of failure is, therefore, of prime importance. SDH transmission
systems enable deployment of standard automatic protection schemes.
The subject of network protection has many terms and concepts. Moreover for
some terms there is no universally accepted meaning. This chapter defines these
terms and concepts and then discusses common protection schemes and how
these inter-work
Terms
Subnetwork: A single network may be viewed as the interconnection of
multiple subnetworks. A ring is a simple example of a subnetwork. These
subnetworks may be organised into different geographical areas or subnetworks
belonging to different operators.
Survivability: A network may be described as survivable if there is no single
point of failure between any two nodes. A simple example is shown in
Figure 6-1. The provision of main and alternative traffic paths between any two
end nodes means that the network is survivable in the presence of a single point
of failure.
Figure 6-1 Survivability
Availability: Availability is a measure of the proportion of the time that a
network is able to provide service to the end customer. It indicates how often or
consistently the network can offer the transport functions which the service
requires for its successful use by the end customer. Since this is of importance
to the customer, it contributes to the definition of service level agreements.
6
A A
B
B
Diverse
protection
path
Line
break
Diverse protection
path now carries
traffic
A - B is an end to end VC-12 path across network
(i) (ii)
67 68
6 Protection
69 68 69 68
It is typically measured as a percentage of the time a connection is functioning.
This takes into account the survivability of the network, failure rate of its
components and repair times. This term reflects the average quality of service an
end customer can expect to experience on a day to day basis.
Figure 6-2 Availability
The following definitions are some of the ways that availability can be
improved.
Equipment protection: The availability of the equipment can be improved by
applying local protection in the network element itself. For example the power
supply, system clock or tributary units can be duplicated. A failed card is
replaced by a protection card. It will be replaced automatically where
Automatic Equipment Protection is in operation.
Network Resilience: To increase the survivability of the network and so the
overall availability, network links can be protected. Procedures are applied to
ensure that a failed transport link is replaced by a working link and that there is
an alternative path should there be a complete network element (node) failure.
There are two types of mechanism utlised to ensure that the service can be
recovered in this way:
Restoration: This is a slow automatic or manual process which uses
spare capacity between end nodes to recover traffic after a loss of
service. On detection of failure, traffic has to be re-routed via an
alternative path. The alternative path is found according to predefined
algorithms and usually uses digital cross-connects. The whole
process can take several minutes.
Protection: In contrast, protection involves automatic mechanisms
within the network elements, which ensure that failures are detected
and compensated for before a loss of service occurs. Protection
makes use of pre-assigned capacity between nodes and is preferable
to restoration because the reserve capacity is certain to be available
and can be accessed more quickly.
Figure 6-3 Contributing Factors to Overall Availability
These concepts will be discussed in the following sections.
Causes of failure: The physical sources of failure in SDH transmission
networks can be classified into the following categories:
Fibres and cables. The main cause of failure of fibres and cables is
damage by external agents such as civil engineering works and
environmental effects such as lightning strikes or earthquakes.
Equipment may fail due to aging effects, random component
stressing or the ingress of moisture. Rigorous tests are, however,
normally assumed to have eliminated early life failures.
Survivability
of networks
Repair time
of components
Failure of
components
Customer
Availability
Improve Overall Availability
Improve Availability
of Equipment
Equipment
Increase Network Availability
Restoration Network
69 70
6 Protection
71 70 71 70
It is typically measured as a percentage of the time a connection is functioning.
This takes into account the survivability of the network, failure rate of its
components and repair times. This term reflects the average quality of service an
end customer can expect to experience on a day to day basis.
Figure 6-2 Availability
The following definitions are some of the ways that availability can be
improved.
Equipment protection: The availability of the equipment can be improved by
applying local protection in the network element itself. For example the power
supply, system clock or tributary units can be duplicated. A failed card is
replaced by a protection card. It will be replaced automatically where
Automatic Equipment Protection is in operation.
Network Resilience: To increase the survivability of the network and so the
overall availability, network links can be protected. Procedures are applied to
ensure that a failed transport link is replaced by a working link and that there is
an alternative path should there be a complete network element (node) failure.
There are two types of mechanism utlised to ensure that the service can be
recovered in this way:
Restoration: This is a slow automatic or manual process which uses
spare capacity between end nodes to recover traffic after a loss of
service. On detection of failure, traffic has to be re-routed via an
alternative path. The alternative path is found according to predefined
algorithms and usually uses digital cross-connects. The whole
process can take several minutes.
Protection: In contrast, protection involves automatic mechanisms
within the network elements, which ensure that failures are detected
and compensated for before a loss of service occurs. Protection
makes use of pre-assigned capacity between nodes and is preferable
to restoration because the reserve capacity is certain to be available
and can be accessed more quickly.
Figure 6-3 Contributing Factors to Overall Availability
These concepts will be discussed in the following sections.
Causes of failure: The physical sources of failure in SDH transmission
networks can be classified into the following categories:
Fibres and cables. The main cause of failure of fibres and cables is
damage by external agents such as civil engineering works and
environmental effects such as lightning strikes or earthquakes.
Equipment may fail due to aging effects, random component
stressing or the ingress of moisture. Rigorous tests are, however,
normally assumed to have eliminated early life failures.
Survivability
of networks
Repair time
of components
Failure of
components
Customer
Availability
Improve Overall Availability
Improve Availability
of Equipment
Equipment
Increase Network Availability
Restoration Network
69 70
6 Protection
71 70 71 70
Mains power failures do occur and are outside the control of the
network operator. Major systems are backed-up by secondary power
supplies, but transient effects on signals are possible while switching
to the secondary power supply.
Maintenance. Unscheduled maintenance and errors made during
maintenance can affect the availability of service.
Routing mistakes by the operator can also affect the availability of
service, however, these can be minimised by the inclusion of
protection switch triggers such as path trace alarms within the
network elements.
Disasters whether caused by environmental or human action, usually
have widespread and severe effects such as the destruction of major
network components.
Equipment Protection
Quality targets are set for the elements in an SDH transmission network and
these affect the availability measure of the network. To achieve the availability
requirements it is sometimes necessary to duplicate modules within the network
element.
Every component within a network element has a failure rate associated with it.
This is used with information regarding the interaction of components, to
calculate failure rates for the circuit cards. Similarly the circuit card failure rates
and interaction information are used to calculate a failure rate for the network
element. Taking into account the repair time and software failure information an
overall availability measure for the network element is calculated.
The availability can be improved by provisioning a standby component to take
over on failure. This local protection is commonly applied to several units;
power supply, clock generation, switch matrix and tributary cards.
For example a standby tributary card maybe provisioned in the network element.
In the event of failure of the working tributary card, traffic is automatically
switched to the standby card with no interruption of service to the end user.
Failure of cards is not the only reason for tributary protection. Standby cards are
also used during routine maintenance. Traffic can be manually switched to the
standby card while the working card is maintained. This also enables the
working card to be upgraded while the network element is in service with no
interruption of service to the end user.
There are different standard schemes for equipment protection. For example if
one standby card is included for each working card, these cards are 1+1
protected (see Figure 6-4).
Figure 6-4 1+1 and 1:n Protection
It is also common for one protection card to be provisioned for several working
cards. In the event of failure of any of the working cards, traffic is automatically
switched to the protection card. This is 1:n protection.
For example in an STM-16 multiplexer, 1:16 protection could be implemented
on the STM-1 tributary cards. Sixteen STM-1e (electrical) cards can be installed
in the shelf to support sixteen STM-1 tributaries. A 17th card is also included.
In the event of failure of any one of the STM-1e cards, traffic may be switched
to the standby protection card.
Working
Standby
Working
Working
Working
Working
Standby
1 + 1 Protection
1 : n Protection
71 72
6 Protection
73 72 73 72
Mains power failures do occur and are outside the control of the
network operator. Major systems are backed-up by secondary power
supplies, but transient effects on signals are possible while switching
to the secondary power supply.
Maintenance. Unscheduled maintenance and errors made during
maintenance can affect the availability of service.
Routing mistakes by the operator can also affect the availability of
service, however, these can be minimised by the inclusion of
protection switch triggers such as path trace alarms within the
network elements.
Disasters whether caused by environmental or human action, usually
have widespread and severe effects such as the destruction of major
network components.
Equipment Protection
Quality targets are set for the elements in an SDH transmission network and
these affect the availability measure of the network. To achieve the availability
requirements it is sometimes necessary to duplicate modules within the network
element.
Every component within a network element has a failure rate associated with it.
This is used with information regarding the interaction of components, to
calculate failure rates for the circuit cards. Similarly the circuit card failure rates
and interaction information are used to calculate a failure rate for the network
element. Taking into account the repair time and software failure information an
overall availability measure for the network element is calculated.
The availability can be improved by provisioning a standby component to take
over on failure. This local protection is commonly applied to several units;
power supply, clock generation, switch matrix and tributary cards.
For example a standby tributary card maybe provisioned in the network element.
In the event of failure of the working tributary card, traffic is automatically
switched to the standby card with no interruption of service to the end user.
Failure of cards is not the only reason for tributary protection. Standby cards are
also used during routine maintenance. Traffic can be manually switched to the
standby card while the working card is maintained. This also enables the
working card to be upgraded while the network element is in service with no
interruption of service to the end user.
There are different standard schemes for equipment protection. For example if
one standby card is included for each working card, these cards are 1+1
protected (see Figure 6-4).
Figure 6-4 1+1 and 1:n Protection
It is also common for one protection card to be provisioned for several working
cards. In the event of failure of any of the working cards, traffic is automatically
switched to the protection card. This is 1:n protection.
For example in an STM-16 multiplexer, 1:16 protection could be implemented
on the STM-1 tributary cards. Sixteen STM-1e (electrical) cards can be installed
in the shelf to support sixteen STM-1 tributaries. A 17th card is also included.
In the event of failure of any one of the STM-1e cards, traffic may be switched
to the standby protection card.
Working
Standby
Working
Working
Working
Working
Standby
1 + 1 Protection
1 : n Protection
71 72
6 Protection
73 72 73 72
Equipment protection increases the availability of the individual network
elements, but does not protect against the loss of an entire network element. To
ensure that traffic can be re-routed if a network element is lost, protection
schemes must be implemented which increase the survivability of the network.
Network resilience rather than local equipment protection is required to protect
against the failure of a node or the loss of a link.
Restoration
Restoration is concerned with the availability of an end to end path of service.
It works across the entire network and re-routes traffic to maintain service. A
percentage of network capacity is set aside for restoration. After a loss of signal
has been detected, traffic is re-routed via the spare capacity. Re-routing
algorithms are programmed into the network element software. The alternative
path may be found by dropping lower priority traffic or using spare capacity
between nodes.
In contrast with network protection procedures, the capacity used for restoration
need not be preassigned. In some protection schemes a link is dedicated as a
protection link for the working link. This is not the case in restoration, where
spare capacity can be shared.
Although this strategy offers great flexibility, there will often be a considerable
number of re-routing options so the algorithms are relatively complex. The
computation time required to find an alternative traffic route means that it is
difficult to have rapid restoration of affected traffic. Also restoration is initiated
only after a loss of signal has been detected by the network management system,
not when the failure actually occurs. This leads to restoration times which are
relatively slow, ranging from seconds or minutes to hours. This complex
procedure is outlined below:
In a protected network the elements detect a failure as soon as it occurs and take
corrective action according to predefined procedures, without instruction from
the network management system. Restoration is a slower process and so the
disruption the end user experiences is greater. In contrast with Restoration, an
automatic protection scheme such as Multiplex Section Protection (MSP) or
MS-SPRing, traffic is re-routed in less than 50 ms, so the end users experience
no disruption.
Restoration has not yet been standardised. The various products on offer have
been developed to meet the internal specifications of a number of operators.
Network Protection
Network protection procedures are employed to self-heal network failures
should a link or network element fail. What effectively happens is that a network
element will detect a failure or loss of traffic and initiates corrective action
without involving the network management system.
There are many protection mechanisms defined by standards bodies, the next
section will discuss the commonly deployed schemes. These schemes can be
subdivided into those that protect at the section layer and those that protect at the
path layer or subnetwork. The difference will become more obvious as the
common schemes are discussed, but as a simple introduction:
Protecting at the section layer involves the switching of all the traffic
on a section to an alternative fibre section.
Protecting at the path or trail layer involves the protection of a virtual
container on an end to end path within the subnetwork. In the event of
failure, only the virtual container in question is switched to an
alternative path.
The type of protection scheme employed is usually dictated by the network
architecture and this is discussed later in this Chapter.
Dedicated Path/ VC Trail Protection
This type of protection involves duplicating the traffic in the form of virtual
containers as it enters the network and transmitting this signal simultaneously in
1 Alarms from network detected via management system
2 Alarms analysed to determine their cause
3 Alternative subnetwork connections to restore path connected
4 Path implemented by changing connections
5 Path validated
73 74
6 Protection
75 74 75 74
Equipment protection increases the availability of the individual network
elements, but does not protect against the loss of an entire network element. To
ensure that traffic can be re-routed if a network element is lost, protection
schemes must be implemented which increase the survivability of the network.
Network resilience rather than local equipment protection is required to protect
against the failure of a node or the loss of a link.
Restoration
Restoration is concerned with the availability of an end to end path of service.
It works across the entire network and re-routes traffic to maintain service. A
percentage of network capacity is set aside for restoration. After a loss of signal
has been detected, traffic is re-routed via the spare capacity. Re-routing
algorithms are programmed into the network element software. The alternative
path may be found by dropping lower priority traffic or using spare capacity
between nodes.
In contrast with network protection procedures, the capacity used for restoration
need not be preassigned. In some protection schemes a link is dedicated as a
protection link for the working link. This is not the case in restoration, where
spare capacity can be shared.
Although this strategy offers great flexibility, there will often be a considerable
number of re-routing options so the algorithms are relatively complex. The
computation time required to find an alternative traffic route means that it is
difficult to have rapid restoration of affected traffic. Also restoration is initiated
only after a loss of signal has been detected by the network management system,
not when the failure actually occurs. This leads to restoration times which are
relatively slow, ranging from seconds or minutes to hours. This complex
procedure is outlined below:
In a protected network the elements detect a failure as soon as it occurs and take
corrective action according to predefined procedures, without instruction from
the network management system. Restoration is a slower process and so the
disruption the end user experiences is greater. In contrast with Restoration, an
automatic protection scheme such as Multiplex Section Protection (MSP) or
MS-SPRing, traffic is re-routed in less than 50 ms, so the end users experience
no disruption.
Restoration has not yet been standardised. The various products on offer have
been developed to meet the internal specifications of a number of operators.
Network Protection
Network protection procedures are employed to self-heal network failures
should a link or network element fail. What effectively happens is that a network
element will detect a failure or loss of traffic and initiates corrective action
without involving the network management system.
There are many protection mechanisms defined by standards bodies, the next
section will discuss the commonly deployed schemes. These schemes can be
subdivided into those that protect at the section layer and those that protect at the
path layer or subnetwork. The difference will become more obvious as the
common schemes are discussed, but as a simple introduction:
Protecting at the section layer involves the switching of all the traffic
on a section to an alternative fibre section.
Protecting at the path or trail layer involves the protection of a virtual
container on an end to end path within the subnetwork. In the event of
failure, only the virtual container in question is switched to an
alternative path.
The type of protection scheme employed is usually dictated by the network
architecture and this is discussed later in this Chapter.
Dedicated Path/ VC Trail Protection
This type of protection involves duplicating the traffic in the form of virtual
containers as it enters the network and transmitting this signal simultaneously in
1 Alarms from network detected via management system
2 Alarms analysed to determine their cause
3 Alternative subnetwork connections to restore path connected
4 Path implemented by changing connections
5 Path validated
73 74
6 Protection
75 74 75 74
two directions across the network. A dedicated protection path carries the traffic
in one direction and a working path carries the signal on a different route. At the
receiving network element the quality of the signal from the two paths is
compared and the higher quality signal selected. This is referred to as the
working path. In event of failure on this path the receiving end will switch to the
other path, the protection path.
Figure 6-5 Dedicated Path
This will protect not only the links themselves but also protect against the failure
of an intermediate node. A special example of this type of mechanism is the
path-protected ring. As the traffic enters the ring it is simultaneously transmitted
in both directions around the ring. Selection is made at the exit node for the best
of the two connections.
Figure 6-6 Path-protected ring
The mechanism can be applied to rings and also end to end paths across mesh or
mixed networks across many network elements and intermediate subnetworks.
Subnetwork Connection Protection
SNCP is similar to path protection, but whereas dedicated path protection
involves switching at the end of an end to end path, in SNCP switching can be
initiated at the end of a path or at an intermediate node, see Figure 6-7. The
network can be decomposed into a number of interconnected subnetworks.
Within each subnetwork protection is provided at the path level and automatic
protection switching between the two paths is provided at the subnetwork
boundaries.
The selection of the best quality signal is made, not just by the network element
at the end of the path, but also by intermediate nodes at the exit of each
subnetwork through which the path traverses. The virtual container is not
terminated at the intermediate network element it instead compares the quality
of the signal on the two incoming ports and selects the better quality signal. The
difference between this and path protection is best illustrated by the following
example.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Node F receives both working
and protected traffic and
selects the highest quality
A
B
w
1
w
2
p
1
p
2
75 76
6 Protection
77 76 77 76
two directions across the network. A dedicated protection path carries the traffic
in one direction and a working path carries the signal on a different route. At the
receiving network element the quality of the signal from the two paths is
compared and the higher quality signal selected. This is referred to as the
working path. In event of failure on this path the receiving end will switch to the
other path, the protection path.
Figure 6-5 Dedicated Path
This will protect not only the links themselves but also protect against the failure
of an intermediate node. A special example of this type of mechanism is the
path-protected ring. As the traffic enters the ring it is simultaneously transmitted
in both directions around the ring. Selection is made at the exit node for the best
of the two connections.
Figure 6-6 Path-protected ring
The mechanism can be applied to rings and also end to end paths across mesh or
mixed networks across many network elements and intermediate subnetworks.
Subnetwork Connection Protection
SNCP is similar to path protection, but whereas dedicated path protection
involves switching at the end of an end to end path, in SNCP switching can be
initiated at the end of a path or at an intermediate node, see Figure 6-7. The
network can be decomposed into a number of interconnected subnetworks.
Within each subnetwork protection is provided at the path level and automatic
protection switching between the two paths is provided at the subnetwork
boundaries.
The selection of the best quality signal is made, not just by the network element
at the end of the path, but also by intermediate nodes at the exit of each
subnetwork through which the path traverses. The virtual container is not
terminated at the intermediate network element it instead compares the quality
of the signal on the two incoming ports and selects the better quality signal. The
difference between this and path protection is best illustrated by the following
example.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Node F receives both working
and protected traffic and
selects the highest quality
A
B
w
1
w
2
p
1
p
2
75 76
6 Protection
77 76 77 76
Figure 6-7 Subnetwork Connection Protection
In the event of the two simultaneous failures, protection switching must occur at
the intermediate nodes A (see Figure 6-7) for the traffic to reach the far end.
SNCP results in a higher availablity for the connection than dedicated path
because SNCP allows the network to survive two simultaneous failures whereas
dedicated path protection cannot.
In principle path protection end to end appears to have many attractions; end to
end network wide protection is possible and individual paths can be selectively
protected. Complex control, however, is required to ensure truly diverse routes.
A large amount of capacity is used and it is very difficult to co-ordinate
scheduled maintenance activities across the whole network. Path protection,
therefore, becomes more acceptable when limited to the subnetwork level, that
is, SNCP. SNCP works particularly well over rings, because diversity of fibre
routes is ensured.
Resilience can be offered at a number of SDH levels including end to end path
(trail), subnetwork level and multiplex section level. The mechanisms described
above offer protection at the end to end path and subnetwork level. These
involve the protection of individual virtual containers across an end to end path.
In the event of failure only the virtual container in question is switched to an
alternative path, so selective protection of individual VCs is possible. For
example, a business customer may require protection of a leased line, the path of
this can be protected across the whole network without protecting the other
traffic on the network. In contrast the next mechanism is a section layer
protection mechanism and involves the switching of all the virtual container
traffic on a section onto an alternative fibre section.
It should also be noted that both end to end path and subnetwork path protection
can be applied to both higher order and lower order paths as described in
Chapter 5.
The previous examples describe 1+1 single-ended configurations. It should be
mentioned that 1:1 dual-ended configurations are possible, allowing low priority
traffic to use the protection path. These are mentioned in ITU-T
recommendation G.841 but at the time of writing have not been defined.
Traffic switched to
protection path
Working
Protection
path
path
Tributaries
Tributaries
A A
Failure
Traffic switched
at end node
A
Failure
Failure
Traffic lost on both
working and protected paths
(i) Dedicated Path
1 2 3
Traffic switched to
protection path
Working
Protection
path
path
Tributaries
Tributaries
A A
Failure
Traffic switched
at end node
A
Failure
Failure
Traffic switched
at intermediate node
4 5 6
(ii) Subnetwork Connection Protection
77 78
6 Protection
79 78 79 78
Figure 6-7 Subnetwork Connection Protection
In the event of the two simultaneous failures, protection switching must occur at
the intermediate nodes A (see Figure 6-7) for the traffic to reach the far end.
SNCP results in a higher availablity for the connection than dedicated path
because SNCP allows the network to survive two simultaneous failures whereas
dedicated path protection cannot.
In principle path protection end to end appears to have many attractions; end to
end network wide protection is possible and individual paths can be selectively
protected. Complex control, however, is required to ensure truly diverse routes.
A large amount of capacity is used and it is very difficult to co-ordinate
scheduled maintenance activities across the whole network. Path protection,
therefore, becomes more acceptable when limited to the subnetwork level, that
is, SNCP. SNCP works particularly well over rings, because diversity of fibre
routes is ensured.
Resilience can be offered at a number of SDH levels including end to end path
(trail), subnetwork level and multiplex section level. The mechanisms described
above offer protection at the end to end path and subnetwork level. These
involve the protection of individual virtual containers across an end to end path.
In the event of failure only the virtual container in question is switched to an
alternative path, so selective protection of individual VCs is possible. For
example, a business customer may require protection of a leased line, the path of
this can be protected across the whole network without protecting the other
traffic on the network. In contrast the next mechanism is a section layer
protection mechanism and involves the switching of all the virtual container
traffic on a section onto an alternative fibre section.
It should also be noted that both end to end path and subnetwork path protection
can be applied to both higher order and lower order paths as described in
Chapter 5.
The previous examples describe 1+1 single-ended configurations. It should be
mentioned that 1:1 dual-ended configurations are possible, allowing low priority
traffic to use the protection path. These are mentioned in ITU-T
recommendation G.841 but at the time of writing have not been defined.
Traffic switched to
protection path
Working
Protection
path
path
Tributaries
Tributaries
A A
Failure
Traffic switched
at end node
A
Failure
Failure
Traffic lost on both
working and protected paths
(i) Dedicated Path
1 2 3
Traffic switched to
protection path
Working
Protection
path
path
Tributaries
Tributaries
A A
Failure
Traffic switched
at end node
A
Failure
Failure
Traffic switched
at intermediate node
4 5 6
(ii) Subnetwork Connection Protection
77 78
6 Protection
79 78 79 78
Multiplex Section Linear Protection
This procedure operates on a traffic section that is between two adjacent nodes.
Between these two nodes there are two separate links on two different fibres;
working and protection. In the event of failure of the link, the entire signal will
be switched from the working to the protection fibre.
Figure 6-8 Multiplex Section Protection Schemes
There are different types of Multiplex Section Protection (MSP):
1:1 protection is dual ended. Traffic is initially sent via the working link only.
A failure is detected at the far end when it no longer receives traffic. A signal is
sent to the transmitting end this triggers protection switching to the standby path
at both ends. This means that low priority traffic can be carried on the protection
channel, while traffic is on the working channel, this traffic will be lost if
protection switching is initiated.
1:n is similar to the above except several working channels can be protected by
one protection channel
1+1 MSP: traffic is initially transmitted on both working and protection paths,
if loss of traffic is detected at the receiving end it will switch to the protection
path. There is no need for backward signalling, however, the standby section
cannot be utlised for other traffic and so fibre capacity requirements are high.
MSP protects traffic between adjacent network elements, but only the link
between these two nodes is protected, there is no protection against a complete
node failure. Another limitation is that physically diverse paths for working and
protection fibres are required. If the working and protection fibres were in the
same physical duct and this was damaged, both working and protection paths
would be lost.
Figure 6-9 Diverse Path Protection
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
Switch when failure
(i) 1 : 1 Multiplex Section Protection
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
Switch
(ii) 1 + 1 Multiplex Section Protection
when
failure
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
(i) Working and standby fibres in same cable
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
(ii) Working and standby fibres in diverse paths
Cable break affects both.
Cable break only affects working fibres.
Traffic switched to standby.
Diverse path
79 80
6 Protection
81 80 81 80
Multiplex Section Linear Protection
This procedure operates on a traffic section that is between two adjacent nodes.
Between these two nodes there are two separate links on two different fibres;
working and protection. In the event of failure of the link, the entire signal will
be switched from the working to the protection fibre.
Figure 6-8 Multiplex Section Protection Schemes
There are different types of Multiplex Section Protection (MSP):
1:1 protection is dual ended. Traffic is initially sent via the working link only.
A failure is detected at the far end when it no longer receives traffic. A signal is
sent to the transmitting end this triggers protection switching to the standby path
at both ends. This means that low priority traffic can be carried on the protection
channel, while traffic is on the working channel, this traffic will be lost if
protection switching is initiated.
1:n is similar to the above except several working channels can be protected by
one protection channel
1+1 MSP: traffic is initially transmitted on both working and protection paths,
if loss of traffic is detected at the receiving end it will switch to the protection
path. There is no need for backward signalling, however, the standby section
cannot be utlised for other traffic and so fibre capacity requirements are high.
MSP protects traffic between adjacent network elements, but only the link
between these two nodes is protected, there is no protection against a complete
node failure. Another limitation is that physically diverse paths for working and
protection fibres are required. If the working and protection fibres were in the
same physical duct and this was damaged, both working and protection paths
would be lost.
Figure 6-9 Diverse Path Protection
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
Switch when failure
(i) 1 : 1 Multiplex Section Protection
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
Switch
(ii) 1 + 1 Multiplex Section Protection
when
failure
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
(i) Working and standby fibres in same cable
SDH
Multiplexer
Working fibres
SDH
Multiplexer
Standby fibres
(ii) Working and standby fibres in diverse paths
Cable break affects both.
Cable break only affects working fibres.
Traffic switched to standby.
Diverse path
79 80
6 Protection
81 80 81 80
Two alternative routes must, therefore, be laid between pairs of adjacent nodes.
This needs consideration when deploying this type of protection scheme.
Multiplex section linear protection is typically used for linear meshed networks.
Physically diverse paths are, however, required and the mesh becomes
increasingly more complex as it grows. With the scarcity of fibre becoming a
critical issue many operators are beginning to favour the deployment of rings.
Rings ensure the lowest possible connectivity between a set of nodes whilst
ensuring that between each pair of nodes there is a physically diverse path which
can be used for protection.
Figure 6-10 Ring Topology Enabling Diverse Protection Paths
Self Healing Rings
Self healing Ring protection procedures are becoming increasingly common,
because they provide a diverse route for protection and so efficient use of fibre.
There are several types of ring protection schemes. These can be split into those
that protect at the section layer and those at the path layer. These can then be
further subdivided into Uni-directional and Bi-directional schemes. Two types
of self healing ring mechanisms will be considered here, as these are the two
commonly deployed in the ETSI market:
Path protected bi-directional rings (dedicated protection rings or
path-protected rings)
Bi-directional shared protection rings (SPRings).
Figure 6-11 Self-healing Rings
Dedicated Protection Rings
This is a type of dedicated path protection, applied to a ring. As traffic enters the
ring at node A (see Figure 6-12) it is simultaneously sent in both directions
around the ring. One direction can be considered a working path w and the
other direction protection path, p. The receiving node will select the best
quality connection. For example assume that the best quality signal is w; in the
event of a fibre break between A and B on w , B will select traffic from path p.
A B
Working traffic A - B
Standby traffic A - B
Self-healing Rings
Section Layer Protected Path Layer Protected
Uni MS-DPRing Bi MS-SPRing
2F 4F
ETSI Markets
Uni Path/SNC Bi Path/SNC
HOP LOP
(High order
Path)
(Low order
path)
Only common in ANSI markets
HOP LOP
ETSI Markets
81 82
6 Protection
83 82 83 82
Two alternative routes must, therefore, be laid between pairs of adjacent nodes.
This needs consideration when deploying this type of protection scheme.
Multiplex section linear protection is typically used for linear meshed networks.
Physically diverse paths are, however, required and the mesh becomes
increasingly more complex as it grows. With the scarcity of fibre becoming a
critical issue many operators are beginning to favour the deployment of rings.
Rings ensure the lowest possible connectivity between a set of nodes whilst
ensuring that between each pair of nodes there is a physically diverse path which
can be used for protection.
Figure 6-10 Ring Topology Enabling Diverse Protection Paths
Self Healing Rings
Self healing Ring protection procedures are becoming increasingly common,
because they provide a diverse route for protection and so efficient use of fibre.
There are several types of ring protection schemes. These can be split into those
that protect at the section layer and those at the path layer. These can then be
further subdivided into Uni-directional and Bi-directional schemes. Two types
of self healing ring mechanisms will be considered here, as these are the two
commonly deployed in the ETSI market:
Path protected bi-directional rings (dedicated protection rings or
path-protected rings)
Bi-directional shared protection rings (SPRings).
Figure 6-11 Self-healing Rings
Dedicated Protection Rings
This is a type of dedicated path protection, applied to a ring. As traffic enters the
ring at node A (see Figure 6-12) it is simultaneously sent in both directions
around the ring. One direction can be considered a working path w and the
other direction protection path, p. The receiving node will select the best
quality connection. For example assume that the best quality signal is w; in the
event of a fibre break between A and B on w , B will select traffic from path p .
A B
Working traffic A - B
Standby traffic A - B
Self-healing Rings
Section Layer Protected Path Layer Protected
Uni MS-DPRing Bi MS-SPRing
2F 4F
ETSI Markets
Uni Path/SNC Bi Path/SNC
HOP LOP
(High order
Path)
(Low order
path)
Only common in ANSI markets
HOP LOP
ETSI Markets
81 82
6 Protection
83 82 83 82
Figure 6-12 D-PRing
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Rings (MS-SPRing)
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Rings, commonly called MS-SPRings
are a ring protection mechanism. In contrast to the dedicated protection ring,
traffic is sent on only one route around the ring. A protection path is not
dedicated for the protection of each working path, instead capacity on the ring
is reserved for protection and this can be shared for the protection of several
working paths. Protection switching is initiated at the section level in a similar
way to multiplex section linear protection; in the event of failure all traffic on a
section is switched. This mechanism can achieve significant capacity savings
over a dedicated ring protection mechanism, allowing the operator to increase
the number of working paths on a ring.
So what is an MS-SPRing? In normal mode from A (see Figure 6-13 (i)) a
virtual container with traffic destined for B is sent from A to B on the section
between A and B only. In the event of a failure between A and B (see
Figure 6-13 (ii)), all the traffic on this section will be re-routed onto the capacity
reserved for protection. This is in a similar way to MSP, all the traffic on a
section is switched to a protection section the instant there is a fibre break. Figure 6-13 MS-SPRing
A
B
w
p
B selects
traffic from w
A
B
w
p
B selects
traffic from p
(i) Normal operation
(ii) Fibre break
A
B
Working
traffic
Standby
traffic
16 VC-4s:
8 Working
8 Standby
C
D
E F
A
B
Working
traffic
Standby
traffic
C
D
E F
(ii) Fibre break
83 84
6 Protection
85 84 85 84
Figure 6-12 D-PRing
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Rings (MS-SPRing)
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Rings, commonly called MS-SPRings
are a ring protection mechanism. In contrast to the dedicated protection ring,
traffic is sent on only one route around the ring. A protection path is not
dedicated for the protection of each working path, instead capacity on the ring
is reserved for protection and this can be shared for the protection of several
working paths. Protection switching is initiated at the section level in a similar
way to multiplex section linear protection; in the event of failure all traffic on a
section is switched. This mechanism can achieve significant capacity savings
over a dedicated ring protection mechanism, allowing the operator to increase
the number of working paths on a ring.
So what is an MS-SPRing? In normal mode from A (see Figure 6-13 (i)) a
virtual container with traffic destined for B is sent from A to B on the section
between A and B only. In the event of a failure between A and B (see
Figure 6-13 (ii)), all the traffic on this section will be re-routed onto the capacity
reserved for protection. This is in a similar way to MSP, all the traffic on a
section is switched to a protection section the instant there is a fibre break. Figure 6-13 MS-SPRing
A
B
w
p
B selects
traffic from w
A
B
w
p
B selects
traffic from p
(ii) Fibre break
A
B
Working
traffic
Standby
traffic
16 VC-4s:
8 Working
8 Standby
C
D
E F
A
B
Working
traffic
Standby
traffic
C
D
E F
(ii) Fibre break
83 84
6 Protection
85 84 85 84
Each section on the ring has reserved capacity for protection and the virtual
containers in question are re-routed the other way around the ring to B on this
reserved shared capacity. For example assume that the fibre is carrying
STM-16 traffic, so on each section there are the equivalent of 16 STM-1
channels or 16 virtual containers of traffic; VC-4s. On each section eight STM-1
channels will carry working traffic and eight will be reserved for protection.
The capacity advantage that can be achieved with MS-SPRing over a dedicated
path protection ring is not obvious until we extend this simple example to many
paths transiting the ring.
Take an example of a ring with six nodes with a capacity of STM-16, that is 16
STM-1 equivalents. Consider a uniform traffic pattern whereby traffic entering
the ring exits at the adjacent node. In the dedicated protection ring example
shown in Figure 6-14 (i), between A and B eight STM-1 equivalents are
required to route the traffic on route w1 and eight STM-1 equivalents are
required to route this traffic the other way around the ring on route p1. This
leaves only eight STM-1 equivalents on each section of the ring. If traffic is
routed in a similar manner between D and E on w2 and p2, then all the capacity
on the STM-16 ring is used. So a maximum of 16 working paths can be set up
(8 on A-B and 8 on D-E).
Now if we take the same ring, but use an MS-SPRing, Figure 6-14 (ii), the
traffic between A and B uses eight STM-1 equivalents on w1, but the eight
STM-1 equivalents required for protection in the other direction around the ring,
on p2 can be shared. If all traffic exits and enters at adjacent nodes it is possible
to have working paths between all adjacent nodes, that is, eight STM-1
equivalents are used for working traffic all around the ring and on every section
eight STM-1 equivalents are still available for the shared protection of these
working paths.
Figure 6-14 Shared Protection Ring Capacity Advantage
A
B
Working
traffic
Standby
traffic
16 VC-4s:
8 Working
8 Standby
C
D
E F
8 protected working paths in
each section. All traffic dropped
48 protected paths.
and added at each multiplexer.
6 sections giving up to
A
B C
D
E
F
8 working
paths
8 working
paths
Standby paths
for A-B traffic
Standby paths
for D-E traffic
sections A-B and D-E giving
16 protected paths.
w
1
w
2
w
3
w
4
w
5
w
6
p
p
p
p
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1
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1
p
1
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1
p
2
p
2
p
2
(ii) MS-SPRing
(i) Dedicated protection ring
85 86
6 Protection
87 86 87 86
Each section on the ring has reserved capacity for protection and the virtual
containers in question are re-routed the other way around the ring to B on this
reserved shared capacity. For example assume that the fibre is carrying
STM-16 traffic, so on each section there are the equivalent of 16 STM-1
channels or 16 virtual containers of traffic; VC-4s. On each section eight STM-1
channels will carry working traffic and eight will be reserved for protection.
The capacity advantage that can be achieved with MS-SPRing over a dedicated
path protection ring is not obvious until we extend this simple example to many
paths transiting the ring.
Take an example of a ring with six nodes with a capacity of STM-16, that is 16
STM-1 equivalents. Consider a uniform traffic pattern whereby traffic entering
the ring exits at the adjacent node. In the dedicated protection ring example
shown in Figure 6-14 (i), between A and B eight STM-1 equivalents are
required to route the traffic on route w1 and eight STM-1 equivalents are
required to route this traffic the other way around the ring on route p1. This
leaves only eight STM-1 equivalents on each section of the ring. If traffic is
routed in a similar manner between D and E on w2 and p2, then all the capacity
on the STM-16 ring is used. So a maximum of 16 working paths can be set up
(8 on A-B and 8 on D-E).
Now if we take the same ring, but use an MS-SPRing, Figure 6-14 (ii), the
traffic between A and B uses eight STM-1 equivalents on w1, but the eight
STM-1 equivalents required for protection in the other direction around the ring,
on p2 can be shared. If all traffic exits and enters at adjacent nodes it is possible
to have working paths between all adjacent nodes, that is, eight STM-1
equivalents are used for working traffic all around the ring and on every section
eight STM-1 equivalents are still available for the shared protection of these
working paths.
Figure 6-14 Shared Protection Ring Capacity Advantage
A
B
Working
traffic
Standby
traffic
16 VC-4s:
8 Working
8 Standby
C
D
E F
each section. All traffic dropped
48 protected paths.
and added at each multiplexer.
6 sections giving up to
A
B C
D
E
F
8 working
paths
8 working
paths
Standby paths
for A-B traffic
Standby paths
for D-E traffic
sections A-B and D-E giving
16 protected paths.
w
1
w
2
w
3
w
4
w
5
w
6
p
p
p
p
p
p
w
1
w
2
p
1
p
1
p
2
p
2
p
1
p
1
p
1
p
2
p
2
p
2
(ii) MS-SPRing
(i) Dedicated protection ring
85 86
6 Protection
87 86 87 86
As it is possible to have working paths on every section (w1-w6) and there are
eight STM-1 channels on each section, a total of 48 (8 x 6) paths could be set up,
compared to the 16 for the dedicated protection ring.
This traffic pattern is not typical, but if calculations are carried out for a uniform
traffic pattern, which is typical for traffic on a trunk/ backbone network between
major cities or a metropolitan data network, then SPRings can double the
capacity over a dedicated protection ring.
SPRings can also increase the capacity on fibres by reusing the channels
reserved for protection. In many networks there is a demand for low cost high
bandwidth services where cost, not availability, is the priority, for example, IP
traffic. In a SPRing the protection bandwidth is allocated dynamically at the
instant of a fibre break. This means that no unnecessarily large amount of
bandwidth is permanently used for protection and is hence available for such
traffic in addition to the full protected payload. This provides an easy way to
integrate SPRings with end to end path protection schemes where the protection
for the path protected traffic is carried in the extra traffic channels effectively
sharing protection bandwidth between the SPRing and the path protected
network.
The examples have described a 2-fibre SPRing where a single fibre is split
between working and protection with eight VC-4s carrying working traffic and
eight dedicated for shared protection. A 4-fibre version of the SPRing is
possible. In this arrangement, there is no splitting of a single fibres capacity
between working and protection channels; separate fibres are used for each. The
basic availability is the same for 2 and 4-fibre rings, although the 4-fibre ring can
handle two concurrent span failures. 4-fibre rings can, therefore, provide
significant improvements in availability, especially if the fibre on the spans is
diversely routed. Even when this is not the case, the span switching still provides
additional protection against the failure of the ring optical aggregates. 4-fibre
rings do of course require more fibre, however, they can carry twice as much
traffic as 2-fibre rings.
As well as protecting against the failure of a link, SPRings protect against the
failure of any node in the ring, this not the case with linear MSP.
Comparison of Protection schemes
Table 6-1 Comparison of Schemes to Achieve Network Resilience
T
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87 88
6 Protection
89 88 89 88
As it is possible to have working paths on every section (w1-w6) and there are
eight STM-1 channels on each section, a total of 48 (8 x 6) paths could be set up,
compared to the 16 for the dedicated protection ring.
This traffic pattern is not typical, but if calculations are carried out for a uniform
traffic pattern, which is typical for traffic on a trunk/ backbone network between
major cities or a metropolitan data network, then SPRings can double the
capacity over a dedicated protection ring.
SPRings can also increase the capacity on fibres by reusing the channels
reserved for protection. In many networks there is a demand for low cost high
bandwidth services where cost, not availability, is the priority, for example, IP
traffic. In a SPRing the protection bandwidth is allocated dynamically at the
instant of a fibre break. This means that no unnecessarily large amount of
bandwidth is permanently used for protection and is hence available for such
traffic in addition to the full protected payload. This provides an easy way to
integrate SPRings with end to end path protection schemes where the protection
for the path protected traffic is carried in the extra traffic channels effectively
sharing protection bandwidth between the SPRing and the path protected
network.
The examples have described a 2-fibre SPRing where a single fibre is split
between working and protection with eight VC-4s carrying working traffic and
eight dedicated for shared protection. A 4-fibre version of the SPRing is
possible. In this arrangement, there is no splitting of a single fibres capacity
between working and protection channels; separate fibres are used for each. The
basic availability is the same for 2 and 4-fibre rings, although the 4-fibre ring can
handle two concurrent span failures. 4-fibre rings can, therefore, provide
significant improvements in availability, especially if the fibre on the spans is
diversely routed. Even when this is not the case, the span switching still provides
additional protection against the failure of the ring optical aggregates. 4-fibre
rings do of course require more fibre, however, they can carry twice as much
traffic as 2-fibre rings.
As well as protecting against the failure of a link, SPRings protect against the
failure of any node in the ring, this not the case with linear MSP.
Comparison of Protection schemes
Table 6-1 Comparison of Schemes to Achieve Network Resilience
T
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87 88
6 Protection
89 88 89 88
As is evident in the Table 6-1, the common protection schemes vary significantly
in their characteristics. For example:
The time taken to switch traffic to a protection route and subsequent
impact of service to the end customer.
The level at which protection resources appear, that is, protecting at
the path or section level can have a considerable effect on such
matters as robustness, costs and restore times. For example section
level protection involves the switching of all traffic across the section
whereas with path or SNCP it is possible to selectively protect a
single traffic path.
If the bandwidth reserved for protection can be re-used to transport
other traffic when not utilised for protection. For example with the
MS-SPRing the shared protection capacity can be utilised for path
protected traffic.
There is no one best protection scheme. Choice may be determined by the design
of the network, for example SPRings tend to be used in a ring topology whereas
restoration tends to be used in a very highly meshed architecture with many
cross-connects.
The choice of protection scheme can also be determined by the network tier at
which the traffic is carried. At the backbone layers the rate of transmission is
higher, for example, STM-16 or STM-64, so a much larger amount of traffic is
carried on each fibre than a lower layer link. A break in this fibre would have a
more severe impact than the loss of a lower layer fibre. Backbone traffic can,
therefore, justify a full protection scheme such as MS-SPRing or 1+1 MSP.
Traffic patterns vary depending on the layer of the network (see Figure 6-15). At
the backbone or trunk layer, traffic is typically uniform, being carried between
major cities. The same is true for a metropolitan or data network. In this situation
a SPRing can provide a capacity advantage over path protection. The re-use of
capacity reserved for protection bandwidth is also an important consideration,
such as ring extra traffic. At the backbone layer, fibre may be scarce and
making the best use of available bandwidth is critical.
Figure 6-15 Network Hierarchy Traffic Patterns
C
i
t
y

A
C
i
t
y

B
C
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t
y

C
C
i
t
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89 90
6 Protection
91 90 91 90
As is evident in the Table 6-1, the common protection schemes vary significantly
in their characteristics. For example:
The time taken to switch traffic to a protection route and subsequent
impact of service to the end customer.
The level at which protection resources appear, that is, protecting at
the path or section level can have a considerable effect on such
matters as robustness, costs and restore times. For example section
level protection involves the switching of all traffic across the section
whereas with path or SNCP it is possible to selectively protect a
single traffic path.
If the bandwidth reserved for protection can be re-used to transport
other traffic when not utilised for protection. For example with the
MS-SPRing the shared protection capacity can be utilised for path
protected traffic.
There is no one best protection scheme. Choice may be determined by the design
of the network, for example SPRings tend to be used in a ring topology whereas
restoration tends to be used in a very highly meshed architecture with many
cross-connects.
The choice of protection scheme can also be determined by the network tier at
which the traffic is carried. At the backbone layers the rate of transmission is
higher, for example, STM-16 or STM-64, so a much larger amount of traffic is
carried on each fibre than a lower layer link. A break in this fibre would have a
more severe impact than the loss of a lower layer fibre. Backbone traffic can,
therefore, justify a full protection scheme such as MS-SPRing or 1+1 MSP.
Traffic patterns vary depending on the layer of the network (see Figure 6-15). At
the backbone or trunk layer, traffic is typically uniform, being carried between
major cities. The same is true for a metropolitan or data network. In this situation
a SPRing can provide a capacity advantage over path protection. The re-use of
capacity reserved for protection bandwidth is also an important consideration,
such as ring extra traffic. At the backbone layer, fibre may be scarce and
making the best use of available bandwidth is critical.
Figure 6-15 Network Hierarchy Traffic Patterns
C
i
t
y

A
C
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t
y

B
C
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t
y

C
C
i
t
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89 90
6 Protection
91 90 91 90
At the lower regional layer of the network, traffic is typically carried to one
central point so it can be collected and transported to the next tier or taken to a
central exchange. This is described as hubbing traffic. In this situation the
advantages of SPRings are not so great and the need to protect every fibre is not
as critical. Selective path protection schemes such as VC-Trail and SNCP
protection are more common in this situation. For example an end customer may
demand protection of their 2 Mbit/s leased line, this VC-12 path can be
selectively protected by path protection.
Figure 6-16 Detection of Loss of VC-12
This path is protected at the VC-12 level across the entire network. If this path
was only protected at a HO trunk layer, that is at the VC-4 level, by MSP or
MS-SPRing and there was a break in a lower layer fibre, this VC-12 path would
be lost. A full VC-4 circuit, however, would not be lost, so the protection
mechanism at the VC-4 layer would not detect the failure. An operator must
therefore, not only consider which protection scheme to employ but how these
will interwork.
An effective deployment of subnetworks is interconnecting SNCP protected
subnetworks and MS-SPRing protected subnetworks. For example an
MS-SPRing subnetwork is ideal for the core or backbone network. This could be
connected to a regional or local network where subnetwork path protection was
used to apply selective protection to traffic.
Difficulties can arise at the network boundaries of the subnetworks. If single
points are used to interconnect the subnetworks, there is a vulnerable link in the
chain so the interconnection between subnetworks becomes an issue. This is
discussed in the following section.
At the upper regional layer of the network traffic hubbing can be used at a
number of points. Traffic is transported to multiple regional centres containing,
for example, voice switches and routers, which are then connected via the
backbone. In these cases the traffic patterns can give capacity savings which are
better than those for uniform traffic.
Interworking of Protection Schemes
As the size and demand placed on networks increases so their complexity
increases. Single ring or chain networks will rarely be implemented. Networks
will be made up of a number of sub-networks and each may have its own
independent protection scheme. With the increasing number of operators, the
interconnection of networks belonging to different operators becomes an issue.
These factors along with the drive for more reliable networks, means that the
issue of interconnecting various individually protected subnetworks is of
increasing importance.
Protection interworking is where more than one protection scheme operates on
a single connection across a network. A single protection scheme may not
provide the optimum performance, it can be better to implement protection on a
subnetwork basis, but then the interworking of these schemes must be
considered
Trunk
Regional
Metro
Local
Local
VC-12
VC-4
Fibre
break
VC-4 protection
does not detect
loss of VC-12 traffic
91 92
6 Protection
93 92 93 92
At the lower regional layer of the network, traffic is typically carried to one
central point so it can be collected and transported to the next tier or taken to a
central exchange. This is described as hubbing traffic. In this situation the
advantages of SPRings are not so great and the need to protect every fibre is not
as critical. Selective path protection schemes such as VC-Trail and SNCP
protection are more common in this situation. For example an end customer may
demand protection of their 2 Mbit/s leased line, this VC-12 path can be
selectively protected by path protection.
Figure 6-16 Detection of Loss of VC-12
This path is protected at the VC-12 level across the entire network. If this path
was only protected at a HO trunk layer, that is at the VC-4 level, by MSP or
MS-SPRing and there was a break in a lower layer fibre, this VC-12 path would
be lost. A full VC-4 circuit, however, would not be lost, so the protection
mechanism at the VC-4 layer would not detect the failure. An operator must
therefore, not only consider which protection scheme to employ but how these
will interwork.
An effective deployment of subnetworks is interconnecting SNCP protected
subnetworks and MS-SPRing protected subnetworks. For example an
MS-SPRing subnetwork is ideal for the core or backbone network. This could be
connected to a regional or local network where subnetwork path protection was
used to apply selective protection to traffic.
Difficulties can arise at the network boundaries of the subnetworks. If single
points are used to interconnect the subnetworks, there is a vulnerable link in the
chain so the interconnection between subnetworks becomes an issue. This is
discussed in the following section.
At the upper regional layer of the network traffic hubbing can be used at a
number of points. Traffic is transported to multiple regional centres containing,
for example, voice switches and routers, which are then connected via the
backbone. In these cases the traffic patterns can give capacity savings which are
better than those for uniform traffic.
Interworking of Protection Schemes
As the size and demand placed on networks increases so their complexity
increases. Single ring or chain networks will rarely be implemented. Networks
will be made up of a number of sub-networks and each may have its own
independent protection scheme. With the increasing number of operators, the
interconnection of networks belonging to different operators becomes an issue.
These factors along with the drive for more reliable networks, means that the
issue of interconnecting various individually protected subnetworks is of
increasing importance.
Protection interworking is where more than one protection scheme operates on
a single connection across a network. A single protection scheme may not
provide the optimum performance, it can be better to implement protection on a
subnetwork basis, but then the interworking of these schemes must be
considered
Trunk
Regional
Metro
Local
Local
VC-12
VC-4
Fibre
break
VC-4 protection
does not detect
loss of VC-12 traffic
91 92
6 Protection
93 92 93 92
Drivers for a Protection Interworking Scheme
Maximise traffic availability: Availability was defined previously as the
probability that an end to end connection is functioning. In a network of several
interconnected subnetworks it should be ensured that the network can survive
not only failures in a single subnetwork, but also concurrent failures, that is
failures in several interconnecting subnetworks. Another consideration is the
link or links where these subnetworks interconnect. These must be as robust as
the subnetworks on either side.
Maintain protection Independence: The boundaries between subnetworks
may also represent administration or maintenance boundaries. It is desirable that
failure in one subnetwork does not influence protection switching in an
interconnecting subnetwork. For example a planned outage for maintenance
purposes in one subnetwork should not effect switching in an interconnecting
subnetwork, particularly if this is managed by a different operator.
Interconnect subnetworks protecting at different layers: As described in
previous chapters an operator may adopt a multi-tier approach whereby there are
separate tiers for backbone, regional and local traffic, each of these will consist
of different subnetworks. Administration in tiers may differ, for example traffic
in the trunk tier administered at the VC-4 level, and in the regional tier at the
VC-12 level. The interconnection of traffic and interworking of protection
schemes must be considered.
Interconnect networks using different protection schemes: An end to end
path is likely to transit several subnetworks and each may have a different
protection scheme. To ensure that an end to end path is protected these schemes
must interwork. This is particularly important in countries where there are
several operators and paths cross boundaries between operators.
Types of Protection Interworking
When a single end to end connection passes across several interconnected
subnetworks, there are two types of protection interworking that can operate:
concatenation ( chaining) or nesting.
Figure 6-17 Concatenation and Nesting
Concatenation: The end to end connection is protected by chaining several
independently protected subnetworks, that is, connecting the subnetworks in
series as shown in Figure 6-17. In each subnetwork a different protection
mechanism can operate on the connection. This is easier to understand and
manage than nesting as the protection is modular. Switching mechanisms do not
interact and so management is simpler.
Nesting: In nesting protection domains are overlaid, so that two mechanisms act
simultaneously on a single portion of the connection.
The example in Figure 6-17 illustrates nesting and concatenation for connection
X to Y. In the concatenated example the network can survive simultaneous faults
in each of the subnetworks, whilst a dedicated protection path from X to Y, in
which only two end to end paths can be chosen would not survive the same fault.
SNCP MS-SPRing
Concatenation
Subnetwork A Subnetwork B Subnetwork C
MS-SPRing
X
Y
SNCP
MSP
A
B
X
Y
Nesting
93 94
6 Protection
95 94 95 94
Drivers for a Protection Interworking Scheme
Maximise traffic availability: Availability was defined previously as the
probability that an end to end connection is functioning. In a network of several
interconnected subnetworks it should be ensured that the network can survive
not only failures in a single subnetwork, but also concurrent failures, that is
failures in several interconnecting subnetworks. Another consideration is the
link or links where these subnetworks interconnect. These must be as robust as
the subnetworks on either side.
Maintain protection Independence: The boundaries between subnetworks
may also represent administration or maintenance boundaries. It is desirable that
failure in one subnetwork does not influence protection switching in an
interconnecting subnetwork. For example a planned outage for maintenance
purposes in one subnetwork should not effect switching in an interconnecting
subnetwork, particularly if this is managed by a different operator.
Interconnect subnetworks protecting at different layers: As described in
previous chapters an operator may adopt a multi-tier approach whereby there are
separate tiers for backbone, regional and local traffic, each of these will consist
of different subnetworks. Administration in tiers may differ, for example traffic
in the trunk tier administered at the VC-4 level, and in the regional tier at the
VC-12 level. The interconnection of traffic and interworking of protection
schemes must be considered.
Interconnect networks using different protection schemes: An end to end
path is likely to transit several subnetworks and each may have a different
protection scheme. To ensure that an end to end path is protected these schemes
must interwork. This is particularly important in countries where there are
several operators and paths cross boundaries between operators.
Types of Protection Interworking
When a single end to end connection passes across several interconnected
subnetworks, there are two types of protection interworking that can operate:
concatenation ( chaining) or nesting.
Figure 6-17 Concatenation and Nesting
Concatenation: The end to end connection is protected by chaining several
independently protected subnetworks, that is, connecting the subnetworks in
series as shown in Figure 6-17. In each subnetwork a different protection
mechanism can operate on the connection. This is easier to understand and
manage than nesting as the protection is modular. Switching mechanisms do not
interact and so management is simpler.
Nesting: In nesting protection domains are overlaid, so that two mechanisms act
simultaneously on a single portion of the connection.
The example in Figure 6-17 illustrates nesting and concatenation for connection
X to Y. In the concatenated example the network can survive simultaneous faults
in each of the subnetworks, whilst a dedicated protection path from X to Y, in
which only two end to end paths can be chosen would not survive the same fault.
SNCP MS-SPRing
Concatenation
Subnetwork A Subnetwork B Subnetwork C
MS-SPRing
X
Y
SNCP
MSP
A
B
X
Y
Nesting
93 94
6 Protection
95 94 95 94
The nesting example is generally less desirable as it is more complicated. It may
not be clear which mechanism switches first in the event of failure. The
improvement in connection availability is likely to be small because although
where the mechanisms are overlaid the connection is well protected, the poorer
availability of the rest of the connection will dominate the availability of the
entire connection. Nesting although less desirable is often necessary as network
topology may dictate it.
Types of Interconnection
Figure 6-18 Subnetwork Interconnection
There are different ways of interconnecting subnetworks. Consider a
concatenated scheme. Figure 6-18 shows the single and dual node schemes that
can be used. Dual node interconnection, means two nodes in each subnetwork
are connected. Two paths are set up between each two subnetworks and so an
end to end connection is protected against a failure in one of the subnetworks. A
single failure at an interconnecting node is protected against or a loss of one of
the interconnecting links. A single node interconnection scheme introduces a
single point of failure into the network. If the interconnecting link fails or one of
the interconnecting nodes fails traffic will be lost. Even if 1+1 MSP is used on
the interconnecting link, the two nodes could be single points of failure.
There are two types of dual node interconnection:
Virtual Ring: Working and protection paths are physically different. There may
be two interconnecting nodes on each subnetwork or the interconnecting nodes
may be shared across the subnetworks as in Figure 6-18. This mechanism is as
robust as a single subnetwork, because there are two paths between the
subnetworks, and no single point of failure. If there were to be failures in
subnetworks on each side of the interconnection, however, traffic would be lost.
Drop and Continue (Matched Nodes): This is a more robust form of dual node
interconnection. Traffic at the first node A is passed to the second subnetwork
via node B, but also continues to C and is passed to D, so two copies of the traffic
are passed to the second subnetwork. In the event of concurrent failure in each
of the subnetworks traffic is not lost.
Drop and continue is also desirable because independence is maintained
between subnetworks, this is not the case with virtual rings. For subnetworks
where boundaries represent boundaries between administrative regions or
different operators networks, this interconnection prevents failure and planned
outage in one subnetwork affecting protection switching in the neighboring
subnetwork.
Drop and continue dual node interconnect can be used for the following
combinations of subnetworks:
SNCP subnetwork to SNCP subnetwork
MS-SPRing to MS-SPRing
MS-SPRing to SNCP subnetwork
MS-SPRing to MS-Dedicated Protection Ring
MS-Dedicated Protection Ring to SNCP subnetwork
Of these combinations, the last two are not required in ETSI markets.
Figure 6-19 illustrates matched node interconnection between SPRing and
SNCP subnetworks. The figure shows both paths in the SNCP subnetwork to
illustrate the use of drop and continue.
A
B
C
D
Single Node Dual Node
Virtual Ring
Dual Node
Drop and Continue
95 96
6 Protection
97 96 97 96
The nesting example is generally less desirable as it is more complicated. It may
not be clear which mechanism switches first in the event of failure. The
improvement in connection availability is likely to be small because although
where the mechanisms are overlaid the connection is well protected, the poorer
availability of the rest of the connection will dominate the availability of the
entire connection. Nesting although less desirable is often necessary as network
topology may dictate it.
Types of Interconnection
Figure 6-18 Subnetwork Interconnection
There are different ways of interconnecting subnetworks. Consider a
concatenated scheme. Figure 6-18 shows the single and dual node schemes that
can be used. Dual node interconnection, means two nodes in each subnetwork
are connected. Two paths are set up between each two subnetworks and so an
end to end connection is protected against a failure in one of the subnetworks. A
single failure at an interconnecting node is protected against or a loss of one of
the interconnecting links. A single node interconnection scheme introduces a
single point of failure into the network. If the interconnecting link fails or one of
the interconnecting nodes fails traffic will be lost. Even if 1+1 MSP is used on
the interconnecting link, the two nodes could be single points of failure.
There are two types of dual node interconnection:
Virtual Ring: Working and protection paths are physically different. There may
be two interconnecting nodes on each subnetwork or the interconnecting nodes
may be shared across the subnetworks as in Figure 6-18. This mechanism is as
robust as a single subnetwork, because there are two paths between the
subnetworks, and no single point of failure. If there were to be failures in
subnetworks on each side of the interconnection, however, traffic would be lost.
Drop and Continue (Matched Nodes): This is a more robust form of dual node
interconnection. Traffic at the first node A is passed to the second subnetwork
via node B, but also continues to C and is passed to D, so two copies of the traffic
are passed to the second subnetwork. In the event of concurrent failure in each
of the subnetworks traffic is not lost.
Drop and continue is also desirable because independence is maintained
between subnetworks, this is not the case with virtual rings. For subnetworks
where boundaries represent boundaries between administrative regions or
different operators networks, this interconnection prevents failure and planned
outage in one subnetwork affecting protection switching in the neighboring
subnetwork.
Drop and continue dual node interconnect can be used for the following
combinations of subnetworks:
SNCP subnetwork to SNCP subnetwork
MS-SPRing to MS-SPRing
MS-SPRing to SNCP subnetwork
MS-SPRing to MS-Dedicated Protection Ring
MS-Dedicated Protection Ring to SNCP subnetwork
Of these combinations, the last two are not required in ETSI markets.
Figure 6-19 illustrates matched node interconnection between SPRing and
SNCP subnetworks. The figure shows both paths in the SNCP subnetwork to
illustrate the use of drop and continue.
A
B
C
D
Single Node Dual Node
Virtual Ring
Dual Node
Drop and Continue
95 96
6 Protection
97 96 97 96
C and F are primary interconnection nodes. D and J secondary interconnection
nodes. Traffic entering the SPRing at A and destined for H (blue line) passes via
B to the primary interconnection node C where the signal is dropped and
continued to secondary interconnection node D. Each interconnection node
sends the signal to the SNCP subnetwork C to F and D to J. From nodes F and
J the signal is passed in opposite directions around the network to the destination
node H. Node H selects between the two signals received.
Traffic entering the SNCP subnetwork at H (magenta line) is passed in both
directions around the network to the interconnection node F and J. At each
interconnection node the signal is dropped and continued to the other
interconnection node. Each interconnection node selects from the two signals
and sends the selected signal to the SPRing. Secondary interconnection node D
passes the signal to Primary interconnection node C. Node C selects between the
signals from F and D and passes the selected signal around the network to the
destination node A.
From an overall network perspective, matched node interconnection between
SPRings and SNCP subnetworks enables an operator to apply the most
effective subnetwork protection in each part of the network. SPRings are ideal
for the core and much of the regional, metropolitan and dense urban networks,
while subnetwork path protection is well suited to applying selective protection
in the regional, metropolitan, urban and, in particular, rural subnetworks.
Figure 6-19 SPRing to SNCP Subnetwork Matched Node Protection
SPRing
Subnetwork
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
SNCP
HO
97 98
6 Protection
99 98 99 98
C and F are primary interconnection nodes. D and J secondary interconnection
nodes. Traffic entering the SPRing at A and destined for H (blue line) passes via
B to the primary interconnection node C where the signal is dropped and
continued to secondary interconnection node D. Each interconnection node
sends the signal to the SNCP subnetwork C to F and D to J. From nodes F and
J the signal is passed in opposite directions around the network to the destination
node H. Node H selects between the two signals received.
Traffic entering the SNCP subnetwork at H (magenta line) is passed in both
directions around the network to the interconnection node F and J. At each
interconnection node the signal is dropped and continued to the other
interconnection node. Each interconnection node selects from the two signals
and sends the selected signal to the SPRing. Secondary interconnection node D
passes the signal to Primary interconnection node C. Node C selects between the
signals from F and D and passes the selected signal around the network to the
destination node A.
From an overall network perspective, matched node interconnection between
SPRings and SNCP subnetworks enables an operator to apply the most
effective subnetwork protection in each part of the network. SPRings are ideal
for the core and much of the regional, metropolitan and dense urban networks,
while subnetwork path protection is well suited to applying selective protection
in the regional, metropolitan, urban and, in particular, rural subnetworks.
Figure 6-19 SPRing to SNCP Subnetwork Matched Node Protection
SPRing
Subnetwork
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
SNCP
HO
97 98
6 Protection
99 98 99 98
Network Management Network management
Network Management
The topic of network management is a complex one due to its application in a
number of different areas. The Post, Telephone and Telegraph companies
(PTTs) initially deployed Operation Support Systems (OSS) for the telephone
service. The development was primarily in house meeting the PTTs business
requirements for operation, administration, maintenance and provisioning
(OAM&P). Cost reduction through automation was the key driver for the
development of these OSSs.
A number of factors (advances in technology, deregulation, competition etc.)
have resulted in new telecommunication services. Initially separate networks
were generated geared towards delivering particular services such as data, ATM
and IP, resulting in an associated but separate management system.
The current trend is towards convergence and integration of these different
technologies. The network operators and the service providers requirements
are now changing.
Network management requirements for network operators and
Service providers.
Open framework/application plug and play, enabling the service
provider to interface applications simply and easily in order to gain
a competitive edge or meet business objectives, for example,
interfacing to a service level agreement (SLA) system.
Interoperability. Interfacing with other service provider/network
operator management systems to access data relating to services
being carried between different network operators. For example, a
leased line may span a number of different networks, operators must
provide open access with the appropriate level of security to enable
data to be retrieved for the associated leased line.
Multi-vendor. The ability to manage network elements supplied by a
variety of manufacturers. Network operators do not want single
supplier lock in, they want freedom of choice enabling them to get
the best price for the functionality required.
Multi-technology. Integration of other technologies on to one
management system such ATM, switching and IP. Converging
technologies with effectively one network providing a number of
different services requires consolidation and integration of the
management system. It also enables network operators to reduce their
operating costs and to automate tasks.
End-to-end trail management. Provisioning, surveillance and
performance monitoring on an end to end service basis. Enabling the
task of provisioning to be simplified with considerable reduction in
the time taken for the activation of new services. Also, if services are
disrupted, enabling the network operator to rapidly identify faults on
the network.
Further automation of processes to reduce operational costs and
errors. Ideally network operators are striving for one touch flow, for
example, taking an order from a customer at the network operators
front office and providing inputs automatically for workforce
management, service level agreement, circuit provisioning and
billing etc.
With the emergence of the ISO OSI seven layer reference model, the opportunity
was taken to bring about interoperability in the management of transmission
networks. This opportunity was not missed in the definition of the SDH
standards which provide a method and a transmission format for network
management.
7
99 100
7 Network Management
101 100 101 100
Network Management Network management
Network Management
The topic of network management is a complex one due to its application in a
number of different areas. The Post, Telephone and Telegraph companies
(PTTs) initially deployed Operation Support Systems (OSS) for the telephone
service. The development was primarily in house meeting the PTTs business
requirements for operation, administration, maintenance and provisioning
(OAM&P). Cost reduction through automation was the key driver for the
development of these OSSs.
A number of factors (advances in technology, deregulation, competition etc.)
have resulted in new telecommunication services. Initially separate networks
were generated geared towards delivering particular services such as data, ATM
and IP, resulting in an associated but separate management system.
The current trend is towards convergence and integration of these different
technologies. The network operators and the service providers requirements
are now changing.
Network management requirements for network operators and
Service providers.
Open framework/application plug and play, enabling the service
provider to interface applications simply and easily in order to gain
a competitive edge or meet business objectives, for example,
interfacing to a service level agreement (SLA) system.
Interoperability. Interfacing with other service provider/network
operator management systems to access data relating to services
being carried between different network operators. For example, a
leased line may span a number of different networks, operators must
provide open access with the appropriate level of security to enable
data to be retrieved for the associated leased line.
Multi-vendor. The ability to manage network elements supplied by a
variety of manufacturers. Network operators do not want single
supplier lock in, they want freedom of choice enabling them to get
the best price for the functionality required.
Multi-technology. Integration of other technologies on to one
management system such ATM, switching and IP. Converging
technologies with effectively one network providing a number of
different services requires consolidation and integration of the
management system. It also enables network operators to reduce their
operating costs and to automate tasks.
End-to-end trail management. Provisioning, surveillance and
performance monitoring on an end to end service basis. Enabling the
task of provisioning to be simplified with considerable reduction in
the time taken for the activation of new services. Also, if services are
disrupted, enabling the network operator to rapidly identify faults on
the network.
Further automation of processes to reduce operational costs and
errors. Ideally network operators are striving for one touch flow, for
example, taking an order from a customer at the network operators
front office and providing inputs automatically for workforce
management, service level agreement, circuit provisioning and
billing etc.
With the emergence of the ISO OSI seven layer reference model, the opportunity
was taken to bring about interoperability in the management of transmission
networks. This opportunity was not missed in the definition of the SDH
standards which provide a method and a transmission format for network
management.
7
99 100
101 100 101 100
Network Management Network Management
This chapter describes the management communications with the network
element followed by a number of general concepts regarding the TMN hierarchy
and functionality, and finally open network management platforms will be
briefly discussed.
The Physical Management Path
Within existing plesiochronous networks, no provision was made for a standard
management path within ITU-T Recommendations. To overcome the lack of a
management channel, many manufacturers developed proprietary systems
based on either the use of spare bits within the signal frame or via line coding
methods similar to those used in submarine systems.
Despite the restrictions on transmission rates, some of the methods employed
are capable of supervision and monitoring of equipment and, to a limited extent,
even remote configuration. The major drawbacks with these systems revolve
around the fact that management is restricted to a channel which can only be
accessed at a specific transmission rate, for example, 2 Mbit/s, 8 M/bit/s,
34 Mbit/s, hence requiring multiplexing to gain access. This restriction limits
management to a section by section facility. More importantly, it is impossible
for interworking to exist between different systems. It is quite probable that one
manufacturers equipment will not even support a management channel between
two pieces of equipment from a third party.
SDH Management Communication Channel
With the introduction of SDH, the opportunity was taken to implement the ideals
embodied in the OSI 7-layer reference model to define a management channel.
This began with the definition of overhead capacity in the STM-1 frame, thus
offering a defined management channel for section by section communication.
This was extended further to define overheads at the AU level and the TU level
thus providing management capacity over the core of the transmission network
and also a path management channel associated with a path extending from end
to end across an entire network. This is illustrated in Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1 Section, AU and TU Path Management
It is this ability to provide path management to the VC-12 (2 Mbit/s) level which
highlights a significant advance in telecommunications management with the
introduction of the SDH. The move towards management standards, however,
did not stop at this point. ITU-T Recommendations G.783 and G.784 go on to
propose how the management channel should be used and further proposes the
protocols which should be employed for the remaining six layers of the OSI
model. The management channel is referred to as the Data Communication
Channel (DCC) or sometimes the Embedded Control Channel (ECC).
In these clear definitions, and in the continuing work of the SDH Study Groups,
the first major steps have been taken towards the implementation of Open
Network Management Systems in the telecommunications industry.
AU Port Associations
Section
Section Section
Section Section
AU Path
TU Path
TU AP
AU AP
TU Path
Termination
TU AP
TU Path
Termination
AU AP
AU AP
DXC Node
AU AP
MTN Structure
AU AP - AU Access Point
TU AP - TU Access Point
101 102
103 102 103 102
This chapter describes the management communications with the network
element followed by a number of general concepts regarding the TMN hierarchy
and functionality, and finally open network management platforms will be
briefly discussed.
The Physical Management Path
Within existing plesiochronous networks, no provision was made for a standard
management path within ITU-T Recommendations. To overcome the lack of a
management channel, many manufacturers developed proprietary systems
based on either the use of spare bits within the signal frame or via line coding
methods similar to those used in submarine systems.
Despite the restrictions on transmission rates, some of the methods employed
are capable of supervision and monitoring of equipment and, to a limited extent,
even remote configuration. The major drawbacks with these systems revolve
around the fact that management is restricted to a channel which can only be
accessed at a specific transmission rate, for example, 2 Mbit/s, 8 M/bit/s,
34 Mbit/s, hence requiring multiplexing to gain access. This restriction limits
management to a section by section facility. More importantly, it is impossible
for interworking to exist between different systems. It is quite probable that one
manufacturers equipment will not even support a management channel between
two pieces of equipment from a third party.
SDH Management Communication Channel
With the introduction of SDH, the opportunity was taken to implement the ideals
embodied in the OSI 7-layer reference model to define a management channel.
This began with the definition of overhead capacity in the STM-1 frame, thus
offering a defined management channel for section by section communication.
This was extended further to define overheads at the AU level and the TU level
thus providing management capacity over the core of the transmission network
and also a path management channel associated with a path extending from end
to end across an entire network. This is illustrated in Figure 7-1.
Figure 7-1 Section, AU and TU Path Management
It is this ability to provide path management to the VC-12 (2 Mbit/s) level which
highlights a significant advance in telecommunications management with the
introduction of the SDH. The move towards management standards, however,
did not stop at this point. ITU-T Recommendations G.783 and G.784 go on to
propose how the management channel should be used and further proposes the
protocols which should be employed for the remaining six layers of the OSI
model. The management channel is referred to as the Data Communication
Channel (DCC) or sometimes the Embedded Control Channel (ECC).
In these clear definitions, and in the continuing work of the SDH Study Groups,
the first major steps have been taken towards the implementation of Open
Network Management Systems in the telecommunications industry.
AU Port Associations
Section
Section Section
Section Section
AU Path
TU Path
TU AP
AU AP
TU Path
Termination
TU AP
TU Path
Termination
AU AP
AU AP
DXC Node
AU AP
MTN Structure
AU AP - AU Access Point
TU AP - TU Access Point
101 102
103 102 103 102
The TMN Layered Hierarchy
Figure 7-2 shows a simplified model of the TMN layered hierarchy. The
definition of distinct levels may vary due to system size and the management
strategy, however, the principle structure remains the same.
Figure 7-2 The TMN Layered Hierarchy
Business Management Layer
This layer supports the high-end business functions such as resource planning,
financial planning, marketing database management etc.
Service Management Layer
This layer supports the service delivery functions such as customer care, service
configuration, order management, work force administration and management.
Network Management layer
This layer supports the monitoring and control of the whole network, which may
consist of different network element types, for example SDH/SONET,
switching, ATM etc., with the possibility of network elements from different
suppliers.
Tasks on a network wide basis such as network monitoring, surveillance,
network planning, network/system administration and OAM&P are included in
this layer.
The management system may also be required to perform more analytical
processing, such as performance monitoring and cost analysis.
The degree of functionality within the NML, as with the other layers, may vary.
A comparison is shown in Table 7-1.
Element Management Layer
The element management layer would provide many of the facilities described
in the following section. Also, it would be expected to support additional
management packages to provide the functions of financial, resource and
maintenance analysis on the information it collects.
Although the element management may reside within a network element, it is
more likely that it will be a software package implemented on some operating
system/hardware platform. The size of the platform and its capabilities may vary
due to the need for the element manager to monitor and control various sized
domains. The management systems must, however, offer the capability of
migrating from smaller to larger systems as a network expands.
BML
SML
NML
EML
NEL
NM
EM
NE NE
NE
NE
NE
NE NE
NE
NE
NE
NE NE
NE NE
NE
EM EM EM
Business and service applications
BML
SML
NML
EML
NEL
-
-
-
-
-
Network Management Layer
Network Element Later
NM
EM
NE
Network Manager
Element Manager
Network Element
-
-
-
103 104
105 104 105 104
The TMN Layered Hierarchy
Figure 7-2 shows a simplified model of the TMN layered hierarchy. The
definition of distinct levels may vary due to system size and the management
strategy, however, the principle structure remains the same.
Figure 7-2 The TMN Layered Hierarchy
This layer supports the high-end business functions such as resource planning,
financial planning, marketing database management etc.
This layer supports the service delivery functions such as customer care, service
configuration, order management, work force administration and management.
Network Management layer
This layer supports the monitoring and control of the whole network, which may
consist of different network element types, for example SDH/SONET,
switching, ATM etc., with the possibility of network elements from different
suppliers.
Tasks on a network wide basis such as network monitoring, surveillance,
network planning, network/system administration and OAM&P are included in
this layer.
The management system may also be required to perform more analytical
processing, such as performance monitoring and cost analysis.
The degree of functionality within the NML, as with the other layers, may vary.
A comparison is shown in Table 7-1.
The element management layer would provide many of the facilities described
in the following section. Also, it would be expected to support additional
management packages to provide the functions of financial, resource and
maintenance analysis on the information it collects.
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more likely that it will be a software package implemented on some operating
system/hardware platform. The size of the platform and its capabilities may vary
due to the need for the element manager to monitor and control various sized
domains. The management systems must, however, offer the capability of
migrating from smaller to larger systems as a network expands.
BML
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Network Element Later
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There is a degree of management that resides within the network elements
themselves, and it is feasible that the element manager for a particular
management domain may physically reside within a network element.
Basic functionality within the element should include the facilities listed in the
subsequent section applied to the single element. In some circumstances the
decision may be taken to implement a distributed management system whereby
individual elements perform a high degree of the functionality described. Such
an implementation has a number of advantages with regards to the speed at
which the network as a whole can react to various events, in particular the case
of path restoration for protection purposes.
The alternative is an element with a minimum functionality, allowing
management functions to be performed at the Element Management Layer. A
comparison of the benefits of each strategy is shown in Table 7-1.
Functionality of a Network Management System
The classification of network management functions is described in ISO, as
below. The functionality of the management system should include these
features via the initial systems with a provision for additional feature packages
or modules.
Configuration management
Fault management
Performance management
Security management
Accounting management
The network manager is not restricted in its capabilities to the management of
SDH equipment only. Managed objects defined in line with Open Network
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domain.
Network Elements
Test Equipment
Table 7-1 Processing implementation options for network management layer,
element management layer and network management layer
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107 106 107 106
Network Element Layer
There is a degree of management that resides within the network elements
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Configuration management
Fault management
Performance management
Security management
Accounting management
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Network Elements
Test Equipment
Table 7-1 Processing implementation options for network management layer,
element management layer and network management layer
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105 106
107 106 107 106
Manpower
Other Management Systems
Such a management system would be expected not only to manage synchronous
network elements, but also possess the ability to manage additional equipment
in the network via direct communications or another management system. Since
many existing management systems are proprietary in nature, this infers the use
of some type of mediation device between the two systems. In addition to the
required functionality described above, a management system would be
expected to offer the ability to operate enhanced packages offering features for
Traffic analysis, Maintenance costing, Failure analysis etc.
Configuration Management
Configuration management provides a mechanism for managing the network
elements, often called objects, which are under the control of the management
system. The system should have the facility for:
Changing the configuration
Initialing objects, shutting them down and removing them from
service.
Collecting state information on a regular and on a demand basis.
Provisioning services and resources to meet demand.
Examples of such activities are:
Connecting end-to-end service.
Setting up alternative routing options under fault conditions.
Configuring gains on cards
Providing alternative configurations depending on time of day
Downline loading of information
An important aspect of configuration management is name management. This
allows the user to symbolically name and refer to resources on the network.
Several techniques exist for this, the most popular, and the ones for which ISO
is developing standards, are called the white pages and yellow pages protocols,
which are analogous with the white and yellow pages of a telephone directory.
Distributed facilities are often used for name management in which each area is
responsible for managing the names within the territory.
Fault Management
This area of management is often referred to as Event management, however, a
clear distinction should be made between Faults and Events. An event is a
change of status occurring somewhere within the managed domain. A fault or
alarm is an indication of an actual or potential failure which may occur as the
result of an event.
This distinction highlights one of the most important functions of the event
manager and that is in the filtering and management of alarms resulting from
various events. A single event may result in a multitude of alarms (for example,
a break in a fibre will result in a very large number of alarms), but the
management system must be capable of translating the multitude into a single
alarm which identifies the problem.
The management system should be capable of allowing these Alarm/Event
relationships to be configured and re-configured to a network Operators
preference, or as the result of changes in the network structure. In addition to this
the Event Manager would possess the ability to record all events, but present
only meaningful messages to the various levels of management.
Performance Management
The aim of performance management is to monitor and improve on the
performance of the network. It gathers statistical information to enable both
long term planning and prediction of short term trends. A large network would
require many monitor points to collect information and some method of local
analysis and filtering to prevent the network and the user from being swamped
with data. Performance monitoring requires the maintenance of logs and objects
and states, so as to show trends, and the adjustment of network resources in
response to trends.
Examples of functions made available could include statistical analysis of
events and alarms and a measurement of their effect and time to correct. From
this information estimates may be extracted as to the Quality of Service
provided on individual paths. Another function could be the use of historical
data to predict trends in equipment deterioration or failure. These functions
107 108
109 108 109 108
Manpower
Other Management Systems
Such a management system would be expected not only to manage synchronous
network elements, but also possess the ability to manage additional equipment
in the network via direct communications or another management system. Since
many existing management systems are proprietary in nature, this infers the use
of some type of mediation device between the two systems. In addition to the
required functionality described above, a management system would be
expected to offer the ability to operate enhanced packages offering features for
Traffic analysis, Maintenance costing, Failure analysis etc.
Configuration Management
Configuration management provides a mechanism for managing the network
elements, often called objects, which are under the control of the management
system. The system should have the facility for:
Changing the configuration
Initialing objects, shutting them down and removing them from
service.
Collecting state information on a regular and on a demand basis.
Provisioning services and resources to meet demand.
Examples of such activities are:
Connecting end-to-end service.
Setting up alternative routing options under fault conditions.
Configuring gains on cards
Providing alternative configurations depending on time of day
Downline loading of information
An important aspect of configuration management is name management. This
allows the user to symbolically name and refer to resources on the network.
Several techniques exist for this, the most popular, and the ones for which ISO
is developing standards, are called the white pages and yellow pages protocols,
which are analogous with the white and yellow pages of a telephone directory.
Distributed facilities are often used for name management in which each area is
responsible for managing the names within the territory.
Fault Management
This area of management is often referred to as Event management, however, a
clear distinction should be made between Faults and Events. An event is a
change of status occurring somewhere within the managed domain. A fault or
alarm is an indication of an actual or potential failure which may occur as the
result of an event.
This distinction highlights one of the most important functions of the event
manager and that is in the filtering and management of alarms resulting from
various events. A single event may result in a multitude of alarms (for example,
a break in a fibre will result in a very large number of alarms), but the
management system must be capable of translating the multitude into a single
alarm which identifies the problem.
The management system should be capable of allowing these Alarm/Event
relationships to be configured and re-configured to a network Operators
preference, or as the result of changes in the network structure. In addition to this
the Event Manager would possess the ability to record all events, but present
only meaningful messages to the various levels of management.
Performance Management
The aim of performance management is to monitor and improve on the
performance of the network. It gathers statistical information to enable both
long term planning and prediction of short term trends. A large network would
require many monitor points to collect information and some method of local
analysis and filtering to prevent the network and the user from being swamped
with data. Performance monitoring requires the maintenance of logs and objects
and states, so as to show trends, and the adjustment of network resources in
response to trends.
Examples of functions made available could include statistical analysis of
events and alarms and a measurement of their effect and time to correct. From
this information estimates may be extracted as to the Quality of Service
provided on individual paths. Another function could be the use of historical
data to predict trends in equipment deterioration or failure. These functions
107 108
109 108 109 108
could provide valuable information in order to reduce the cost of
repair/maintenance whilst increasing the availability of equipment through
preventative maintenance.
Security Management
Security management can be divided into three areas:
Physical Security, which is primarily the responsibility of the system
administrator, since this relates to the security of the building where
the manager resides.
Access Security, which relates to the availability of the manager to
different users and the maintaining of access during failures in
communications. Security management, therefore, primarily
determines who may do what in controlling a network. It is usual to
provide security access in a layered structure, the upper layers being
able to perform all the functions available to the lower layers.
Data Security, which relates to the storage of data by the Network
Operator. In most cases all data needs some form of back up for
security against system faults. In addition to this there is a need for
secure storage of sensitive data to prevent unauthorised access. In
some countries the storage of such data is covered by legislation and
the encryption techniques used must adhere to such laws.
Although shown as a separate function, security management cuts across several
other functional areas, for example the need to limit access to users for certain
configuration management functions.
New services such as customer network management introduced by the rapid
growth in the internet, has now provided a focus on security. The end customer
using a PC can view performance reports relating to service level agreements or
access network information.
Obviously the network operator would have ultimate control of the access and
control enabled for that particular end customer.
The appropriate steps have to be taken to ensure access is tightly controlled,
there may be information on the network that may be of a sensitive nature that
under any circumstances should not be accessible by the end customer.
Accounting Management
Accounting management aids in the preparation of bills for network users and
for tracking their payment. It also helps in the sale of network resources. It is the
set of facilities which enables charges to be determined for the user of the
network resources and for costs to be identified and allocated to each resource.
This management function depends on statistics provided by the objects on the
network. Once again there is interaction between the various functions, for
example accounting management and configuration management. The lowest
transmission cost is often determined by the cheapest route or the cheapest time
zone, both of which are controlled by configuration management.
Accounting management is frequently considered to include inventory
management. This function keeps track of the individual elements being
managed on the network, their characteristics, asset values and ownership and
contractual information.
Additional functionality
Customer network management(CNM)
The ubiquity of the internet together with the end customers need for
information relating to their services, for example, reports relating to service
level agreements, has enabled network operators to offer customer network
management. A PC located in the end customers premises for instance with the
associated security and access provides a possible window into the network
under the full control of the network operator.
Process automation
Current work under study by the various standard bodies and forums in this area
are focusing on application plug and play with automation of processes,
providing guidance and recommendations for an open framework using the best
technology available. The goal is to reduce significantly the manual intervention
required for performing the tasks.
Interconnection between the operators management systems is a requirement
stemming from the deregulation and the subsequent competition.
109 110
111 110 111 110
could provide valuable information in order to reduce the cost of
repair/maintenance whilst increasing the availability of equipment through
preventative maintenance.
Security Management
Security management can be divided into three areas:
Physical Security, which is primarily the responsibility of the system
administrator, since this relates to the security of the building where
the manager resides.
Access Security, which relates to the availability of the manager to
different users and the maintaining of access during failures in
communications. Security management, therefore, primarily
determines who may do what in controlling a network. It is usual to
provide security access in a layered structure, the upper layers being
able to perform all the functions available to the lower layers.
Data Security, which relates to the storage of data by the Network
Operator. In most cases all data needs some form of back up for
security against system faults. In addition to this there is a need for
secure storage of sensitive data to prevent unauthorised access. In
some countries the storage of such data is covered by legislation and
the encryption techniques used must adhere to such laws.
Although shown as a separate function, security management cuts across several
other functional areas, for example the need to limit access to users for certain
configuration management functions.
New services such as customer network management introduced by the rapid
growth in the internet, has now provided a focus on security. The end customer
using a PC can view performance reports relating to service level agreements or
access network information.
Obviously the network operator would have ultimate control of the access and
control enabled for that particular end customer.
The appropriate steps have to be taken to ensure access is tightly controlled,
there may be information on the network that may be of a sensitive nature that
under any circumstances should not be accessible by the end customer.
Accounting Management
Accounting management aids in the preparation of bills for network users and
for tracking their payment. It also helps in the sale of network resources. It is the
set of facilities which enables charges to be determined for the user of the
network resources and for costs to be identified and allocated to each resource.
This management function depends on statistics provided by the objects on the
network. Once again there is interaction between the various functions, for
example accounting management and configuration management. The lowest
transmission cost is often determined by the cheapest route or the cheapest time
zone, both of which are controlled by configuration management.
Accounting management is frequently considered to include inventory
management. This function keeps track of the individual elements being
managed on the network, their characteristics, asset values and ownership and
contractual information.
Additional functionality
Customer network management(CNM)
The ubiquity of the internet together with the end customers need for
information relating to their services, for example, reports relating to service
level agreements, has enabled network operators to offer customer network
management. A PC located in the end customers premises for instance with the
associated security and access provides a possible window into the network
under the full control of the network operator.
Process automation
Current work under study by the various standard bodies and forums in this area
are focusing on application plug and play with automation of processes,
providing guidance and recommendations for an open framework using the best
technology available. The goal is to reduce significantly the manual intervention
required for performing the tasks.
Interconnection between the operators management systems is a requirement
stemming from the deregulation and the subsequent competition.
109 110
111 110 111 110
Network Management Platform
A network management platform is a collection of hardware and standardised
software modules, which supports the various management functions. It
comprises the processor, storage devices, communication devices, man machine
interface (MMI), operating systems, communications software, database
manager, maintenance software and possibly additional support software for
enhanced functions. The management system may comprise a number of
platforms using a distributed architecture.
Such a requirement exists for all management systems, however, for
synchronous systems the concept of open standards can be extended to the
concepts of an open management platform. Figure 7-3 gives a pictorial
representation of a modular management platform. It shows how specific
synchronous applications, down to a customers site can be built on to a
collection of generic applications and a hardware and software platform. Details
of the various modules are not included in this book, but the Generic Application
Interface is one area of particular interest. It is this package which allows the
various management applications to operate on the platform and via this the
structure can provide an open platform for a variety of software packages.
The Telecommunication Management Network
Several groups have taken the OSI network management model and developed
it further for specific applications. The best known of these is the
Telecommunications Management Network (TMN). Work started on TMN in
1985 and it has since been developed by ANSI, ITU-T and ESTI.
Figure 7-3 Network Management Platform Structure
The basic concept behind a TMN is to provide an organised network structure,
to achieve the interconnection between various types of Operations Systems
(OS) and telecommunication equipment using an agreed architecture and with
standardised interfaces. Figure 7-4 shows the relationship between the TMN
and a telecommunication network. The telecommunications network can
consist of both digital and analogue telecommunications equipment. As in the
case of the OSI model, the telecommunications network is considered to consist
of managed objects (network elements). These may be physical elements, such
as exchanges, transmission equipment, cable, cross-connects, or it may consist
of abstract elements, such as maintenance entities and support entities.
Default
and Site
Configuration
Customer
Specific
Applications
SDH Specific Applications
C
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Common Applications
General Applications Interface
UNIX
Comms
Stack
RDBMS HCI Etc... Etc...
Hardware Platform
111 112
113 112 113 112
Network Management Platform
A network management platform is a collection of hardware and standardised
software modules, which supports the various management functions. It
comprises the processor, storage devices, communication devices, man machine
interface (MMI), operating systems, communications software, database
manager, maintenance software and possibly additional support software for
enhanced functions. The management system may comprise a number of
platforms using a distributed architecture.
Such a requirement exists for all management systems, however, for
synchronous systems the concept of open standards can be extended to the
concepts of an open management platform. Figure 7-3 gives a pictorial
representation of a modular management platform. It shows how specific
synchronous applications, down to a customers site can be built on to a
collection of generic applications and a hardware and software platform. Details
of the various modules are not included in this book, but the Generic Application
Interface is one area of particular interest. It is this package which allows the
various management applications to operate on the platform and via this the
structure can provide an open platform for a variety of software packages.
The Telecommunication Management Network
Several groups have taken the OSI network management model and developed
it further for specific applications. The best known of these is the
Telecommunications Management Network (TMN). Work started on TMN in
1985 and it has since been developed by ANSI, ITU-T and ESTI.
Figure 7-3 Network Management Platform Structure
The basic concept behind a TMN is to provide an organised network structure,
to achieve the interconnection between various types of Operations Systems
(OS) and telecommunication equipment using an agreed architecture and with
standardised interfaces. Figure 7-4 shows the relationship between the TMN
and a telecommunication network. The telecommunications network can
consist of both digital and analogue telecommunications equipment. As in the
case of the OSI model, the telecommunications network is considered to consist
of managed objects (network elements). These may be physical elements, such
as exchanges, transmission equipment, cable, cross-connects, or it may consist
of abstract elements, such as maintenance entities and support entities.
Default
and Site
Configuration
Customer
Specific
Applications
SDH Specific Applications
C
o
n
f
i
g
u
r
a
t
i
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m
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Common Applications
General Applications Interface
UNIX
Comms
Stack
RDBMS HCI Etc... Etc...
Hardware Platform
111 112
113 112 113 112
Figure 7-4 Relationship between TMN and Telecommunications Network
The TMN architecture consists of three elements: functional architecture;
information architecture; and physical architecture. The functional architecture
may be considered to be the building blocks that allow complex systems to be
built. The information architecture describes the nature of information that
needs to be exchanged between the functional building blocks. The physical
architecture of TMN describes the interfaces that have to be implemented, along
with examples of physical components that make up the TMN.
Data Communications Network
Transmission
System
Exchange Exchange Exchange
Transmission
System
Operations
System
Operations
System
Operations
System
TMN
113 114
115 114 115 114
Figure 7-4 Relationship between TMN and Telecommunications Network
The TMN architecture consists of three elements: functional architecture;
information architecture; and physical architecture. The functional architecture
may be considered to be the building blocks that allow complex systems to be
built. The information architecture describes the nature of information that
needs to be exchanged between the functional building blocks. The physical
architecture of TMN describes the interfaces that have to be implemented, along
with examples of physical components that make up the TMN.
Data Communications Network
Transmission
System
Exchange Exchange Exchange
Transmission
System
Operations
System
Operations
System
Operations
System
TMN
113 114
115 114 115 114
High Capacity Networks High Capacity Networks
High Capacity Networks
The rapid increase in traffic carried on todays networks means that many
operators are now close to exhausting the capacity of their installed fibre. Voice,
leased line and mobile traffic are increasing, but the extremely rapid increase in
bandwidth requirements is due to the faster growing, newer service types.
Internet, ATM, data and video traffic are not only growing at a rapid rate but have
large bandwidth requirements.
Operators are faced with the prospect of either the costly installation of new
fibre or increasing the capacity of their existing fibre. This issue is more critical
for new, emerging operators, who have less installed infrastructure or may need
to lease dark fibres. The rapid growth of their traffic is forcing them to look at
new ways of expanding capacity on their existing fibre while keeping capital
cost to a minimum.
Technology has now advanced permitting the deployment of STM-64 systems,
however, Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) has also emerged as a
technique to increase the capacity of fibre. This involves transmitting multiple
optical signals down a single fibre. Each optical signal operates at a different
wavelength thus preventing interaction between them. For example several
STM-16 or STM-64 traffic streams can be transmitted down one fibre. This not
only combats fibre exhaust issues, but also reduces the requirement for multiple
regenerators on long spans. A single optical amplifier can be used to amplify the
combined signal hence replacing a regenerator mountain (see Figure 8-3).
Figure 8-1 Methods of Expanding Network Capacity
Networks are now being deployed with a purely optical layer, utilising this
WDM technique. This will permit the transport and routing of traffic without
conversion into the electrical domain. To route, protect and manage traffic in an
optical network is currently constrained by technology and lack of standards,
however, offering a flexible optical overlay layer is an area of great interest and
development. ATM, IP and legacy data are already being carried over Dense
WDM (D-WDM), bypassing the SDH layer. Optical Add/Drop multiplexers and
simple optical protection schemes are also now being deployed.
In the short term operators are facing the challenge of how to increase the
capacity of their networks quickly, however, they must also consider the long
term evolution of their networks. Long distance and metropolitan WDM optical
networks are designed to meet different requirements. Long distance operators
want to minimise the cost per managed bit per fibre. In metropolitan
environments the WDM system not only optimises the fibre use but more
importantly gives the operator flexibility to respond to large customer transport
requirements. For example, a large bank may initially require a 150 Mbit/s taffic
capacity but some weeks later need to expand this to STM-4; or maybe they have
a large non-SDH formatted bit rate to carry as fibre channels.
8
SDH Backbone
(capacity full)
Internet
Video
Business
traffic
EXTEND CAPACITY
STM-16
WDM
STM-64 STM-64
WDM
115 116
8 High Capacity Networks
117 116 117 116
High Capacity Networks
The rapid increase in traffic carried on todays networks means that many
operators are now close to exhausting the capacity of their installed fibre. Voice,
leased line and mobile traffic are increasing, but the extremely rapid increase in
bandwidth requirements is due to the faster growing, newer service types.
Internet, ATM, data and video traffic are not only growing at a rapid rate but have
large bandwidth requirements.
Operators are faced with the prospect of either the costly installation of new
fibre or increasing the capacity of their existing fibre. This issue is more critical
for new, emerging operators, who have less installed infrastructure or may need
to lease dark fibres. The rapid growth of their traffic is forcing them to look at
new ways of expanding capacity on their existing fibre while keeping capital
cost to a minimum.
Technology has now advanced permitting the deployment of STM-64 systems,
however, Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) has also emerged as a
technique to increase the capacity of fibre. This involves transmitting multiple
optical signals down a single fibre. Each optical signal operates at a different
wavelength thus preventing interaction between them. For example several
STM-16 or STM-64 traffic streams can be transmitted down one fibre. This not
only combats fibre exhaust issues, but also reduces the requirement for multiple
regenerators on long spans. A single optical amplifier can be used to amplify the
combined signal hence replacing a regenerator mountain (see Figure 8-3).
Figure 8-1 Methods of Expanding Network Capacity
Networks are now being deployed with a purely optical layer, utilising this
WDM technique. This will permit the transport and routing of traffic without
conversion into the electrical domain. To route, protect and manage traffic in an
optical network is currently constrained by technology and lack of standards,
however, offering a flexible optical overlay layer is an area of great interest and
development. ATM, IP and legacy data are already being carried over Dense
WDM (D-WDM), bypassing the SDH layer. Optical Add/Drop multiplexers and
simple optical protection schemes are also now being deployed.
In the short term operators are facing the challenge of how to increase the
capacity of their networks quickly, however, they must also consider the long
term evolution of their networks. Long distance and metropolitan WDM optical
networks are designed to meet different requirements. Long distance operators
want to minimise the cost per managed bit per fibre. In metropolitan
environments the WDM system not only optimises the fibre use but more
importantly gives the operator flexibility to respond to large customer transport
requirements. For example, a large bank may initially require a 150 Mbit/s taffic
capacity but some weeks later need to expand this to STM-4; or maybe they have
a large non-SDH formatted bit rate to carry as fibre channels.
8
SDH Backbone
(capacity full)
Internet
Video
Business
traffic
EXTEND CAPACITY
STM-16
WDM
STM-64 STM-64
WDM
115 116
117 116 117 116
To achieve the capacity which is increasingly required in backbone networks,
while retaining flexibility, WDM at STM-64 is being deployed as well as at
STM-16.
This chapter will give an overview of these technologies, typical applications
and the evolution of networks.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Principles
WDM involves the transmission of several high speed channels on a single fibre
or fibre pair. To prevent interaction of these signals they are transmitted on
separate wavelengths.
In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) a single optical signal is used to transmit
the signal. Capacity is increased by running at a higher bit rate, however, what
can be done to increase the capacity once the maximum rate has been reached?
WDM offers the possibility of increasing the capacity of a fibre by allowing
multiple optical signals to travel simultaneously on a single fibre.
D-WDM is a term used to describe some WDM systems. The precise difference
between these WDM and D-WDM varies, but as a simple guide; D-WDM refers
to higher capacity WDM systems, that is greater than four wavelengths on one
fibre. Today systems are in development which can support up to forty
wavelengths on a single fibre.
To achieve WDM the separate wavelength channels are combined or
multiplexed together in an optical coupler, these signals are then optically
amplified and transmitted over a single fibre, then at the far end of the link, the
signal is demultiplexed or split and sent to destination nodes such as SDH
network elements.
Combining the light in this way does introduce its own set of optical technology
challenges such as four wave mixing, polarisation mode and chromatic
dispersion. Compensation techniques for these effects is discussed later in this
chapter.
WDM Equipment
The next section will outline the equipment required for a point to point WDM
link. Further optical network elements are required for a flexible optical layer
and these are described later in this chapter.
Optical Sources (A on Figure 8-2): The input to WDM systems can be a
variety of signals from PDH 565 Mbit/s to SDH STM-64 systems. The main
requirement is that in order for them to pass transparently through the WDM
equipment, each must be at a different wavelength. Tolerance of these
wavelengths must also be tightly defined to prevent interaction.
This requirement can be met directly by the optical transmission cards in the
SDH multiplexer source, provided the lasers adhere to the required wavelength
tolerances. This may be referred to as an integrated WDM solution, however,
this is not the case with much of the installed equipment so additional devices
are required to convert the wavelength of the signal transmitted from some
installed source transmitter cards. These devices are called transponders,
wavelength translators or wavelength converters.
Wavelength Translator (B on Figure 8-2): Transponders can convert any input
wavelength to the wavelength required for input to the WDM coupler. The traffic
on each incoming signal is received and then re-transmitted by a laser which
operates at, and stabalised to, one of the pre-selected wavelengths.
This piece of equipment is particularly important where it is required to transmit
signals from older PDH equipment. Transponders are also being developed to
support ATM and IP signals. For example 16 optical signals, some being PDH,
some SDH and some ATM could all be converted to different wavelengths,
combined and carried on the same fibre.
The disadvantages of using a transponder are the cost of the additional optical
interfaces and a reduction in the overall network availability because more
elements are placed in the signal path. These additional elements also increase
maintenance requirements and require management integration. Consequently
transponders should only be used where an appropriate integrated WDM
solution is not available.
117 118
119 118 119 118
To achieve the capacity which is increasingly required in backbone networks,
while retaining flexibility, WDM at STM-64 is being deployed as well as at
STM-16.
This chapter will give an overview of these technologies, typical applications
and the evolution of networks.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Principles
WDM involves the transmission of several high speed channels on a single fibre
or fibre pair. To prevent interaction of these signals they are transmitted on
separate wavelengths.
In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) a single optical signal is used to transmit
the signal. Capacity is increased by running at a higher bit rate, however, what
can be done to increase the capacity once the maximum rate has been reached?
WDM offers the possibility of increasing the capacity of a fibre by allowing
multiple optical signals to travel simultaneously on a single fibre.
D-WDM is a term used to describe some WDM systems. The precise difference
between these WDM and D-WDM varies, but as a simple guide; D-WDM refers
to higher capacity WDM systems, that is greater than four wavelengths on one
fibre. Today systems are in development which can support up to forty
wavelengths on a single fibre.
To achieve WDM the separate wavelength channels are combined or
multiplexed together in an optical coupler, these signals are then optically
amplified and transmitted over a single fibre, then at the far end of the link, the
signal is demultiplexed or split and sent to destination nodes such as SDH
network elements.
Combining the light in this way does introduce its own set of optical technology
challenges such as four wave mixing, polarisation mode and chromatic
dispersion. Compensation techniques for these effects is discussed later in this
chapter.
WDM Equipment
The next section will outline the equipment required for a point to point WDM
link. Further optical network elements are required for a flexible optical layer
and these are described later in this chapter.
Optical Sources (A on Figure 8-2): The input to WDM systems can be a
variety of signals from PDH 565 Mbit/s to SDH STM-64 systems. The main
requirement is that in order for them to pass transparently through the WDM
equipment, each must be at a different wavelength. Tolerance of these
wavelengths must also be tightly defined to prevent interaction.
This requirement can be met directly by the optical transmission cards in the
SDH multiplexer source, provided the lasers adhere to the required wavelength
tolerances. This may be referred to as an integrated WDM solution, however,
this is not the case with much of the installed equipment so additional devices
are required to convert the wavelength of the signal transmitted from some
installed source transmitter cards. These devices are called transponders,
wavelength translators or wavelength converters.
Wavelength Translator (B on Figure 8-2): Transponders can convert any input
wavelength to the wavelength required for input to the WDM coupler. The traffic
on each incoming signal is received and then re-transmitted by a laser which
operates at, and stabalised to, one of the pre-selected wavelengths.
This piece of equipment is particularly important where it is required to transmit
signals from older PDH equipment. Transponders are also being developed to
support ATM and IP signals. For example 16 optical signals, some being PDH,
some SDH and some ATM could all be converted to different wavelengths,
combined and carried on the same fibre.
The disadvantages of using a transponder are the cost of the additional optical
interfaces and a reduction in the overall network availability because more
elements are placed in the signal path. These additional elements also increase
maintenance requirements and require management integration. Consequently
transponders should only be used where an appropriate integrated WDM
solution is not available.
117 118
119 118 119 118
Figure 8-2 Point to Point WDM Link
Optical Mux/Demux (C & D on Figure 8-2): An optical multiplexer combines
the discrete wavelengths emitted by the laser sources before transmission on the
link. At the far end the signals are separated by a demultiplexer or splitter. An
optical multiplexer/demultiplexer (also called coupler) is a small passive optical
filter with several input/output ports coupled to a single common port. A variety
of technological approaches are used to combine/separate the wavelengths
including discrete wavelength filters, fibre grating technology and planar array
waveguide assemblies.
Optical Amplifier (E on Figure 8-2): Optical amplifiers form an integral part of
WDM networks, extending the span of each link. The distance the optical signal
may travel can be limited by attenuation. This effect can be addressed by
amplification or regeneration. Regeneration involves converting each channel of
the optical signal back to an electrical form before optical re-transmission of the
signal. In contrast, when amplified the signal remains in the optical domain and
all wavelengths on one fibre can be simultaneously amplified by a single erbium
doped amplifier. In this case a single optical amplifier can be deployed rather
than regenerator equipment for each of the channels within the WDM signal.
Figure 8-3 Optical Amplifiers Reduce Need for Regenerators
S
D
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A
B
C
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Note: Some operators use dual fibre uni-directional links, however the single fibre
bi-directional link as shown in the diagram has a number of advantages
associated with the minimisation of service deployment costs.
Regenerator
Mountain
Optical
Amplifier
Tx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
119 120
121 120 121 120
Figure 8-2 Point to Point WDM Link
Optical Mux/Demux (C & D on Figure 8-2): An optical multiplexer combines
the discrete wavelengths emitted by the laser sources before transmission on the
link. At the far end the signals are separated by a demultiplexer or splitter. An
optical multiplexer/demultiplexer (also called coupler) is a small passive optical
filter with several input/output ports coupled to a single common port. A variety
of technological approaches are used to combine/separate the wavelengths
including discrete wavelength filters, fibre grating technology and planar array
waveguide assemblies.
Optical Amplifier (E on Figure 8-2): Optical amplifiers form an integral part of
WDM networks, extending the span of each link. The distance the optical signal
may travel can be limited by attenuation. This effect can be addressed by
amplification or regeneration. Regeneration involves converting each channel of
the optical signal back to an electrical form before optical re-transmission of the
signal. In contrast, when amplified the signal remains in the optical domain and
all wavelengths on one fibre can be simultaneously amplified by a single erbium
doped amplifier. In this case a single optical amplifier can be deployed rather
than regenerator equipment for each of the channels within the WDM signal.
Figure 8-3 Optical Amplifiers Reduce Need for Regenerators
S
D
H
M
u
x
C
h

2
W
D
M
M
u
x
/
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/
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p
l
i
t
t
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r
A
B
C
D
E
Note: Some operators use dual fibre uni-directional links, however the single fibre
bi-directional link as shown in the diagram has a number of advantages
associated with the minimisation of service deployment costs.
Regenerator
Mountain
Optical
Amplifier
Tx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx
Rx
119 120
121 120 121 120
As the signal is transmitted it will suffer degradation due to noise and non-linear
interactions within the signal. Amplifiers are analogue devices and do not clean
up the degradation in the signal. This clean up can be achieved by terminating
the signal at a regenerator site. Transmission up to very long distances is
possible using amplifiers, without regenerating the signal. In fact up to 600 kms
can be achieved at STM-16 in conventional landline systems with installed fibre,
but for longer links regenerators are required. Note that this distance will vary
depending on the bit rate and installed fibre.
In moderate length links a post or pre-amplifier may be located at the input to the
optical multiplexer or the output of the demultiplexer respectively. These are
used to extend the reach as much as possible to reduce the need for in-line
amplifiers which require separate sites. Longer systems require line amplifiers
to prevent the optical signal level being so weak that it cannot be adequately
received.
Network management: The basic purpose of WDM network management is
the same as that for SDH as explained in Chapter 7. Most of the components
required to further develop the optical layer of transmission networks are
already available today. The key factor that is currently limiting the rate at which
optical layer functionality can be deployed is the complexity of the monitoring
and management. The reason is that optical systems are analogue in nature. For
example, if we look at performance management, then there is no optical
equivalent to the bit error checking that takes place in SDH equipment.
Communication between amplifiers and optical network management systems
can be achieved using an Optical Service Channel (OSC), which is a separate
optical channel outside the gain band of the amplifiers. The communication
protocols over the optical service channels are of the same quality as the
embedded communication channel found in SDH multiplexing equipment. This
means that the optical service channel and its terminations can support features
such as software download, the communication of station alarms (for example
air conditioning failure) and data communications.
It is possible to design an optical service channel to be highly tolerant of faults.
This ensures that the optical management system can be used for the
communications required for fault isolation. This is achieved by using IS to IS
routing on the optical service channel so that communication paths can be re-
established to equipment on the other side of fibre breaks. Under fault
conditions the amplifiers can also be designed to shut down in a mode that
ensures that the optical service channel continues to operate.
Gain Profiles and the ITU Frequency Grid
The principal component of an optical amplifier is an Erbium Doped Fibre
Amplifier (EDFA) gain block, see Figure 8-4. The EDFA is composed of a
special type of fibre optic cable manufactured with erbium. A dedicated pump
laser excites and energises the erbium in this fibre which amplifies the signal.
Each amplifier has a characteristic gain profile which depends on the
characteristics of the EDFA. The gain experienced by each band depends on its
wavelength, the ideal profile is high and flat, that is all the wavelengths are
applied by a similar amount.
There is an optimum range of wavelengths for each amplifier. The ITU-T have
standardised a wavelength grid across the entire EDFA band, this grid
(Recommendation G.692) is used to achieve compatibility between vendors
equipment.
Figure 8-4 Optical Amplifier
Optical
Amplifier
Doped Fibre
Pump
Laser
Optical
Isolator
Optical
Signal
Input
Optical
Signal
Output
121 122
123 122 123 122
As the signal is transmitted it will suffer degradation due to noise and non-linear
interactions within the signal. Amplifiers are analogue devices and do not clean
up the degradation in the signal. This clean up can be achieved by terminating
the signal at a regenerator site. Transmission up to very long distances is
possible using amplifiers, without regenerating the signal. In fact up to 600 kms
can be achieved at STM-16 in conventional landline systems with installed fibre,
but for longer links regenerators are required. Note that this distance will vary
depending on the bit rate and installed fibre.
In moderate length links a post or pre-amplifier may be located at the input to the
optical multiplexer or the output of the demultiplexer respectively. These are
used to extend the reach as much as possible to reduce the need for in-line
amplifiers which require separate sites. Longer systems require line amplifiers
to prevent the optical signal level being so weak that it cannot be adequately
received.
Network management: The basic purpose of WDM network management is
the same as that for SDH as explained in Chapter 7. Most of the components
required to further develop the optical layer of transmission networks are
already available today. The key factor that is currently limiting the rate at which
optical layer functionality can be deployed is the complexity of the monitoring
and management. The reason is that optical systems are analogue in nature. For
example, if we look at performance management, then there is no optical
equivalent to the bit error checking that takes place in SDH equipment.
Communication between amplifiers and optical network management systems
can be achieved using an Optical Service Channel (OSC), which is a separate
optical channel outside the gain band of the amplifiers. The communication
protocols over the optical service channels are of the same quality as the
embedded communication channel found in SDH multiplexing equipment. This
means that the optical service channel and its terminations can support features
such as software download, the communication of station alarms (for example
air conditioning failure) and data communications.
It is possible to design an optical service channel to be highly tolerant of faults.
This ensures that the optical management system can be used for the
communications required for fault isolation. This is achieved by using IS to IS
routing on the optical service channel so that communication paths can be re-
established to equipment on the other side of fibre breaks. Under fault
conditions the amplifiers can also be designed to shut down in a mode that
ensures that the optical service channel continues to operate.
Gain Profiles and the ITU Frequency Grid
The principal component of an optical amplifier is an Erbium Doped Fibre
Amplifier (EDFA) gain block, see Figure 8-4. The EDFA is composed of a
special type of fibre optic cable manufactured with erbium. A dedicated pump
laser excites and energises the erbium in this fibre which amplifies the signal.
Each amplifier has a characteristic gain profile which depends on the
characteristics of the EDFA. The gain experienced by each band depends on its
wavelength, the ideal profile is high and flat, that is all the wavelengths are
applied by a similar amount.
There is an optimum range of wavelengths for each amplifier. The ITU-T have
standardised a wavelength grid across the entire EDFA band, this grid
(Recommendation G.692) is used to achieve compatibility between vendors
equipment.
Figure 8-4 Optical Amplifier
Optical
Amplifier
Doped Fibre
Pump
Laser
Optical
Isolator
Optical
Signal
Input
Optical
Signal
Output
121 122
123 122 123 122
Span Design
WDM network design is a new challenge facing network designers. There are a
number of factors which determine the spacing between amplifiers on a link, for
example the fibre type, type of signal transmitted and overall length of link
between regenerators. The example in Figure 8-5 illustrates how the overall
length of the link between terminal SDH network elements (or regenerators) can
affect the spacing of the intermediate optical amplifiers.
Figure 8-5 Optical Amplifier Spacing Examples
Bi-directional Transmission
On a uni-directional WDM link a single wavelength is used for each channel, but
a separate fibre is required for transmission in the reverse direction (two fibres
required, one for send and one for receive, see Figure 8-6). Bi-directional
transmission involves using two different wavelengths for each channel, one for
each direction, but these wavelengths can all be supported on one fibre, that is
one fibre only is needed for send and receive. This means that only one fibre is
needed for transmission of the WDM signal and so particularly advantageous
for start up WDM operations.
In bi-directional transmission optical amplifiers amplify signals in both send
and receive direction, so only one amplifier is required at each site for each link.
This can provide significant equipment savings over uni-directional operation
where an amplifier is required for both send and receive fibres. Bi-directional
operation is defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.692.
Figure 8-6 Bi-directional Optical Amplifier
Optical Signal Impairments
Optical signals can be corrupted by attenuations, back reflection and scattering
caused by fibre breaks, micro bends and dirty connectors. These problems are
inherent to the optical network and cannot be corrected by the D-WDM or
optical amplifier equipment. Other effects such as chromatic dispersion and
360 kms
120 kms 120 kms 120 kms
WDM
Terminals
Optical
Amplifiers
WDM
Terminals
80 kms 80 kms 80 kms 80 kms 80 kms 80 kms
560 kms
Unidirectional
Bi-directional
Tx Rx
Tx Rx
Tx Rx
Tx Rx
123 124
125 124 125 124
Span Design
WDM network design is a new challenge facing network designers. There are a
number of factors which determine the spacing between amplifiers on a link, for
example the fibre type, type of signal transmitted and overall length of link
between regenerators. The example in Figure 8-5 illustrates how the overall
length of the link between terminal SDH network elements (or regenerators) can
affect the spacing of the intermediate optical amplifiers.
Figure 8-5 Optical Amplifier Spacing Examples
Bi-directional Transmission
On a uni-directional WDM link a single wavelength is used for each channel, but
a separate fibre is required for transmission in the reverse direction (two fibres
required, one for send and one for receive, see Figure 8-6). Bi-directional
transmission involves using two different wavelengths for each channel, one for
each direction, but these wavelengths can all be supported on one fibre, that is
one fibre only is needed for send and receive. This means that only one fibre is
needed for transmission of the WDM signal and so particularly advantageous
for start up WDM operations.
In bi-directional transmission optical amplifiers amplify signals in both send
and receive direction, so only one amplifier is required at each site for each link.
This can provide significant equipment savings over uni-directional operation
where an amplifier is required for both send and receive fibres. Bi-directional
operation is defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.692.
Figure 8-6 Bi-directional Optical Amplifier
Optical Signal Impairments
Optical signals can be corrupted by attenuations, back reflection and scattering
caused by fibre breaks, micro bends and dirty connectors. These problems are
inherent to the optical network and cannot be corrected by the D-WDM or
optical amplifier equipment. Other effects such as chromatic dispersion and
360 kms
120 kms 120 kms 120 kms
WDM
Terminals
Optical
Amplifiers
WDM
Terminals
80 kms 80 kms 80 kms 80 kms 80 kms 80 kms
560 kms
Unidirectional
Bi-directional
Tx Rx
Tx Rx
Tx Rx
Tx Rx
123 124
125 124 125 124
Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD), however, must be considered when
designing the optical layer.
Chromatic dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse when optical energy
travels along the fibre. Several techniques exist to compensate for this type of
dispersion. For example programmable chirp, which involves reshaping the
leading edge of the pulse in a positive or negative direction. Dispersion
compensation modules (or DCMs) can also be used to pre-distort the signal. A
DCM consists of pre-coiled fibre in a box which is doped to pre-distort the
signal. New fibre types have also been introduced such as Non-zero Dispersion
Shifted Fibre (NZDSF) which have a broad range of wavelengths that suffer
minimum dispersion.
PMD is an inherent property of fibre which results from the spreading of a light
pulse. This effect depends on fibre type, the manufacturing conditions of the
fibre and stresses placed on the cable. PMD must be taken into account in optical
link design.
Applications of WDM
Today WDM is commonly deployed to expand the capacity of backbone, long
haul links beyond a capacity of STM-16. WDM can present a cost effective
solution as new fibre need not be laid. The current cost of the technology,
however, can make WDM unattractive for other applications.
As the technology is developing other applications are emerging. Metropolitan,
short haul links present an opportunity for WDM. Metropolitan networks differ
to long haul networks, in not just scale but also economics. On long haul links
today, fibre exhaust is a more critical problem. In metro networks it is harder to
justify the cost of an optical amplifier as the amount of traffic on a single fibre
and the length of the link is likely to be lower.
Another development is the use of transponders to allow WDM systems to
connect directly to ATM switches and IP routers, as well as the transport of
lower rate SDH and PDH traffic. In the years ahead IP traffic could be handled
optically, without using SDH multiplexers. Although some see the SDH
overhead as a tax on capacity, others value the overhead functionality in
providing fast fault isolation and quick problem resolution. SDH has a range of
protection mechanisms to address network resilience.
STM-64
SDH systems are now being deployed which increase the line rate of
transmission by time division multiplexing to 10 Gbit/s or STM-64. Raising the
line rate above STM-16 has previously been constrained by a number of
technical issues, for example, chromatic dispersion and PMD. Methods to
overcome and budget for these effects have been developed. These challenges
have now been overcome and there are many 10 Gbit/s systems in the field. The
need for ever more capacity has driven the deployment of WDM on these
systems, to achieve over 160 Gbit/s on a single fibre.
The inherent functionality of SDH network elements as described in the
previous chapters, such as cross-connect and standard protection schemes,
applies equally to STM-64 systems. Lack of standards and component
technology constrains similar development in WDM; this is discussed further in
the following section as we look to the evolution of optical networks.
Moving Beyond 2.5 Gbit/s
So far this chapter has outlined technology to allow the capacity of a fibre to be
raised above 2.5 Gbit/s, but what are the options for an operator and the
advantages and disadvantages of these? With WDM it is not enough to consider
just the link itself, but also:
how the bandwidth is utilised,
how the traffic is routed,
the simplicity of the network,
the ease with which it can be managed.
The advantages and disadvantages can be considered in terms of several criteria:
the economics of each option,
the existing network infrastructure,
long term capacity needs.
125 126
127 126 127 126
Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD), however, must be considered when
designing the optical layer.
Chromatic dispersion is the spreading of a light pulse when optical energy
travels along the fibre. Several techniques exist to compensate for this type of
dispersion. For example programmable chirp, which involves reshaping the
leading edge of the pulse in a positive or negative direction. Dispersion
compensation modules (or DCMs) can also be used to pre-distort the signal. A
DCM consists of pre-coiled fibre in a box which is doped to pre-distort the
signal. New fibre types have also been introduced such as Non-zero Dispersion
Shifted Fibre (NZDSF) which have a broad range of wavelengths that suffer
minimum dispersion.
PMD is an inherent property of fibre which results from the spreading of a light
pulse. This effect depends on fibre type, the manufacturing conditions of the
fibre and stresses placed on the cable. PMD must be taken into account in optical
link design.
Applications of WDM
Today WDM is commonly deployed to expand the capacity of backbone, long
haul links beyond a capacity of STM-16. WDM can present a cost effective
solution as new fibre need not be laid. The current cost of the technology,
however, can make WDM unattractive for other applications.
As the technology is developing other applications are emerging. Metropolitan,
short haul links present an opportunity for WDM. Metropolitan networks differ
to long haul networks, in not just scale but also economics. On long haul links
today, fibre exhaust is a more critical problem. In metro networks it is harder to
justify the cost of an optical amplifier as the amount of traffic on a single fibre
and the length of the link is likely to be lower.
Another development is the use of transponders to allow WDM systems to
connect directly to ATM switches and IP routers, as well as the transport of
lower rate SDH and PDH traffic. In the years ahead IP traffic could be handled
optically, without using SDH multiplexers. Although some see the SDH
overhead as a tax on capacity, others value the overhead functionality in
providing fast fault isolation and quick problem resolution. SDH has a range of
protection mechanisms to address network resilience.
STM-64
SDH systems are now being deployed which increase the line rate of
transmission by time division multiplexing to 10 Gbit/s or STM-64. Raising the
line rate above STM-16 has previously been constrained by a number of
technical issues, for example, chromatic dispersion and PMD. Methods to
overcome and budget for these effects have been developed. These challenges
have now been overcome and there are many 10 Gbit/s systems in the field. The
need for ever more capacity has driven the deployment of WDM on these
systems, to achieve over 160 Gbit/s on a single fibre.
The inherent functionality of SDH network elements as described in the
previous chapters, such as cross-connect and standard protection schemes,
applies equally to STM-64 systems. Lack of standards and component
technology constrains similar development in WDM; this is discussed further in
the following section as we look to the evolution of optical networks.
Moving Beyond 2.5 Gbit/s
So far this chapter has outlined technology to allow the capacity of a fibre to be
raised above 2.5 Gbit/s, but what are the options for an operator and the
advantages and disadvantages of these? With WDM it is not enough to consider
just the link itself, but also:
how the bandwidth is utilised,
how the traffic is routed,
the simplicity of the network,
the ease with which it can be managed.
The advantages and disadvantages can be considered in terms of several criteria:
the economics of each option,
the existing network infrastructure,
long term capacity needs.
125 126
127 126 127 126
Three ways to increase the capacity of a link four-fold are outlined below and
evaluated in terms of these advantages and disadvantages.
Install more fibre
More links could be added to increase capacity. For example four fibre links
could be deployed each with an STM-16 transmission system. This would be
equivalent to the capacity of a 10 Gbit/s system.
economics: expensive due the cost of installing new fibre and the cost
of additional repeaters
existing network: would need to change network by installing new
fibre and additional cross-connects may be required to groom the
traffic between the different fibres
long term: no long term evolution path
Move to STM-64 systems with option to deploy WDM later
economics: This would be a technically compact solution, using only
a single network element to increase capacity four-fold, appropriate
when the network is growing rapidly.
existing network: Being an SDH option, it would be a standardised
solution offering integration with existing network management and
offering standard protection schemes. As the traffic on the network
increases so the complexity of managing the bandwidth and routing
traffic increases. The inherent cross-connect capability of an SDH
network element, as described in Chapter 4, would allow the flexible
management of channels across the whole of the 10 Gbit/s capacity,
and removes the need to back-haul traffic to centralised cross-
connects. Existing STM-16 terminals could be re-deployed or used as
tributary inputs for the STM-64 equipment.
Long term: WDM deployment on STM-64 can be supported to
increase the capacity further, however, capacity is increased in steps
of 10 Gbit/s. An operator may prefer to increase the capacity in
smaller steps.
Move to WDM on STM-16
economics: A single optical amplifier can amplify several channels
simultaneously, so fewer repeaters may be required compared to the
first option of installing more fibre. When traffic on the network is
growing slowly this may be a more appropriate use of capital
compared to STM-64.
existing network: More network elements would be required than an
integrated STM-64 WDM solution. This would increase
maintenance, installation, power, spares and floor space
requirements. WDM channels are entirely separate, so to move
manage and switch the traffic between channels it must be back-
hauled to a cross-connect at the edge of the WDM link, where an
optical electrical conversion is required. This increase in distance that
the signal must travel will increase the capacity requirements
imposed upon the WDM links. This factor and the additional cost of
the cross-connect will raise the cost of the overall end to end link.
evolution: Once a WDM solution and optical amplifiers are in place
capacity can be upgraded incrementally as required by the operator.
It is a common misconception that WDM will replace SDH or that to move
beyond 2.5 Gbit/s the operator must choose between WDM or STM-64. The
reality is that WDM and SDH are now being deployed together as integrated
systems. In the long term it is excepted that SDH will remain and that WDM and
SDH will coexist, SDH being the input to the WDM systems. The standard
protection schemes, the bandwidth management capability and the network
management systems of SDH, mean that SDH and WDM will form an
integrated solution for todays transport networks.
127 128
129 128 129 128
Three ways to increase the capacity of a link four-fold are outlined below and
evaluated in terms of these advantages and disadvantages.
Install more fibre
More links could be added to increase capacity. For example four fibre links
could be deployed each with an STM-16 transmission system. This would be
equivalent to the capacity of a 10 Gbit/s system.
economics: expensive due the cost of installing new fibre and the cost
of additional repeaters
existing network: would need to change network by installing new
fibre and additional cross-connects may be required to groom the
traffic between the different fibres
long term: no long term evolution path
Move to STM-64 systems with option to deploy WDM later
economics: This would be a technically compact solution, using only
a single network element to increase capacity four-fold, appropriate
when the network is growing rapidly.
existing network: Being an SDH option, it would be a standardised
solution offering integration with existing network management and
offering standard protection schemes. As the traffic on the network
increases so the complexity of managing the bandwidth and routing
traffic increases. The inherent cross-connect capability of an SDH
network element, as described in Chapter 4, would allow the flexible
management of channels across the whole of the 10 Gbit/s capacity,
and removes the need to back-haul traffic to centralised cross-
connects. Existing STM-16 terminals could be re-deployed or used as
tributary inputs for the STM-64 equipment.
Long term: WDM deployment on STM-64 can be supported to
increase the capacity further, however, capacity is increased in steps
of 10 Gbit/s. An operator may prefer to increase the capacity in
smaller steps.
Move to WDM on STM-16
economics: A single optical amplifier can amplify several channels
simultaneously, so fewer repeaters may be required compared to the
first option of installing more fibre. When traffic on the network is
growing slowly this may be a more appropriate use of capital
compared to STM-64.
existing network: More network elements would be required than an
integrated STM-64 WDM solution. This would increase
maintenance, installation, power, spares and floor space
requirements. WDM channels are entirely separate, so to move
manage and switch the traffic between channels it must be back-
hauled to a cross-connect at the edge of the WDM link, where an
optical electrical conversion is required. This increase in distance that
the signal must travel will increase the capacity requirements
imposed upon the WDM links. This factor and the additional cost of
the cross-connect will raise the cost of the overall end to end link.
evolution: Once a WDM solution and optical amplifiers are in place
capacity can be upgraded incrementally as required by the operator.
It is a common misconception that WDM will replace SDH or that to move
beyond 2.5 Gbit/s the operator must choose between WDM or STM-64. The
reality is that WDM and SDH are now being deployed together as integrated
systems. In the long term it is excepted that SDH will remain and that WDM and
SDH will coexist, SDH being the input to the WDM systems. The standard
protection schemes, the bandwidth management capability and the network
management systems of SDH, mean that SDH and WDM will form an
integrated solution for todays transport networks.
127 128
129 128 129 128
Figure 8-7 STM-64 Simplifies Bandwidth Management
Evolution to the Optical Network
In a typical network, it is likely that on certain links there is less fibre deployed
or certain links carry a large amount of traffic. On these point to point
bottlenecks many operators are looking to WDM as a near term solution,
increasing the capacity of the link without installing new fibre. What is
eventually expected is that WDM will also be used to route traffic, rather than
just increase capacity. This will create a new optical or photonic layer in the
network.
At its most basic, optical networking involves managing the bandwidth at the
optical layer of the network without converting the signal from optical to
electrical in order to add, drop or combine traffic. The optical traffic may also be
routed around the network and protection may take place in the optical domain
as well as in the underlying SDH domain. Also, these networks will be managed
as an integrated part of the complete network.
STN-16 Rings
VC-4 # 11
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 1-3
VC-4-4c
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 8
DXC
With large number of STM-16 channels,
eventually cross-connects are needed
STM-16 D-WDM
STN-16 Rings
VC-4 # 11
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 1-3
VC-4-4c
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 8
STM-64 eliminates cross-connects
cost through more channel capacity
STM-64 D-WDM
and built in Switcher Card
129 130
131 130 131 130
Figure 8-7 STM-64 Simplifies Bandwidth Management
Evolution to the Optical Network
In a typical network, it is likely that on certain links there is less fibre deployed
or certain links carry a large amount of traffic. On these point to point
bottlenecks many operators are looking to WDM as a near term solution,
increasing the capacity of the link without installing new fibre. What is
eventually expected is that WDM will also be used to route traffic, rather than
just increase capacity. This will create a new optical or photonic layer in the
network.
At its most basic, optical networking involves managing the bandwidth at the
optical layer of the network without converting the signal from optical to
electrical in order to add, drop or combine traffic. The optical traffic may also be
routed around the network and protection may take place in the optical domain
as well as in the underlying SDH domain. Also, these networks will be managed
as an integrated part of the complete network.
STN-16 Rings
VC-4 # 11
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 1-3
VC-4-4c
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 8
DXC
With large number of STM-16 channels,
eventually cross-connects are needed
STM-16 D-WDM
STN-16 Rings
VC-4 # 11
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 1-3
VC-4-4c
VC-4 # 4
VC-4 # 8
STM-64 eliminates cross-connects
cost through more channel capacity
STM-64 D-WDM
and built in Switcher Card
129 130
131 130 131 130
Figure 8-8 Network Evolution
Optical Networking Elements
With WDM it is possible to reduce the cost of the line between two end nodes
because the cost of fibre and optical amplifiers can be shared between a large
number of optical channels. Several channels can be transmitted on a single fibre
and regenerators for several channels can be replaced by a single optical
amplifier. The real challenge of optical networks, however, will be how to
reduce the cost of the node itself as well as the line and route traffic cost
effectively.
The first generation of optical networking products are being developed. These
include fixed Add/Drop multiplexers, small optical cross-connects and
amplifiers with advanced management.
Figure 8-9 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
Exchanging wavelengths is a major challenge, that is determining how to
exchange or convert a signal from one wavelength to another at a node. For
example, a signal may enter the network at one wavelength and arrive in another
city and find this wavelength occupied. Currently there is no cost effective way
to route one wavelength into another without having to go back to the electrical
layer.
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131 132
133 132 133 132
Figure 8-8 Network Evolution
Optical Networking Elements
With WDM it is possible to reduce the cost of the line between two end nodes
because the cost of fibre and optical amplifiers can be shared between a large
number of optical channels. Several channels can be transmitted on a single fibre
and regenerators for several channels can be replaced by a single optical
amplifier. The real challenge of optical networks, however, will be how to
reduce the cost of the node itself as well as the line and route traffic cost
effectively.
The first generation of optical networking products are being developed. These
include fixed Add/Drop multiplexers, small optical cross-connects and
amplifiers with advanced management.
Figure 8-9 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
Exchanging wavelengths is a major challenge, that is determining how to
exchange or convert a signal from one wavelength to another at a node. For
example, a signal may enter the network at one wavelength and arrive in another
city and find this wavelength occupied. Currently there is no cost effective way
to route one wavelength into another without having to go back to the electrical
layer.
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131 132
133 132 133 132
Management
Managing signals as wavelengths has its own set of challenges which constrain
the implementation of these networks. Currently carriers have a highly managed
SDH infrastructure that provide performance monitoring and survivability.
Optical networks need to be managed in the same way and this will delay their
deployment. As explained previously management control information cannot
be transported over the embedded channel in the signal itself, a special optical
service channel is required.
Lack of standards: For photonic networks to become part of the transport
network, it will be required from a network level view point to manage all
networks of whatever technology simultaneously. As yet there are no standards
defining how an optical network will be managed. It has not been decided what
functions will be required of the management, how this will be implemented and
how it will integrate with the rest of the network.
Fault isolation: Fibre faults, optical network element faults, optical non-linear
interactions as a result of element degradation and connection faults, all need to
be isolated and fixed quickly. New comprehensive fault isolation facilities are
required to rapidly isolate and repair these faults. With no electrical regenerators
in the span, special optical techniques are required to isolate degraded or failed
units.
Some tools are currently available such as optical analogue monitors which
check the peak power and signal to noise ratio per wavelength and optical
reflectometers which monitor the connector optical return loss and signal
reflections.
Performance Monitoring: To monitor the signal in the electrical layers of the
network, established systems check the bit rate error and when it crosses a pre-
set threshold, some action is taken or an alarm raised. No such measure exists for
checking the health of a wavelength of light. Technology to enable complete
performance monitoring on optical channels without having to convert to the
electrical layer is yet to be developed.
Standards
Standards for the optical network are being discussed at the moment, however,
these are at the very early stages. The lack of standards for the optical layer of
the network will slow the implementation of systems.
Protection
In the event of equipment failure, or a fibre break, the SDH layer can quickly and
efficiently, re-route traffic to a back-up path. In the situation where non-SDH
traffic is being carried, or where traffic originates from a platform with very high
speed interfaces (for example an IP router), then protection can be performed at
the optical layer itself. Protection in this case is achieved by switching the light
paths round the fault, either on all the wavelengths within the fibre at once, or to
offer greater operational flexibility, on a per wavelength basis. By providing a
separate protection scheme on each wavelength the operator can increase the
flexibility of the network by offering different services on each of these
wavelengths, each backed-up with an appropriate level of protection.
Implementation of the Optical Layer
The optimum degree of functionality that it is ultimately desirable to place in the
optical layer depends on the physical size of the network, the traffic volume and
the services being carried. This means that in the future we are likely to see a
variety of network structures in which the distribution of the network
functionality between the optical, SDH and service layers is tailored to suit the
type of traffic carried, the transmission distance and the network structure.
Today most of the hardware required to implement networks with a larger
optical layer is unavailable, the key issues are the development of systems for the
management and control of such networks. At present it is most cost effective to
use network structures and a thin optical layer. Optical management is
developing however, and this will enable the growth of optical layer
functionality for appropriate services in future networks.
133 134
135 134 135 134
Management
Managing signals as wavelengths has its own set of challenges which constrain
the implementation of these networks. Currently carriers have a highly managed
SDH infrastructure that provide performance monitoring and survivability.
Optical networks need to be managed in the same way and this will delay their
deployment. As explained previously management control information cannot
be transported over the embedded channel in the signal itself, a special optical
service channel is required.
Lack of standards: For photonic networks to become part of the transport
network, it will be required from a network level view point to manage all
networks of whatever technology simultaneously. As yet there are no standards
defining how an optical network will be managed. It has not been decided what
functions will be required of the management, how this will be implemented and
how it will integrate with the rest of the network.
Fault isolation: Fibre faults, optical network element faults, optical non-linear
interactions as a result of element degradation and connection faults, all need to
be isolated and fixed quickly. New comprehensive fault isolation facilities are
required to rapidly isolate and repair these faults. With no electrical regenerators
in the span, special optical techniques are required to isolate degraded or failed
units.
Some tools are currently available such as optical analogue monitors which
check the peak power and signal to noise ratio per wavelength and optical
reflectometers which monitor the connector optical return loss and signal
reflections.
Performance Monitoring: To monitor the signal in the electrical layers of the
network, established systems check the bit rate error and when it crosses a pre-
set threshold, some action is taken or an alarm raised. No such measure exists for
checking the health of a wavelength of light. Technology to enable complete
performance monitoring on optical channels without having to convert to the
electrical layer is yet to be developed.
Standards
Standards for the optical network are being discussed at the moment, however,
these are at the very early stages. The lack of standards for the optical layer of
the network will slow the implementation of systems.
Protection
In the event of equipment failure, or a fibre break, the SDH layer can quickly and
efficiently, re-route traffic to a back-up path. In the situation where non-SDH
traffic is being carried, or where traffic originates from a platform with very high
speed interfaces (for example an IP router), then protection can be performed at
the optical layer itself. Protection in this case is achieved by switching the light
paths round the fault, either on all the wavelengths within the fibre at once, or to
offer greater operational flexibility, on a per wavelength basis. By providing a
separate protection scheme on each wavelength the operator can increase the
flexibility of the network by offering different services on each of these
wavelengths, each backed-up with an appropriate level of protection.
Implementation of the Optical Layer
The optimum degree of functionality that it is ultimately desirable to place in the
optical layer depends on the physical size of the network, the traffic volume and
the services being carried. This means that in the future we are likely to see a
variety of network structures in which the distribution of the network
functionality between the optical, SDH and service layers is tailored to suit the
type of traffic carried, the transmission distance and the network structure.
Today most of the hardware required to implement networks with a larger
optical layer is unavailable, the key issues are the development of systems for the
management and control of such networks. At present it is most cost effective to
use network structures and a thin optical layer. Optical management is
developing however, and this will enable the growth of optical layer
functionality for appropriate services in future networks.
133 134
135 134 135 134
Introduction Introduction
SDH - A Detailed Description
This chapter is intended to expand on the overview of SDH included in
Chapter 3, The Need For Synchronous Transmission . Those who have not
already read that chapter may wish to do so before proceeding.
Synchronous Operation
We have seen that plesiochronous transmission systems allow tributaries to
deviate from a predefined bit rate by only a set amount. Justification methods
then bring all tributaries up to the same bit rate before multiplexing. The
justification method used of stuffing extra bits in the data stream, however,
makes it impossible to identify the location of specific tributary channels within
a multiplexed data stream.
In synchronous transmission systems all elements of the system are
synchronised to the same master clock so no justification is required to bring
tributaries up to a common rate before multiplexing.
The basic transmission rate defined in the SDH standards is 155.520 Mbit/s
(STM-1). The STM-1 frame consists of 2,430 8-bit bytes which corresponds to
a frame duration of 125 s. Three higher bit rates are also defined:
622.08 Mbit/s (STM-4), 2,488.32 Mbit/s (STM-16) and 9,953.28 Mbit/s
(STM-64).
The STM-1 frame structure is referred to as being a 270 column (bytes) by nine
row structure, with the first nine columns of the structure constituting the
Section Overhead area and the remaining 261 columns being the Payload
area. The basic structure for an STM-N frame (where N can be 1, 4, 16 or 64, or
any other rates that may be standardised) is shown in Figure 9-1.
The synchronous digital hierarchy eliminates the need for a number of the lower
multiplexing levels defined in the PDH. Tributaries of 2 Mbit/s are multiplexed
to the STM-1 level in a single step. In order to achieve compatibility with non-
synchronous equipment, however, the SDH recommendations define methods
of subdividing the payload area of an STM-1 frame in various ways so that it can
carry different combinations of tributaries, both synchronous and asynchronous.
Using this method, synchronous transmission systems can accommodate
signals generated by equipment from various levels of the plesiochronous digital
hierarchy.
Figure 9-1 STM-N Frame Structure
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9 x N
AU Pointer(s)
261 x N
270 x N columns (bytes)
STM-N Payload
9 Rows
(RSOH)
Section
Overhead
(MSOH)
Section
Overhead
135 136
9 SDH A Detailed Description
137 136 137 136
SDH - A Detailed Description
This chapter is intended to expand on the overview of SDH included in
Chapter 3, The Need For Synchronous Transmission . Those who have not
already read that chapter may wish to do so before proceeding.
Synchronous Operation
We have seen that plesiochronous transmission systems allow tributaries to
deviate from a predefined bit rate by only a set amount. Justification methods
then bring all tributaries up to the same bit rate before multiplexing. The
justification method used of stuffing extra bits in the data stream, however,
makes it impossible to identify the location of specific tributary channels within
a multiplexed data stream.
In synchronous transmission systems all elements of the system are
synchronised to the same master clock so no justification is required to bring
tributaries up to a common rate before multiplexing.
The basic transmission rate defined in the SDH standards is 155.520 Mbit/s
(STM-1). The STM-1 frame consists of 2,430 8-bit bytes which corresponds to
a frame duration of 125 s. Three higher bit rates are also defined:
622.08 Mbit/s (STM-4), 2,488.32 Mbit/s (STM-16) and 9,953.28 Mbit/s
(STM-64).
The STM-1 frame structure is referred to as being a 270 column (bytes) by nine
row structure, with the first nine columns of the structure constituting the
Section Overhead area and the remaining 261 columns being the Payload
area. The basic structure for an STM-N frame (where N can be 1, 4, 16 or 64, or
any other rates that may be standardised) is shown in Figure 9-1.
The synchronous digital hierarchy eliminates the need for a number of the lower
multiplexing levels defined in the PDH. Tributaries of 2 Mbit/s are multiplexed
to the STM-1 level in a single step. In order to achieve compatibility with non-
synchronous equipment, however, the SDH recommendations define methods
of subdividing the payload area of an STM-1 frame in various ways so that it can
carry different combinations of tributaries, both synchronous and asynchronous.
Using this method, synchronous transmission systems can accommodate
signals generated by equipment from various levels of the plesiochronous digital
hierarchy.
Figure 9-1 STM-N Frame Structure
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9 x N
AU Pointer(s)
261 x N
270 x N columns (bytes)
STM-N Payload
9 Rows
(RSOH)
Section
Overhead
(MSOH)
Section
Overhead
135 136
137 136 137 136
Differences Between SDH and SONET
The ITU-T SDH recommendations can be viewed as the worldwide standards
for synchronous transmission. Within these standards, however, there is some
room for manoeuvre when implementing a system. As a result, the ETSI
implementation of SDH, used in Europe and much of the rest of the world,
differs in some details from the North American implementation. This is
because the North American implementation is developed from the original
ANSI SONET standards. Thus the best way of viewing the differences between
SONET and SDH as implemented elsewhere, is to consider SONET as a subset
of the worldwide SDH standard.
The first level of the SONET hierarchy is referred to as STS-1 (for an electrical
signal) or OC-1 (for an optical signal) and corresponds to a bit rate of
51.84 Mbit/s. (STS = Synchronous Transport Signal, OC = Optical Carrier). In
much the same way as an STM-1 frame can be considered as a 270 column
(byte) by nine row structure, an STS-1 frame can be viewed as 90 column (byte)
by nine rows. The section overhead (SOH) constitutes the first three columns of
the STS-1 frame.
The following gives levels from the SONET hierarchy, with the SDH
equivalents:
When the basic STS-1 signal is multiplexed to STS-3 it becomes identical in
frame rate and format to STM-1. There are, however, slight differences in
pointer processing. Figure 9-2 shows the comparison of SDH and SONET
signals at the STM-1/STS-3 and STM-4/STS-12 levels.
Figure 9-2 Comparison of SONET and SDH signals
The STM-1 Frame
An STM-1 frame consists of 2,430 bytes which can be divided into three main
areas:
Payload Area (2,349 bytes)
AU Pointer Area (9 bytes)
Section Overhead Area (72 bytes)
OC-1/STS-1 51.84 Mbit/s STM-0 or STM-1/3
OC-3/STS-3 155.52 Mbit/s STM-1
OC-48/STS-48 2488.32 Mbit/s STM-16
OC-192/STS-192 9953.28 Mbit/s STM-64
STM-4
STS-12
STM-1 STS-3
STS-1
x 3
x 4
155.52 Mbit/s
51.84 Mbit/s
Existing North American Signals
Existing North American
3 x 3 column SOH 9 column SOH
4 x 9 column (SDH SOH)
and European Signals
12 x 3 column (SONET SOH)
3 column SOH
137 138
139 138 139 138
Differences Between SDH and SONET
The ITU-T SDH recommendations can be viewed as the worldwide standards
for synchronous transmission. Within these standards, however, there is some
room for manoeuvre when implementing a system. As a result, the ETSI
implementation of SDH, used in Europe and much of the rest of the world,
differs in some details from the North American implementation. This is
because the North American implementation is developed from the original
ANSI SONET standards. Thus the best way of viewing the differences between
SONET and SDH as implemented elsewhere, is to consider SONET as a subset
of the worldwide SDH standard.
The first level of the SONET hierarchy is referred to as STS-1 (for an electrical
signal) or OC-1 (for an optical signal) and corresponds to a bit rate of
51.84 Mbit/s. (STS = Synchronous Transport Signal, OC = Optical Carrier). In
much the same way as an STM-1 frame can be considered as a 270 column
(byte) by nine row structure, an STS-1 frame can be viewed as 90 column (byte)
by nine rows. The section overhead (SOH) constitutes the first three columns of
the STS-1 frame.
The following gives levels from the SONET hierarchy, with the SDH
equivalents:
When the basic STS-1 signal is multiplexed to STS-3 it becomes identical in
frame rate and format to STM-1. There are, however, slight differences in
pointer processing. Figure 9-2 shows the comparison of SDH and SONET
signals at the STM-1/STS-3 and STM-4/STS-12 levels.
Figure 9-2 Comparison of SONET and SDH signals
The STM-1 Frame
An STM-1 frame consists of 2,430 bytes which can be divided into three main
areas:
Payload Area (2,349 bytes)
AU Pointer Area (9 bytes)
Section Overhead Area (72 bytes)
OC-1/STS-1 51.84 Mbit/s STM-0 or STM-1/3
OC-48/STS-48 2488.32 Mbit/s STM-16
OC-192/STS-192 9953.28 Mbit/s STM-64
STM-4
STS-12
STM-1 STS-3
STS-1
x 3
x 4
155.52 Mbit/s
51.84 Mbit/s
Existing North American Signals
Existing North American
3 x 3 column SOH 9 column SOH
4 x 9 column (SDH SOH)
and European Signals
12 x 3 column (SONET SOH)
3 column SOH
137 138
139 138 139 138
Payload
Signals from all levels of the PDH can be accommodated in the SDH by
packaging them together in the payload area of an STM-1 frame. The process of
packaging PDH signals is a multi-step process involving a number of different
structures.
The plesiochronous tributaries are mapped into an appropriately sized container,
and a number of bytes, known as the path overhead (POH), are added to form the
relevant virtual container (VC). The path overhead provides information for use
in end-to-end management of a synchronous path. Further information follows
on the two types of path overhead, one type associated with VC-2/VC-1 and the
other with VC-4/VC-3.
Figure 9-3 VC-2/VC-1 Path overhead V5 byte
VC-2/VC-1 Path Overhead
The bytes V5, J2, Z6 and Z7 are allocated to the VC-2/VC-1 POH. The V5 byte
is the byte positioned at the start of the virtual container and functions of the
various bits in this byte are described below. The V5 byte is shown in Figure 9-3:
The VC-4 path overhead is located in the first column of the nine row by 261
column VC-4 structure. For the VC-3, the path overhead is located in the first
column of the nine row by 85 column structure. The nine byte path overhead for
both the VC-4 and VC-3 structure is shown in Figure 9-4. The function of each
byte, with some explanatory text, is given in the following table.
Figure 9-4 VC-4/VC-3 Path Overhead
BIP-2: Bits 1 and 2 are used for error performance monitoring using a
Bit Interleaved Parity (BIP) check on all the bytes in the previous
VC-2/VC-1.
REI: Bit 3 is a path Remote Error Indication (REI) that is set to binary
one and sent back towards the originating end of a VC-2/VC-1 if
one or more errors are detected by the BIP-2 check.
RFI: Bit 4 is a path Remote Failure Indication (RFI) that is set to binary
one and sent back by the VC-2/VC-1 assembler if a failure is
declared.
BIP-2 REI RFI Signal Label RDI
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Signal
Label:
Indicates the type of virtual container payload. Codings can be,
path unequipped, asynchronous mapping, byte synchronous
mapping, bit synchronous mapping, path equipped -
non-specific, or path equipped - to be defined.
RDI: Bit 8 is the path Remote Defect Indicator (RDI) that is set to
binary one and sent back by the VC-2/VC-1 assembler if either a
TU-2/TU-1 path AIS or a signal failure condition is being
received.
J1
B3
C2
G1
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5
VC-4 or VC-3
Payload
139 140
141 140 141 140
Payload
Signals from all levels of the PDH can be accommodated in the SDH by
packaging them together in the payload area of an STM-1 frame. The process of
packaging PDH signals is a multi-step process involving a number of different
structures.
The plesiochronous tributaries are mapped into an appropriately sized container,
and a number of bytes, known as the path overhead (POH), are added to form the
relevant virtual container (VC). The path overhead provides information for use
in end-to-end management of a synchronous path. Further information follows
on the two types of path overhead, one type associated with VC-2/VC-1 and the
other with VC-4/VC-3.
Figure 9-3 VC-2/VC-1 Path overhead V5 byte
The bytes V5, J2, Z6 and Z7 are allocated to the VC-2/VC-1 POH. The V5 byte
is the byte positioned at the start of the virtual container and functions of the
various bits in this byte are described below. The V5 byte is shown in Figure 9-3:
The VC-4 path overhead is located in the first column of the nine row by 261
column VC-4 structure. For the VC-3, the path overhead is located in the first
column of the nine row by 85 column structure. The nine byte path overhead for
both the VC-4 and VC-3 structure is shown in Figure 9-4. The function of each
byte, with some explanatory text, is given in the following table.
Figure 9-4 VC-4/VC-3 Path Overhead
BIP-2: Bits 1 and 2 are used for error performance monitoring using a
Bit Interleaved Parity (BIP) check on all the bytes in the previous
VC-2/VC-1.
REI: Bit 3 is a path Remote Error Indication (REI) that is set to binary
one and sent back towards the originating end of a VC-2/VC-1 if
one or more errors are detected by the BIP-2 check.
RFI: Bit 4 is a path Remote Failure Indication (RFI) that is set to binary
one and sent back by the VC-2/VC-1 assembler if a failure is
declared.
BIP-2 REI RFI Signal Label RDI
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Signal
Label:
Indicates the type of virtual container payload. Codings can be,
path unequipped, asynchronous mapping, byte synchronous
mapping, bit synchronous mapping, path equipped -
non-specific, or path equipped - to be defined.
RDI: Bit 8 is the path Remote Defect Indicator (RDI) that is set to
binary one and sent back by the VC-2/VC-1 assembler if either a
TU-2/TU-1 path AIS or a signal failure condition is being
received.
J1
B3
C2
G1
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5
VC-4 or VC-3
Payload
139 140
141 140 141 140
AU Pointer
After the path overhead is added the virtual container is positioned in a Tributary
Unit (TU) or an Administrative Unit (AU) with a pointer indicating the start of
the virtual container relative to the TU or AU, as appropriate. VC-1s and VC-2s
are positioned in TUs; whereas VC-4s are always positioned in an AU-4, see
Figure 9-5. In Europe, VC-3s are positioned in a TU-3 but for the SONET
option are positioned in an AU-3. TUs and AUs are each bundled into their
respective groups; Tributary Unit Groups (TUGs) for TUs, and Administrative
Unit Groups (AUGs) for AUs. TUGs are multiplexed into higher order virtual
containers, which in turn are positioned in AUs with a pointer indicating the start
of the virtual container relative to the AU. This is the AU pointer which indicates
the position of the AU in relation to the STM-1 frame and forms part of the
section overhead area of the frame.
The payload area of the STM-1 frame contains a VC-4 or three VC-3s with the
position of the first byte being indicated by the respective AU pointer.
The use of pointers in the STM-1 frame structure means that plesiochronous
signals can be accommodated within the synchronous network without the use
of buffers. This is because the signal can be packaged into a virtual container and
inserted into the frame at any position and the pointer indicates this position. Use
of the pointer method was made possible by defining synchronous virtual
J1 Path Trace This byte verifies the VC-4/VC-3 path
connection.
B3 Path BIP-8 This byte provides bit error monitoring over the
path using an even bit parity code, BIP-8
C2 Signal Label This byte indicates the composition of the
VC-4/VC-3 payload.
G1 Path Status This byte allows the status of the received signal
to be returned to the transmitting end of the path
from the receiving end.
F2, Z3 Path User
Channels
This byte provides a user communication
channel.
H4 Position
Indicator
This byte provides a generalised position
indicator for payloads and can be used as a
multiframe position indicator for VC-2/VC-1.
K3
(b1-b4)
APS These bits are allocated for Automatic Protection
Switching (APS) signalling for protection at the
higher order path level.
K3
(b5-b8)
Spare These bits are allocated for future use.
Z5 National
Operator
This byte is allocated for specific management
purposes, such as tandem connection
maintenance.
STM-N AUG AU-4
x N x 1
x 3
TUG-3
AU-3 VC-3
x 3
TU-3 VC-3
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2
TU-12
TU-11
VC-12
VC-11
C-3
C-2
C-12
C-11
C-4
x 1
x 7
x 7
x 1
x 3
x 4
139264
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
44736
34368
6312
2048
1544
pointer processing
multiplexing
aligning
mapping
VC-4
141 142
143 142 143 142
AU Pointer
After the path overhead is added the virtual container is positioned in a Tributary
Unit (TU) or an Administrative Unit (AU) with a pointer indicating the start of
the virtual container relative to the TU or AU, as appropriate. VC-1s and VC-2s
are positioned in TUs; whereas VC-4s are always positioned in an AU-4, see
Figure 9-5. In Europe, VC-3s are positioned in a TU-3 but for the SONET
option are positioned in an AU-3. TUs and AUs are each bundled into their
respective groups; Tributary Unit Groups (TUGs) for TUs, and Administrative
Unit Groups (AUGs) for AUs. TUGs are multiplexed into higher order virtual
containers, which in turn are positioned in AUs with a pointer indicating the start
of the virtual container relative to the AU. This is the AU pointer which indicates
the position of the AU in relation to the STM-1 frame and forms part of the
section overhead area of the frame.
The payload area of the STM-1 frame contains a VC-4 or three VC-3s with the
position of the first byte being indicated by the respective AU pointer.
The use of pointers in the STM-1 frame structure means that plesiochronous
signals can be accommodated within the synchronous network without the use
of buffers. This is because the signal can be packaged into a virtual container and
inserted into the frame at any position and the pointer indicates this position. Use
of the pointer method was made possible by defining synchronous virtual
J1 Path Trace This byte verifies the VC-4/VC-3 path
connection.
B3 Path BIP-8 This byte provides bit error monitoring over the
path using an even bit parity code, BIP-8
C2 Signal Label This byte indicates the composition of the
VC-4/VC-3 payload.
G1 Path Status This byte allows the status of the received signal
to be returned to the transmitting end of the path
from the receiving end.
F2, Z3 Path User
Channels
This byte provides a user communication
channel.
H4 Position
Indicator
This byte provides a generalised position
indicator for payloads and can be used as a
multiframe position indicator for VC-2/VC-1.
K3
(b1-b4)
APS These bits are allocated for Automatic Protection
Switching (APS) signalling for protection at the
higher order path level.
K3
(b5-b8)
Spare These bits are allocated for future use.
Z5 National
Operator
This byte is allocated for specific management
purposes, such as tandem connection
maintenance.
STM-N AUG AU-4
x N x 1
x 3
TUG-3
AU-3 VC-3
x 3
TU-3 VC-3
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2
TU-12
TU-11
VC-12
VC-11
C-3
C-2
C-12
C-11
C-4
x 1
x 7
x 7
x 1
x 3
x 4
139264
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
44736
34368
6312
2048
1544
pointer processing
multiplexing
aligning
mapping
VC-4
141 142
143 142 143 142
containers slightly larger than the payload they carry. This allows the payload to
slip in time relative to the STM-1 frame in which it is contained.
Adjustment of the pointers is also possible where slight changes of frequency
and phase occur as a result of variations in propagation delay.
The result of this is that in any data stream it is possible to identify individual
tributary channels, and drop or insert information, thus overcoming one of the
main drawbacks of the PDH.
Figure 9-6 STM-1 Section Overhead
Section Overhead
The Section Overhead bytes are used for communication between adjacent
pieces of synchronous equipment. As well as being used for frame
synchronisation, they perform a variety of management and administration
facilities. The purpose of individual bytes is detailed below. The STM-1 Section
Overhead is shown in Figure 9-6:
European Multiplexing Structure
The SDH Multiplexing Structure, as defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.707,
offers a number of options in the way in which each type of container can be
multiplexed into an STM-N frame. In order to establish a common multiplexing
route for Europe, ETSI established a preferred European multiplexing route
which is shown in Figure 9-7. (ITU-T Recommendation G.707 (03/96) is a
merged and revised version of Recommendations G.707, G.708 and G.709.)
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0
B1
D1
E1
D2
F1
D3
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6
D7 D8 D9
D10 D11 D12
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2
Bytes reserved for national use
Regenerator
Section
Overhead
Multiplex
Section
Overhead
* *
*
(RSOH)
(MSOH)
AU Pointer(s)
9 bytes
9

r
o
w
s
Unscrambled bytes, therefore care should be taken
Media dependent bytes
with their content
A1, A2 Framing.
J0 Regenerator section trace.
D1-D12 Bytes D1, D2 and D3 form a 192 kbit/s data
communication channel for the regenerator section. Bytes
D4 to D12 form a 576 kbit/s data communication channel
for the multiplex section. The use of both data
communication channels is for network management.
E1, E2 Orderwire channels.
F1 User channel.
B1, B2 These bytes are simple parity checks for error detection.
K1, K2 (b1-b5) Automatic Protection Switching (APS) channel.
K2 (b6-b8) Multiplex section RDI.
S1 (b5-b8) Synchronisation status.
M1 Multiplex section REI.
Z1, Z2 To be defined.
143 144
145 144 145 144
containers slightly larger than the payload they carry. This allows the payload to
slip in time relative to the STM-1 frame in which it is contained.
Adjustment of the pointers is also possible where slight changes of frequency
and phase occur as a result of variations in propagation delay.
The result of this is that in any data stream it is possible to identify individual
tributary channels, and drop or insert information, thus overcoming one of the
main drawbacks of the PDH.
Figure 9-6 STM-1 Section Overhead
Section Overhead
The Section Overhead bytes are used for communication between adjacent
pieces of synchronous equipment. As well as being used for frame
synchronisation, they perform a variety of management and administration
facilities. The purpose of individual bytes is detailed below. The STM-1 Section
Overhead is shown in Figure 9-6:
European Multiplexing Structure
The SDH Multiplexing Structure, as defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.707,
offers a number of options in the way in which each type of container can be
multiplexed into an STM-N frame. In order to establish a common multiplexing
route for Europe, ETSI established a preferred European multiplexing route
which is shown in Figure 9-7. (ITU-T Recommendation G.707 (03/96) is a
merged and revised version of Recommendations G.707, G.708 and G.709.)
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0
B1
D1
E1
D2
F1
D3
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6
D7 D8 D9
D10 D11 D12
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2
Bytes reserved for national use
Regenerator
Section
Overhead
Multiplex
Section
Overhead
* *
*
(RSOH)
(MSOH)
AU Pointer(s)
9 bytes
9

r
o
w
s
Unscrambled bytes, therefore care should be taken
Media dependent bytes
with their content
A1, A2 Framing.
J0 Regenerator section trace.
D1-D12 Bytes D1, D2 and D3 form a 192 kbit/s data
communication channel for the regenerator section. Bytes
D4 to D12 form a 576 kbit/s data communication channel
for the multiplex section. The use of both data
communication channels is for network management.
E1, E2 Orderwire channels.
F1 User channel.
B1, B2 These bytes are simple parity checks for error detection.
K1, K2 (b1-b5) Automatic Protection Switching (APS) channel.
K2 (b6-b8) Multiplex section RDI.
S1 (b5-b8) Synchronisation status.
M1 Multiplex section REI.
Z1, Z2 To be defined.
143 144
145 144 145 144
Figure 9-7 ETSI European Multiplexing Route
More detail is given in Figure 9-8, showing how PDH 2 Mbit/s signals are
multiplexed into STM-N frames.
The individual processes in Figure 9-8 are explained in more detail in the
following sections where PDH 2 Mbit/s signals are multiplexed into an STM-1
frame.
Figure 9-8 Multiplexing method for European primary rate services
STM-N
AUG AU-4
x N x 1
TUG-3
x 3
TU-3 VC-3
TUG-2 TU-12 VC-12
VC-11
C-3
C-12
C-11
C-4
x 1
x 7
x 3
139264
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
34368
2048
1544
pointer processing
multiplexing
aligning
mapping
VC-4
C-12
TUG-3 TUG-3 VC-4 POH
TUG-2
AU-4 Ptr
AUG SOH
TU-12 Ptr
TU-12 Ptr
TU-12 Ptr
AU-4 Ptr
TUG-2
VC-12
TU-12
TUG-2
TUG-3
VC-4
AU-4
AUG
STM-N
Logical association
Physical association
Note: Shaded areas are phase aligned. Phase alignment between the
shaded and unshaded areas is defined by the pointer and is indicated
by the arrow.
C-12
VC-12
VC-12 VC-12
VC-4
VC-4
AUG
VC-12 POH
145 146
147 146 147 146
Figure 9-7 ETSI European Multiplexing Route
More detail is given in Figure 9-8, showing how PDH 2 Mbit/s signals are
multiplexed into STM-N frames.
The individual processes in Figure 9-8 are explained in more detail in the
following sections where PDH 2 Mbit/s signals are multiplexed into an STM-1
frame.
Figure 9-8 Multiplexing method for European primary rate services
STM-N
AUG AU-4
x N x 1
TUG-3
x 3
TU-3 VC-3
TUG-2 TU-12 VC-12
VC-11
C-3
C-12
C-11
C-4
x 1
x 7
x 3
139264
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
kbit/s
34368
2048
1544
pointer processing
multiplexing
aligning
mapping
VC-4
C-12
TUG-3 TUG-3 VC-4 POH
TUG-2
AU-4 Ptr
AUG SOH
TU-12 Ptr
TU-12 Ptr
TU-12 Ptr
AU-4 Ptr
TUG-2
VC-12
TU-12
TUG-2
TUG-3
VC-4
AU-4
AUG
STM-N
Logical association
Physical association
Note: Shaded areas are phase aligned. Phase alignment between the
shaded and unshaded areas is defined by the pointer and is indicated
by the arrow.
C-12
VC-12
VC-12 VC-12
VC-4
VC-4
AUG
VC-12 POH
145 146
147 146 147 146
Mapping of a 2 Mbit/s Signal into a VC-12
SDH offers two options for the mapping of a 2 Mbit/s signal into a VC-12:
Asynchronous 2,048 kbit/s: Allows for carriage of a 2 Mbit/s
payload, but without the ability to observe individual bits.
Byte synchronous 2,048 kbit/s: Allows observation and
identification of all bits within the payload.
For asynchronous operation, the method used is based on a number of
opportunities within the signal to justify the 2,048 kbit/s data (see Figure 9-9).
This justification allows for the variations between the 2048 kbit/s clock and the
clock providing the timing for the synchronous network, however, it does mean
that a degree of processing is required to accommodate this justification. The
additional fixed stuff bits and bytes shown, are included to maintain a defined
size for the VC-12 of 140 bytes (for the 500 ms multiframe). The V5 byte is the
overhead byte which carries information pertaining to the VC-12 end-to-end
path. It is this byte which provides the end-to-end path information for
individual virtual containers.
If a byte synchronous 2,048 kbit/s mapping is utilised, the 64 kbit/s channels
within the 2 Mbit/s signal have fixed mappings within the VC-12, (see
Figure 9-10). This has great advantages if access is required to a particular
64 kbit/s channel within a VC-12, for example at a point of cross-connection. It
does, however, introduce additional processing to provide the fixed mapping
into the VC-12 and this introduces some delay during cross-connection while
reprocessing of the pointers occurs, (125 s for the 2 Mbit/s signal and 250 s
for the 64 kbit/s signal).
.
Figure 9-9 Asynchronous mapping of a 2_Mbit/s signal into a VC-12
140
Bytes
V5
R
32 Bytes
R
J2
C
1
C
2
0 0 0 0 R R
32 Bytes
R
Z6
C
1
C
2
0 0 0 0 R R
32 Bytes
R
K4
C
1
C
2
R R R R R S
1
S
2
I I I I I I I
31 Bytes
R
500 s
I
O
C
S
R
- Information bit
- Overhead bit
- Justification control bit
- Justification opportunity bit
- Fixed stuff bit
147 148
149 148 149 148
Mapping of a 2 Mbit/s Signal into a VC-12
SDH offers two options for the mapping of a 2 Mbit/s signal into a VC-12:
Asynchronous 2,048 kbit/s: Allows for carriage of a 2 Mbit/s
payload, but without the ability to observe individual bits.
Byte synchronous 2,048 kbit/s: Allows observation and
identification of all bits within the payload.
For asynchronous operation, the method used is based on a number of
opportunities within the signal to justify the 2,048 kbit/s data (see Figure 9-9).
This justification allows for the variations between the 2048 kbit/s clock and the
clock providing the timing for the synchronous network, however, it does mean
that a degree of processing is required to accommodate this justification. The
additional fixed stuff bits and bytes shown, are included to maintain a defined
size for the VC-12 of 140 bytes (for the 500 ms multiframe). The V5 byte is the
overhead byte which carries information pertaining to the VC-12 end-to-end
path. It is this byte which provides the end-to-end path information for
individual virtual containers.
If a byte synchronous 2,048 kbit/s mapping is utilised, the 64 kbit/s channels
within the 2 Mbit/s signal have fixed mappings within the VC-12, (see
Figure 9-10). This has great advantages if access is required to a particular
64 kbit/s channel within a VC-12, for example at a point of cross-connection. It
does, however, introduce additional processing to provide the fixed mapping
into the VC-12 and this introduces some delay during cross-connection while
reprocessing of the pointers occurs, (125 s for the 2 Mbit/s signal and 250 s
for the 64 kbit/s signal).
.
Figure 9-9 Asynchronous mapping of a 2_Mbit/s signal into a VC-12
140
Bytes
V5
R
32 Bytes
R
J2
C
1
C
2
0 0 0 0 R R
32 Bytes
R
Z6
C
1
C
2
0 0 0 0 R R
32 Bytes
R
K4
C
1
C
2
R R R R R S
1
S
2
I I I I I I I
31 Bytes
R
500 s
I
O
C
S
R
- Information bit
- Overhead bit
- Justification control bit
- Justification opportunity bit
- Fixed stuff bit
147 148
149 148 149 148
Figure 9-10 Byte Synchronous mapping of a 2 Mbit/s signal into a VC-12
Multiplexing of three VC-12s into a TUG-2
Figure 9-11 shows pictorially the relationship between VC-12s, TU-12s,
TUG-2s and a TUG-3. The VC-12s are positioned into TU-12s with the TU-12
pointer. Three TU-12s are byte interleaved into a TUG-2, and seven TUG-2s are
byte interleaved into a TUG-3.
Figure 9-11 Multiplexing of VC-12s into a TUG-2 via TU-12s
The TU-12 pointer indicates the starting point of a VC-12 within a TU-12. If the
timing of a VC-12 causes it to slip in position with regard to the TU-12, then the
TU-12 pointer can be adjusted to indicate the new position. The location of the
pointer is fixed within the TUG-2 regardless of the position of the virtual
container as shown in Figure 9-11.
500 s
R* - May be used for timeslot 0 if required
R = fixed stuff
140
Bytes
V5
R
R*
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
J2
R*
R
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
Z6
R*
R
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
K4
R*
R
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
NOTE: Mapping for 31 channels with common channel signalling
86 Columns
TUG-2 TUG-2
TU-12
Pointers
TU-12
Pointers
F
i
x
e
d

S
t
u
f
f
POH
POH
TUG-3
(7 x TUG-2)
VC-12
3 VC-12s in 1 x TUG-2
F
i
x
e
d

S
t
u
f
f
NOTE: A VC-12 plus TU-12 pointer forms a TU-12
structure, three of which, make up a TUG-2.
149 150
151 150 151 150
Figure 9-10 Byte Synchronous mapping of a 2 Mbit/s signal into a VC-12
Multiplexing of three VC-12s into a TUG-2
Figure 9-11 shows pictorially the relationship between VC-12s, TU-12s,
TUG-2s and a TUG-3. The VC-12s are positioned into TU-12s with the TU-12
pointer. Three TU-12s are byte interleaved into a TUG-2, and seven TUG-2s are
byte interleaved into a TUG-3.
Figure 9-11 Multiplexing of VC-12s into a TUG-2 via TU-12s
The TU-12 pointer indicates the starting point of a VC-12 within a TU-12. If the
timing of a VC-12 causes it to slip in position with regard to the TU-12, then the
TU-12 pointer can be adjusted to indicate the new position. The location of the
pointer is fixed within the TUG-2 regardless of the position of the virtual
container as shown in Figure 9-11.
500 s
R* - May be used for timeslot 0 if required
R = fixed stuff
140
Bytes
V5
R
R*
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
J2
R*
R
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
Z6
R*
R
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
K4
R*
R
Channels 1-15
Channel 16
Channels 16-30
R
NOTE: Mapping for 31 channels with common channel signalling
86 Columns
TUG-2 TUG-2
TU-12
Pointers
TU-12
Pointers
F
i
x
e
d

S
t
u
f
f
POH
POH
TUG-3
(7 x TUG-2)
VC-12
3 VC-12s in 1 x TUG-2
F
i
x
e
d

S
t
u
f
f
NOTE: A VC-12 plus TU-12 pointer forms a TU-12
structure, three of which, make up a TUG-2.
149 150
151 150 151 150
Multiplexing of TUG-2s into a TUG-3
The multiplexing of seven TUG-2s into a TUG-3 is a fixed mapping as shown
in Figure 9-12.
Figure 9-12 Multiplexing of seven TUG-2s into a TUG-3
Multiplexing of TUG-3s into a VC-4
Figure 9-13 shows the multiplexing of three TUG-3s into a VC-4. As in the case
of TUG-2 to TUG-3, multiplexing there is a fixed mapping with each TUG-3
having a fixed position with regard to the VC-4. Column one of the VC-4
contains the VC-4 path overhead and columns two and three contain fixed stuff
bytes.
Figure 9-13 Multiplexing of three TUG-3s into a VC-4
Multiplexing of a VC-4 into an STM-1 Signal
The mapping of a VC-4 into the STM-1 signal follows a similar process to that
of the VC-12 into a TUG-2. The VC-4 is positioned in an AU-4 with an AU-4
pointer indicating the position of the starting point of the VC-4 structure. The
AU-4 pointer provides a method of allowing flexible and dynamic alignment of
the VC-4 within the AU-4. The AU-4 pointer bytes are shown in Figure 9-14. It
should be noted that the AU-4 structure is identical with that of an AUG whereas
a group of three AU-3s are needed to construct an AUG.
Bytes H1 and H2 indicate the location of the starting position for the VC-4
payload, and where necessary byte H3 is used for justification of the VC-4.
TU-11 TU-12 TU-2
TUG-2
(1) (2) (3) (7)
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 30 40... 78 86 82
Fixed
Stuff
TUG-3
(A)
TUG-3
(B)
TUG-3
(C)
1 1 1
86
86 86
AB C A B C A A B C A B C
1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 261
Fixed Stuff
VC-4 POH
151 152
153 152 153 152
Multiplexing of TUG-2s into a TUG-3
The multiplexing of seven TUG-2s into a TUG-3 is a fixed mapping as shown
in Figure 9-12.
Figure 9-12 Multiplexing of seven TUG-2s into a TUG-3
Multiplexing of TUG-3s into a VC-4
Figure 9-13 shows the multiplexing of three TUG-3s into a VC-4. As in the case
of TUG-2 to TUG-3, multiplexing there is a fixed mapping with each TUG-3
having a fixed position with regard to the VC-4. Column one of the VC-4
contains the VC-4 path overhead and columns two and three contain fixed stuff
bytes.
Figure 9-13 Multiplexing of three TUG-3s into a VC-4
Multiplexing of a VC-4 into an STM-1 Signal
The mapping of a VC-4 into the STM-1 signal follows a similar process to that
of the VC-12 into a TUG-2. The VC-4 is positioned in an AU-4 with an AU-4
pointer indicating the position of the starting point of the VC-4 structure. The
AU-4 pointer provides a method of allowing flexible and dynamic alignment of
the VC-4 within the AU-4. The AU-4 pointer bytes are shown in Figure 9-14. It
should be noted that the AU-4 structure is identical with that of an AUG whereas
a group of three AU-3s are needed to construct an AUG.
Bytes H1 and H2 indicate the location of the starting position for the VC-4
payload, and where necessary byte H3 is used for justification of the VC-4.
TU-11 TU-12 TU-2
TUG-2
(1) (2) (3) (7)
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 30 40... 78 86 82
Fixed
Stuff
TUG-3
(A)
TUG-3
(B)
TUG-3
(C)
1 1 1
86
86 86
AB C A B C A A B C A B C
1 2 34 5 6 7 8 910 261
Fixed Stuff
VC-4 POH
151 152
153 152 153 152
Figure 9-14 Multiplexing of a VC-4 into an STM-1
Concatenation
In order to support other services which do not have a container defined to
accept them, G.70X contains provision for concatenation of AU-4s and TU-2s
within an STM-N frame.
AU-4 Concatenation
AU-4s can be concatenated together to form an AU-4-Xc which can transport
payloads requiring greater capacity than one C-4. A concatenation indication in
the AU-4 pointer, is used to show that multi C-4 payloads, carried in a single
VC-4-Xc, are to be kept together. The capacity available for the mapping of the
multi C-4, is X times the capacity of the C-4. For example, 599.040 Mbit/s for
X=4 and 2,396.160 Mbit/s for X=16. The VC-4-Xc is illustrated in Figure 9-15.
Figure 9-15 VC-4-Xc Structure
TU-2 Concatenation
A number of TU-2s can be combined to produce a C-2 which is m times the size
of the TU-2. An example of this is the concatenation of five TU-2s to carry a
32 Mbit/s video signal. Using this method, four video signals can be carried in
a VC-4, compared with only three had the video signal been mapped into a
standard container. Thus a useful increase in efficiency is achieved.
J1
B3
C2
G1
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5
H1 Y Y H2 1* 1* H3
H3
H3
H1 H2
H3
AU-4 PTR
SOH
SOH
VC-4
POH
261
261 9
3
1
5
Justification
Opportunity
1* = All 1s byte
Y = 1001SS11 (S bits are unspecified)
VC-4
J1
B3
C2
G1
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5
AU-n Pointers
RSOH
MSOH
X x 261 bytes
N x 261 bytes
N x 9
3
1
5
1
X-1 X x 260
VC-4-Xc
STM-N
N x 270 bytes
C-4-Xc
Stuff
Fixed
153 154
155 154 155 154
Figure 9-14 Multiplexing of a VC-4 into an STM-1
Concatenation
In order to support other services which do not have a container defined to
accept them, G.70X contains provision for concatenation of AU-4s and TU-2s
within an STM-N frame.
AU-4 Concatenation
AU-4s can be concatenated together to form an AU-4-Xc which can transport
payloads requiring greater capacity than one C-4. A concatenation indication in
the AU-4 pointer, is used to show that multi C-4 payloads, carried in a single
VC-4-Xc, are to be kept together. The capacity available for the mapping of the
multi C-4, is X times the capacity of the C-4. For example, 599.040 Mbit/s for
X=4 and 2,396.160 Mbit/s for X=16. The VC-4-Xc is illustrated in Figure 9-15.
Figure 9-15 VC-4-Xc Structure
TU-2 Concatenation
A number of TU-2s can be combined to produce a C-2 which is m times the size
of the TU-2. An example of this is the concatenation of five TU-2s to carry a
32 Mbit/s video signal. Using this method, four video signals can be carried in
a VC-4, compared with only three had the video signal been mapped into a
standard container. Thus a useful increase in efficiency is achieved.
J1
B3
C2
G1
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5
H1 Y Y H2 1* 1* H3
H3
H3
H1 H2
H3
AU-4 PTR
SOH
SOH
VC-4
POH
261
261 9
3
1
5
Justification
Opportunity
1* = All 1s byte
Y = 1001SS11 (S bits are unspecified)
VC-4
J1
B3
C2
G1
F2
H4
Z3
K3
Z5
AU-n Pointers
RSOH
MSOH
X x 261 bytes
N x 261 bytes
N x 9
3
1
5
1
X-1 X x 260
VC-4-Xc
STM-N
N x 270 bytes
C-4-Xc
Stuff
Fixed
153 154
155 154 155 154
The concatenated C-2s are carried in a single VC-2-mc (concatenated
m x VC-2). Recommendation G.70X details three methods for concatenation of
TU-2s.
Concatenation of contiguous TU-2s in the higher order VC-3
TU-2s, which are contiguous in time with one another and must remain in the
same sequential order, are combined to form a TU-2-mc (m indicates the
number of TU-2s concatenated). With this type of concatenation the VC-2-mc
contains a single virtual container path overhead which appears in the first VC-2
of the VC-2-mc.
This method of concatenation uses the concatenation indication 1001 within
bits 1 and 4 of the TU-2 pointer, with bits 5 and 6 unspecified and all-ones in bits
7 to 16.
The capacity of the concatenated signal could in fact be larger than the m x TU-2
capacity since the path overhead for the signal only occurs within the first VC-2
of the VC-2-mc.
Sequential concatenation of TU-2s in the higher order VC-4
This type of concatenation allows the simultaneous transport of TU-2-mcs and
TU-3s in the same VC-4. The exact method of achieving this is under study.
Virtual concatenation of TU-2s in the higher order VC-4
This method of concatenation is used for TU-2s which do not have to occupy
adjacent locations (that is, are not contiguous) within the VC-4.
This method places the concatenation function solely within the operation of the
path terminating equipment and does not use the concatenation indication
within the TU-2 pointer bytes. The rest of the network, must still recognise these
virtual containers carrying the concatenated load in order to retain the TU-2
sequence.
Since each TU-2 contains its own virtual container path overhead the total
capacity of the TU-2-mc is restricted to the payload capacity of the TU-2, unlike
the situation in contiguous concatenation where there is no path overhead
associated with the second and subsequent virtual containers of the TU-2-mc.
Higher Transmission Rates
Since the signals to be multiplexed at the STM level are all synchronous,
multiplexing is achieved by simple byte interleaving. Some definition is needed
as to the exact method used so that the signal structure at all levels remains the
same. For example, consider an STM-1 signal to be multiplexed to STM-16.
Two possible routes are possible, STM-1 to STM-4 to STM-16 or direct STM-
1 to STM-16. To maintain the same signal structure, ITU-T Recommendation
G.70X state that to form an STM-M signal STM-N signals must be N byte
interleaved. For example, STM-1 multiplexing is achieved by interleaving one
byte from each tributary. For STM-4 multiplexing each 4 byte group is taken and
interleaved with that from the next tributary. Figure 9-16 shows how an STM-16
signal would be made up from STM-1 and STM-4 tributaries.
Figure 9-16 Multiplexing of STM-1 signals
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
STM-1 STM-4 STM-16
4
4
4
4
4
3 0 1 2 3 0
7 4 5 6 7 4 5
A B B 8 8 9 9
C C D E F F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
16
155 156
157 156 157 156
The concatenated C-2s are carried in a single VC-2-mc (concatenated
m x VC-2). Recommendation G.70X details three methods for concatenation of
TU-2s.
Concatenation of contiguous TU-2s in the higher order VC-3
TU-2s, which are contiguous in time with one another and must remain in the
same sequential order, are combined to form a TU-2-mc (m indicates the
number of TU-2s concatenated). With this type of concatenation the VC-2-mc
contains a single virtual container path overhead which appears in the first VC-2
of the VC-2-mc.
This method of concatenation uses the concatenation indication 1001 within
bits 1 and 4 of the TU-2 pointer, with bits 5 and 6 unspecified and all-ones in bits
7 to 16.
The capacity of the concatenated signal could in fact be larger than the m x TU-2
capacity since the path overhead for the signal only occurs within the first VC-2
of the VC-2-mc.
Sequential concatenation of TU-2s in the higher order VC-4
This type of concatenation allows the simultaneous transport of TU-2-mcs and
TU-3s in the same VC-4. The exact method of achieving this is under study.
Virtual concatenation of TU-2s in the higher order VC-4
This method of concatenation is used for TU-2s which do not have to occupy
adjacent locations (that is, are not contiguous) within the VC-4.
This method places the concatenation function solely within the operation of the
path terminating equipment and does not use the concatenation indication
within the TU-2 pointer bytes. The rest of the network, must still recognise these
virtual containers carrying the concatenated load in order to retain the TU-2
sequence.
Since each TU-2 contains its own virtual container path overhead the total
capacity of the TU-2-mc is restricted to the payload capacity of the TU-2, unlike
the situation in contiguous concatenation where there is no path overhead
associated with the second and subsequent virtual containers of the TU-2-mc.
Higher Transmission Rates
Since the signals to be multiplexed at the STM level are all synchronous,
multiplexing is achieved by simple byte interleaving. Some definition is needed
as to the exact method used so that the signal structure at all levels remains the
same. For example, consider an STM-1 signal to be multiplexed to STM-16.
Two possible routes are possible, STM-1 to STM-4 to STM-16 or direct STM-
1 to STM-16. To maintain the same signal structure, ITU-T Recommendation
G.70X state that to form an STM-M signal STM-N signals must be N byte
interleaved. For example, STM-1 multiplexing is achieved by interleaving one
byte from each tributary. For STM-4 multiplexing each 4 byte group is taken and
interleaved with that from the next tributary. Figure 9-16 shows how an STM-16
signal would be made up from STM-1 and STM-4 tributaries.
Figure 9-16 Multiplexing of STM-1 signals
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
STM-1 STM-4 STM-16
4
4
4
4
4
3 0 1 2 3 0
7 4 5 6 7 4 5
A B B 8 8 9 9
C C D E F F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
16
155 156
157 156 157 156
Synchronisation Synchronisation
Synchronisation
All digital networks require timing and synchronisation. At its lowest level,
synchronisation is required so that digital equipment knows when to send and
receive data; without it data becomes errored or unusable. Despite the
importance of timing, many operators give it only scant consideration, yet it can
directly impact revenue, operational costs and equally important, the operators
reputation by delivering poor quality of service.
Timing and synchronisation are not new concepts, however, they have become
more frequently used terms with the advent of new services and the increased
penetration of digital technology. The changes in the telecommunications
transmission infrastructure from a PDH network to an SDH network has also
increased the need for good quality synchronisation.
There are many changes taking place at the same time and because of this
synchronisation tends to be ignored or drops down the priority list, which can
lead to penalties on service.
In larger networks synchronisation can be very complex, however, many of the
problems that are associated with poor synchronisation can be avoided by
following good design practice.
Synchronisation is as essential as power plant and is similar in that it does not
directly generate any revenue for the operator. End users will be unaware of
good quality synchronisation but they will notice the affects of poor
synchronisation. Poor quality synchronisation has a direct impact on the quality
of service delivered to customers with consequent loss of revenue.
Implementing a robust synchronisation network need not cost a fortune.
Depending upon the types of service that are provided, synchronisation costs
between 1 and 5% of the SDH equipment value.
The Voice Legacy
It is easy to see why some operators are sceptical about the need for special
consideration of synchronisation.
"The network s running just fine as it is".
Historically this was perfectly true. Voice has dominated telecommunications
networks as the main traffic type, and unless there was something seriously
wrong, nobody noticed the errors caused by poor synchronisation.
Poor synchronisation causes a very short duration click during a voice
conversation. In a very badly synchronised network, the click might occur every
few seconds. Many users have grown up with the era of analogue telephone
networks, where clicks from mechanical Strowger telephone exchanges and
crossed lines were common-place. Compared to noisy analogue alternatives
even poorly synchronised digital networks can sound very clear.
Although synchronisation within one operators network may be adequate and
provide very high quality voice calls, problems can arise when a call is made into
another operators network. Historically this meant international dialling where
users tend to expect the call to be of poor quality. This is often reflected by
peoples surprise when they say "You sound as if you are just down the road".
Synchronisation is not totally responsible for poor international voice quality,
but it can be an important consideration, especially on international digital
circuits.
As deregulation sweeps the world, dialling into another network operator does
not mean dialling overseas. Many countries now have multiple operators and
indeed a single telephone call within the same country could involve three or
four different operators. The user needs to be totally oblivious to the fact that
multiple operators are used to deliver the call. Synchronisation across multiple
operators therefore needs careful consideration.
10
157 158
10 Synchronisation
159 158 159 158
Synchronisation
All digital networks require timing and synchronisation. At its lowest level,
synchronisation is required so that digital equipment knows when to send and
receive data; without it data becomes errored or unusable. Despite the
importance of timing, many operators give it only scant consideration, yet it can
directly impact revenue, operational costs and equally important, the operators
reputation by delivering poor quality of service.
Timing and synchronisation are not new concepts, however, they have become
more frequently used terms with the advent of new services and the increased
penetration of digital technology. The changes in the telecommunications
transmission infrastructure from a PDH network to an SDH network has also
increased the need for good quality synchronisation.
There are many changes taking place at the same time and because of this
synchronisation tends to be ignored or drops down the priority list, which can
lead to penalties on service.
In larger networks synchronisation can be very complex, however, many of the
problems that are associated with poor synchronisation can be avoided by
following good design practice.
Synchronisation is as essential as power plant and is similar in that it does not
directly generate any revenue for the operator. End users will be unaware of
good quality synchronisation but they will notice the affects of poor
synchronisation. Poor quality synchronisation has a direct impact on the quality
of service delivered to customers with consequent loss of revenue.
Implementing a robust synchronisation network need not cost a fortune.
Depending upon the types of service that are provided, synchronisation costs
between 1 and 5% of the SDH equipment value.
The Voice Legacy
It is easy to see why some operators are sceptical about the need for special
consideration of synchronisation.
"The network s running just fine as it is".
Historically this was perfectly true. Voice has dominated telecommunications
networks as the main traffic type, and unless there was something seriously
wrong, nobody noticed the errors caused by poor synchronisation.
Poor synchronisation causes a very short duration click during a voice
conversation. In a very badly synchronised network, the click might occur every
few seconds. Many users have grown up with the era of analogue telephone
networks, where clicks from mechanical Strowger telephone exchanges and
crossed lines were common-place. Compared to noisy analogue alternatives
even poorly synchronised digital networks can sound very clear.
Although synchronisation within one operators network may be adequate and
provide very high quality voice calls, problems can arise when a call is made into
another operators network. Historically this meant international dialling where
users tend to expect the call to be of poor quality. This is often reflected by
peoples surprise when they say "You sound as if you are just down the road".
Synchronisation is not totally responsible for poor international voice quality,
but it can be an important consideration, especially on international digital
circuits.
As deregulation sweeps the world, dialling into another network operator does
not mean dialling overseas. Many countries now have multiple operators and
indeed a single telephone call within the same country could involve three or
four different operators. The user needs to be totally oblivious to the fact that
multiple operators are used to deliver the call. Synchronisation across multiple
operators therefore needs careful consideration.
10
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159 158 159 158
The Digital Revolution
Telecommunication networks no longer carry just voice. The range of data
oriented services is growing rapidly and data adoption is growing at a staggering
pace. Facsimile machines and dial-up Internet access exploit the voice
infrastructure but because they are data services, they need special
consideration. Data can be transmitted in a variety forms. Operators are often
unaware of the extent of data transmission which can even include services such
as burglar and fire alarm systems.
Many operators want to move up the value chain and providing data oriented
services is an obvious way to achieve this. As business users continue to demand
high capacity data services such as LAN interconnects, Frame Relay, ATM or
simple leased line circuits, the need for good quality synchronisation increases.
Service Sensitivity to Synchronisation
Not all services demand good synchronisation. It has already been shown that
voice is extremely tolerant of poor synchronisation, but the same cannot be said
of all services and in particular, data oriented services. Table 10-2 characterises
services and how they are affected by the main symptom of poor
synchronisation.
Modem Oriented Services
Table 10-2 clearly shows that even simple services that we take for granted, such
as facsimile and dial-up Internet access, can be affected by synchronisation slips
(errors caused by poor synchronisation). Slip errors usually mean that a block of
data is lost or it is repeated.
Although a slip sounds like a short duration click to a human, to a facsimile
machine that click can result in the loss or duplication of data. Group 1 and 2
type facsimile machines are particularly sensitive to errors. Most modern
facsimile machines are Group 3 or 4 which have a much higher error tolerance,
however, they are not totally immune to slips.
Slips occur because the transmitting equipment is sending data at a different
speed to that the receiver. It is practically impossible to ensure that both ends are
totally aligned to the same speed. Buffers are used to introduce some slack into
the system. Adding buffers does not eliminate the difference in speed, it means
that the slip (an overlap in timing reference) is deferred to a later point in time.
A one byte buffer results in a one byte slip. A 100 byte buffer means that slips
are reduced in frequency, but when they do occur they are 100 bytes in duration.
All digital equipment has buffers, and buffers can be found at various levels.
Each level can therefore introduce a slip. The facsimile machine can introduce
a slip and the transmission equipment between the facsimile machines can also
slip.
Table 10-2 Service Sensitivity to Synchronisation
Service Type Impact on Service
Voice Low impact. Occasional click
PABX Corruption of inter-exchange signalling PABX may
lock-up.
Facsimile Distorted or missing facsimile lines
Modem traffic,
(for example, Internet)
Loss of data or dropped calls
Cellular phone dropped calls, poor cell hand-over, poor voice quality,
Cell base station may lock-up - possible visit needed.
Data
(for example, leased-line)
lost, repeated or corrupted information
Digital video conferencing Distorted or frozen picture. Worse for modern systems
Digital broadcast video Picture subject to colour burst through to a distorted or
frozen picture.
Encrypted data (for exam-
ple, financial services)
Possible loss of data through to possible attacks on
the security of the data.
159 160
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161 160 161 160
The Digital Revolution
Telecommunication networks no longer carry just voice. The range of data
oriented services is growing rapidly and data adoption is growing at a staggering
pace. Facsimile machines and dial-up Internet access exploit the voice
infrastructure but because they are data services, they need special
consideration. Data can be transmitted in a variety forms. Operators are often
unaware of the extent of data transmission which can even include services such
as burglar and fire alarm systems.
Many operators want to move up the value chain and providing data oriented
services is an obvious way to achieve this. As business users continue to demand
high capacity data services such as LAN interconnects, Frame Relay, ATM or
simple leased line circuits, the need for good quality synchronisation increases.
Service Sensitivity to Synchronisation
Not all services demand good synchronisation. It has already been shown that
voice is extremely tolerant of poor synchronisation, but the same cannot be said
of all services and in particular, data oriented services. Table 10-2 characterises
services and how they are affected by the main symptom of poor
synchronisation.
Modem Oriented Services
Table 10-2 clearly shows that even simple services that we take for granted, such
as facsimile and dial-up Internet access, can be affected by synchronisation slips
(errors caused by poor synchronisation). Slip errors usually mean that a block of
data is lost or it is repeated.
Although a slip sounds like a short duration click to a human, to a facsimile
machine that click can result in the loss or duplication of data. Group 1 and 2
type facsimile machines are particularly sensitive to errors. Most modern
facsimile machines are Group 3 or 4 which have a much higher error tolerance,
however, they are not totally immune to slips.
Slips occur because the transmitting equipment is sending data at a different
speed to that the receiver. It is practically impossible to ensure that both ends are
totally aligned to the same speed. Buffers are used to introduce some slack into
the system. Adding buffers does not eliminate the difference in speed, it means
that the slip (an overlap in timing reference) is deferred to a later point in time.
A one byte buffer results in a one byte slip. A 100 byte buffer means that slips
are reduced in frequency, but when they do occur they are 100 bytes in duration.
All digital equipment has buffers, and buffers can be found at various levels.
Each level can therefore introduce a slip. The facsimile machine can introduce
a slip and the transmission equipment between the facsimile machines can also
slip.
Table 10-2 Service Sensitivity to Synchronisation
Service Type Impact on Service
Voice Low impact. Occasional click
PABX Corruption of inter-exchange signalling PABX may
lock-up.
Facsimile Distorted or missing facsimile lines
Modem traffic,
(for example, Internet)
Loss of data or dropped calls
Cellular phone dropped calls, poor cell hand-over, poor voice quality,
Cell base station may lock-up - possible visit needed.
Data
(for example, leased-line)
lost, repeated or corrupted information
Digital video conferencing Distorted or frozen picture. Worse for modern systems
Digital broadcast video Picture subject to colour burst through to a distorted or
frozen picture.
Encrypted data (for exam-
ple, financial services)
Possible loss of data through to possible attacks on
the security of the data.
159 160
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161 160 161 160
If we consider our facsimile machine, it can receive or lose many bytes worth of
data. Lost data may simply go undetected or repeated data may look error free
since it was correctly sent before from the buffer. These conditions are called
buffer overflow and underflow. Depending upon when the slip occurs, the result
may look like horizontal black streaks across the page or as though the text has
been stretched vertically since we introduced extra lines. This may be acceptable
to the user, however, if slips are occurring frequently, this may occur in several
places on every page.
It is extremely difficult to totally eliminate slips, but good quality
synchronisation reduces the occurrence of a slip to once every 72 days.
Facsimile users are therefore extremely unlikely to be affected.
Dial-up modem traffic is also sensitive to slips. Data received by the modem is
either lost or duplicated. In some cases the modem may be able to recover if the
data is detected as errored or missing. Modems are, however, a rapidly changing
technology, and modem speeds are rapidly increasing. The latest generation of
modems now in common use are capable of 56 kbit/s from the exchange to the
user and 33.2 kbit/s from the user to the exchange. As modem speeds increase,
the modems become more sensitive to errors and may be unable to recover from
a slip, by re-negotiating the link. The direct digital modulation technique used to
deliver 56 kbit/s is sensitive to sips, and relies upon the receiving modem being
well designed to recover from slips. Modems generally drop the connection
when they are unable to recover the link. If slips are occurring frequently, the
modems may negotiate a lower link speed such as 19.2 kbit/s, which may
prompt the user to ring the operator asking why their modem never connects at
the fastest speed.
The normal reaction of a user when the connection is dropped is to re-dial.
Indeed the computer may do this automatically. Dropped connections can be
extremely frustrating for the user, particularly when the call drops at the end of
a long file transfer. If calls are dropped frequently, users tend to complain and
will burden technical support personnel. Additionally fast re-dialling can burden
the call processing engine of the telephone exchange. Poor synchronisation can
as a direct consequence place an additional load on the exchange.
It should be noted however, that synchronisation is not the sole cause of dropped
calls and slow link speed negotiation. Some of the popular modem
manufacturers have poorly designed modems which exhibit these symptoms
when connecting to modems from other vendors! For example, a perfectly
synchronised SDH network could be carrying traffic between facsimile
machines which are badly synchronised. The errors would not be due to the
SDH synchronisation.
Cellular
Mobile phone networks make extensive use of signalling so that the call
continues, as the user moves around. Each cell has a base station that connects
a mobile phone to the network. Whenever a user moves from one cell to another,
the base stations negotiate amongst themselves to agree which cell the user has
moved into. This process is called handover .
If the base stations are not synchronised, the chances of the call being dropped
are increased. Even if the call is not dropped, the user will notice distortion in the
voice quality. Digital phone systems such as GSM or PCN are especially
susceptible to this problem.
Because digital phone systems, such as GSM use highly compressed voice data,
data corruption can cause serious degradation in voice quality. To the user this
can sound like unnatural periods of silence or unnatural voice quality. Unlike
uncompressed voice, slips do not sound like a simple click.
Poor synchronisation therefore, is directly noticeable by the end user. He will
perceive the system at best as poor voice quality and at worst as an almost
unusable service where calls have to be constantly re-dialled.
Revenue can also be impacted. There is the obvious scenario where the user
switches to another network to get a usable service, but in the now highly
competitive mobile phone market, operators are turning to tariffing to attract
users. Some operators now offer rebates to customers if the call is dropped. If the
user re-dials a number within a few seconds of the connection being closed, the
user is automatically credited. A poorly synchronised network can therefore
result in a drop in revenue.
There may also be an operational costs associated with poor synchronisation.
Most base station equipments treat slips as a symptom of network unavailability.
This can cause the base station to go off-air. Some types of equipment require
a site visit to reset the base-station.
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If we consider our facsimile machine, it can receive or lose many bytes worth of
data. Lost data may simply go undetected or repeated data may look error free
since it was correctly sent before from the buffer. These conditions are called
buffer overflow and underflow. Depending upon when the slip occurs, the result
may look like horizontal black streaks across the page or as though the text has
been stretched vertically since we introduced extra lines. This may be acceptable
to the user, however, if slips are occurring frequently, this may occur in several
places on every page.
It is extremely difficult to totally eliminate slips, but good quality
synchronisation reduces the occurrence of a slip to once every 72 days.
Facsimile users are therefore extremely unlikely to be affected.
Dial-up modem traffic is also sensitive to slips. Data received by the modem is
either lost or duplicated. In some cases the modem may be able to recover if the
data is detected as errored or missing. Modems are, however, a rapidly changing
technology, and modem speeds are rapidly increasing. The latest generation of
modems now in common use are capable of 56 kbit/s from the exchange to the
user and 33.2 kbit/s from the user to the exchange. As modem speeds increase,
the modems become more sensitive to errors and may be unable to recover from
a slip, by re-negotiating the link. The direct digital modulation technique used to
deliver 56 kbit/s is sensitive to sips, and relies upon the receiving modem being
well designed to recover from slips. Modems generally drop the connection
when they are unable to recover the link. If slips are occurring frequently, the
modems may negotiate a lower link speed such as 19.2 kbit/s, which may
prompt the user to ring the operator asking why their modem never connects at
the fastest speed.
The normal reaction of a user when the connection is dropped is to re-dial.
Indeed the computer may do this automatically. Dropped connections can be
extremely frustrating for the user, particularly when the call drops at the end of
a long file transfer. If calls are dropped frequently, users tend to complain and
will burden technical support personnel. Additionally fast re-dialling can burden
the call processing engine of the telephone exchange. Poor synchronisation can
as a direct consequence place an additional load on the exchange.
It should be noted however, that synchronisation is not the sole cause of dropped
calls and slow link speed negotiation. Some of the popular modem
manufacturers have poorly designed modems which exhibit these symptoms
when connecting to modems from other vendors! For example, a perfectly
synchronised SDH network could be carrying traffic between facsimile
machines which are badly synchronised. The errors would not be due to the
SDH synchronisation.
Cellular
Mobile phone networks make extensive use of signalling so that the call
continues, as the user moves around. Each cell has a base station that connects
a mobile phone to the network. Whenever a user moves from one cell to another,
the base stations negotiate amongst themselves to agree which cell the user has
moved into. This process is called handover .
If the base stations are not synchronised, the chances of the call being dropped
are increased. Even if the call is not dropped, the user will notice distortion in the
voice quality. Digital phone systems such as GSM or PCN are especially
susceptible to this problem.
Because digital phone systems, such as GSM use highly compressed voice data,
data corruption can cause serious degradation in voice quality. To the user this
can sound like unnatural periods of silence or unnatural voice quality. Unlike
uncompressed voice, slips do not sound like a simple click.
Poor synchronisation therefore, is directly noticeable by the end user. He will
perceive the system at best as poor voice quality and at worst as an almost
unusable service where calls have to be constantly re-dialled.
Revenue can also be impacted. There is the obvious scenario where the user
switches to another network to get a usable service, but in the now highly
competitive mobile phone market, operators are turning to tariffing to attract
users. Some operators now offer rebates to customers if the call is dropped. If the
user re-dials a number within a few seconds of the connection being closed, the
user is automatically credited. A poorly synchronised network can therefore
result in a drop in revenue.
There may also be an operational costs associated with poor synchronisation.
Most base station equipments treat slips as a symptom of network unavailability.
This can cause the base station to go off-air. Some types of equipment require
a site visit to reset the base-station.
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163 162 163 162
If slips are occurring frequently, users will notice that the network is phasing in
and out of service.
Within Europe, asynchronous hand-over is used which is more tolerant to timing
problems such as jitter, than synchronous hand-over. This means that calls are
less likely to be dropped moving between networks, but the use of this technique
does not provide a substitute for good synchronisation design.
Video Services
Video is playing an increasingly important role in our lives. Video conferencing
usage is growing rapidly, especially amongst multi-national companies, and
digital television is delivering potentially hundreds of channels.
Video signals contain vast amounts of data compared to voice, and users are
more tolerant of poor sound quality than poor video. A user might happily
tolerate an audio click every ten seconds yet would find a picture freezing every
ten seconds extremely annoying.
Synchronisation slips affect digital video signals in very noticeable ways. Some
of the symptoms include freezing of the picture, picture distortion and colour
bursts. The latest generation of digital video systems are very bandwidth
efficient, but rely upon virtually error free transmission. The more compressed
the video information is, the more susceptible the signal is to synchronisation
problems.
Networks, which carry video traffic, therefore, need to be designed to avoid
slips. This precaution may be enough for video conferencing where picture
quality is not a premium concern, but for broadcast quality video, simply
avoiding slips is still not good enough.
Another symptom of poor synchronisation is jitter. Jitter can be thought of as
noise on the clock signal. Most services such as voice are not usually affected by
jitter, but the same cannot be said for broadcast video, and to a lesser extent
video conferencing. Jitter affects picture quality, which users would notice as
colour burst patterns on the screen. These effects can be minimised by liberal use
of specialised external timing equipment or special pointer leaking mechanisms
as found on Nortels TN-16X product.
Another consideration is the service provided to advertisers who indirectly pay
for a lot of television programming. Television companies consequently take the
views of advertisers very seriously and will endeavour to provide the best
possible quality video.
With broadcast TV, it is possible to introduce very large buffers to accommodate
any feasible slip or jitter. This would be required on networks where the data rate
is not fixed like SDH. Large buffers would be found in ATM or IP networks.
Buffers do however, introduce delays. With broadcast TV, large delays of
potentially seconds, may not be a problem, but with video conferencing, delays
as large as this, would make discussions difficult. Although large buffers may
solve a problem at one level, they may introduce a problem at another level,
requiring the need for time of day synchronisation, where time stamps are
periodically required to define when data is delivered.
Synchronisation Across Multiple Operators
Establishing a synchronisation policy within a single operators network is a
realistic task, yet modern-day communication often requires data to cross
multiple networks. It is unrealistic for an operator to force their synchronisation
policy onto another network.
Few operators are willing to rely upon another operator for the timing for their
whole network. Loss of that timing could dramatically degrade the performance
of their network and hence start impacting service quality and revenues.
Competitive operators are faced with the dilemma of balancing independence
against service quality. The new operators traffic tends to be routed via the
established operator, hence there is a clear need to minimise slips between the
networks. The obvious solution to this is to synchronise the network to the
established operator, however, this is a high risk strategy since the quality of
service delivered by the network is highly reliant upon the established operator.
The quality of service delivered to all the new operators customers will
ultimately be dependent upon the established operator.
In addition to this problem, the established operator probably still has an
extensive PDH legacy while the new operator has built its green-field network
using SDH. The synchronisation needs of SDH are much higher than PDH,
163 164
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165 164 165 164
If slips are occurring frequently, users will notice that the network is phasing in
and out of service.
Within Europe, asynchronous hand-over is used which is more tolerant to timing
problems such as jitter, than synchronous hand-over. This means that calls are
less likely to be dropped moving between networks, but the use of this technique
does not provide a substitute for good synchronisation design.
Video Services
Video is playing an increasingly important role in our lives. Video conferencing
usage is growing rapidly, especially amongst multi-national companies, and
digital television is delivering potentially hundreds of channels.
Video signals contain vast amounts of data compared to voice, and users are
more tolerant of poor sound quality than poor video. A user might happily
tolerate an audio click every ten seconds yet would find a picture freezing every
ten seconds extremely annoying.
Synchronisation slips affect digital video signals in very noticeable ways. Some
of the symptoms include freezing of the picture, picture distortion and colour
bursts. The latest generation of digital video systems are very bandwidth
efficient, but rely upon virtually error free transmission. The more compressed
the video information is, the more susceptible the signal is to synchronisation
problems.
Networks, which carry video traffic, therefore, need to be designed to avoid
slips. This precaution may be enough for video conferencing where picture
quality is not a premium concern, but for broadcast quality video, simply
avoiding slips is still not good enough.
Another symptom of poor synchronisation is jitter. Jitter can be thought of as
noise on the clock signal. Most services such as voice are not usually affected by
jitter, but the same cannot be said for broadcast video, and to a lesser extent
video conferencing. Jitter affects picture quality, which users would notice as
colour burst patterns on the screen. These effects can be minimised by liberal use
of specialised external timing equipment or special pointer leaking mechanisms
as found on Nortels TN-16X product.
Another consideration is the service provided to advertisers who indirectly pay
for a lot of television programming. Television companies consequently take the
views of advertisers very seriously and will endeavour to provide the best
possible quality video.
With broadcast TV, it is possible to introduce very large buffers to accommodate
any feasible slip or jitter. This would be required on networks where the data rate
is not fixed like SDH. Large buffers would be found in ATM or IP networks.
Buffers do however, introduce delays. With broadcast TV, large delays of
potentially seconds, may not be a problem, but with video conferencing, delays
as large as this, would make discussions difficult. Although large buffers may
solve a problem at one level, they may introduce a problem at another level,
requiring the need for time of day synchronisation, where time stamps are
periodically required to define when data is delivered.
Synchronisation Across Multiple Operators
Establishing a synchronisation policy within a single operators network is a
realistic task, yet modern-day communication often requires data to cross
multiple networks. It is unrealistic for an operator to force their synchronisation
policy onto another network.
Few operators are willing to rely upon another operator for the timing for their
whole network. Loss of that timing could dramatically degrade the performance
of their network and hence start impacting service quality and revenues.
Competitive operators are faced with the dilemma of balancing independence
against service quality. The new operators traffic tends to be routed via the
established operator, hence there is a clear need to minimise slips between the
networks. The obvious solution to this is to synchronise the network to the
established operator, however, this is a high risk strategy since the quality of
service delivered by the network is highly reliant upon the established operator.
The quality of service delivered to all the new operators customers will
ultimately be dependent upon the established operator.
In addition to this problem, the established operator probably still has an
extensive PDH legacy while the new operator has built its green-field network
using SDH. The synchronisation needs of SDH are much higher than PDH,
163 164
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165 164 165 164
hence the timing information may be inadequate for an SDH network. The new
operator, therefore, needs a firewall approach to gain independence from the
established operator.
The use of external timing equipment at the boundary between the network can
address this problem. The incoming timing can be vetted and used provided it
meets the appropriate quality level. If the quality drops below a certain level, the
equipment can swap over to its own high quality reference. This equipment can
also compile extensive statistics on the quality of the incoming timing signal.
Since operators tend to charge significant sums for a timing feed, the new
operator will have evidence of the established operators performance and hence
can negotiate rebates.
Global Timing
As communication becomes increasingly global, and the world becomes a
networked planet, the need for reliable error free communication across multiple
operators will continue to grow. This raises the question, should the World
synchronise to the same timing source?
If all network operators synchronised their networks to the same timing source,
the potential for slips, and hence synchronisation related errors, would be
virtually eliminated.
The Global Positioning System (GPS), lets network operators do exactly that.
Most people are more familiar with GPS as a method for navigation, but GPS is
also an extremely accurate source of timing.
Use of GPS as a network timing source is growing, and as the number increases,
many of todays timing problems associated with connecting networks together,
will be reduced.
GPS can be viewed as the timing source for the planet, and each network in the
world will be synchronised to this single source. All networks will be
synchronised to the same source, hence clock slips will be almost eliminated.
GPS timing availability, however, cannot be guaranteed, hence each network
will still needs its own back-up clock to provide a redundant timing source
during periods of GPS unavailability.
Operators that design their network today with GPS technology will be ready for
the future.
Synchronisation Basics
The terms timing and synchronisation are often confused. A timing source is the
master frequency reference whereas synchronisation is the alignment of local
equipment frequency to the master and the distribution of timing around a
network. The term clock is often used to refer to a timing source. The term
synchronisation is also confusingly used to describe both timing sources as well
as distributing timing information.
If the timing source is poor quality, it does not matter how good the network
synchronisation is, it will still be distributing poor quality timing. Similarly a
high quality timing source, used with a poorly designed synchronisation system
will distribute poor quality timing information, affecting the quality of service
delivered to customers.
All digital equipment has an internal timing source, the accuracy of which is
dependent upon the type of equipment. This internal timing source has a
tolerance which varies with temperature and voltage, and hence must be
synchronised to another clock to minimise the small timing differences that will
exist between internal equipment clocks. Most equipment usually has a facility
to synchronise the internal clock to a range of external timing sources. SDH
equipment has this facility built-in, and provides timing distribution features.
If equipment timing differences are not minimised, slips (bursts of errors) will
occur periodically. In the simple example where two equipments are connected
together, one clock is free-running while the other equipment is synchronised to
the other equipments free-running clock. Timing is essentially analogue and
hence even when clocks are synchronised, or locked together, small errors are
present. These errors are due to wander and jitter. When we start building more
complex networks where another piece of equipment is synchronised to
equipment that is synchronised to another free-running clock, these errors start
to accumulate as illustrated in Figure 10-1. The underlying synchronisation
signal frequency, however, remains accurate. Fairly long or complex
synchronisation networks can be quickly constructed.
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hence the timing information may be inadequate for an SDH network. The new
operator, therefore, needs a firewall approach to gain independence from the
established operator.
The use of external timing equipment at the boundary between the network can
address this problem. The incoming timing can be vetted and used provided it
meets the appropriate quality level. If the quality drops below a certain level, the
equipment can swap over to its own high quality reference. This equipment can
also compile extensive statistics on the quality of the incoming timing signal.
Since operators tend to charge significant sums for a timing feed, the new
operator will have evidence of the established operators performance and hence
can negotiate rebates.
Global Timing
As communication becomes increasingly global, and the world becomes a
networked planet, the need for reliable error free communication across multiple
operators will continue to grow. This raises the question, should the World
synchronise to the same timing source?
If all network operators synchronised their networks to the same timing source,
the potential for slips, and hence synchronisation related errors, would be
virtually eliminated.
The Global Positioning System (GPS), lets network operators do exactly that.
Most people are more familiar with GPS as a method for navigation, but GPS is
also an extremely accurate source of timing.
Use of GPS as a network timing source is growing, and as the number increases,
many of todays timing problems associated with connecting networks together,
will be reduced.
GPS can be viewed as the timing source for the planet, and each network in the
world will be synchronised to this single source. All networks will be
synchronised to the same source, hence clock slips will be almost eliminated.
GPS timing availability, however, cannot be guaranteed, hence each network
will still needs its own back-up clock to provide a redundant timing source
during periods of GPS unavailability.
Operators that design their network today with GPS technology will be ready for
the future.
Synchronisation Basics
The terms timing and synchronisation are often confused. A timing source is the
master frequency reference whereas synchronisation is the alignment of local
equipment frequency to the master and the distribution of timing around a
network. The term clock is often used to refer to a timing source. The term
synchronisation is also confusingly used to describe both timing sources as well
as distributing timing information.
If the timing source is poor quality, it does not matter how good the network
synchronisation is, it will still be distributing poor quality timing. Similarly a
high quality timing source, used with a poorly designed synchronisation system
will distribute poor quality timing information, affecting the quality of service
delivered to customers.
All digital equipment has an internal timing source, the accuracy of which is
dependent upon the type of equipment. This internal timing source has a
tolerance which varies with temperature and voltage, and hence must be
synchronised to another clock to minimise the small timing differences that will
exist between internal equipment clocks. Most equipment usually has a facility
to synchronise the internal clock to a range of external timing sources. SDH
equipment has this facility built-in, and provides timing distribution features.
If equipment timing differences are not minimised, slips (bursts of errors) will
occur periodically. In the simple example where two equipments are connected
together, one clock is free-running while the other equipment is synchronised to
the other equipments free-running clock. Timing is essentially analogue and
hence even when clocks are synchronised, or locked together, small errors are
present. These errors are due to wander and jitter. When we start building more
complex networks where another piece of equipment is synchronised to
equipment that is synchronised to another free-running clock, these errors start
to accumulate as illustrated in Figure 10-1. The underlying synchronisation
signal frequency, however, remains accurate. Fairly long or complex
synchronisation networks can be quickly constructed.
165 166
10 Synchronisation
167 166 167 166
Figure 10-1 Synch Chains
External Timing Equipment
The accuracy of the internal equipment clocks is deliberately limited because
accuracy is expensive. When long synchronisation chains are constructed,
however, the accuracy of the free-running clock needs to be increased. The
normal way to achieve this is to use equipment dedicated for this purpose.
Specialised equipment, termed a reference clock or timing generator, provides a
highly accurate timing source, usually derived from an atomic clock. The head
of the chain then needs to synchronise its clock to this external reference clock.
Every piece of equipment that passes timing information along the chain slightly
degrades the accuracy of the clock signal. After passing through about 20 pieces
of equipment, the clock signal degrades to a point where slips can occur and
hence traffic becomes errored. A special purpose external clock filter, termed a
Synchronisation Supply Unit (SSU) is then required to process and recover the
clock. Another name for this type of unit is a Transit Node Clock (TNC).
Reference Clock Sources
Reference clocks come in a variety of forms, each of which has strengths and
weaknesses. The ultimate timing accuracy is derived from Cesium, however,
cheaper alternatives such as Rubidium and Quartz are available. GPS is rapidly
growing in popularity as a very high accuracy timing source, usually used in
conjunction with Cesium or Rubidium.
GPS uses a ring of satellites around the earth distributing timing information,
primarily intended for military use. GPS provides Cesium level accuracy for a
fraction of the cost. GPS timing information, however, is not entirely reliable
and is subject to outages, sometimes deliberately introduced by the US military.
When used with Cesium or Rubidium as a back-up, the combination can provide
the ultimate global timing reference.
Synchronising SDH Networks
High accuracy clocks are expensive so the fibre optic transmission network is
used to distribute synchronisation. This avoids the need to put a very high
accuracy timing source at every location in the network.
The principles used to synchronise PDH networks are very different to those
used by SDH networks. A key difference is that PDH embeds timing
information in the multiplexing structure and hence a multiplexed signal can be
used to carry timing, whereas SDH transfers timing using the optical line signal.
It should be noted that SDH network elements that are operating asynchronously
will carry traffic error free, however, they are designed to be synchronous.
Pointer movements will result in asynchronous operation, causing jitter and
wander to the tributary output signals.
Coupled with the fact that SDH enables complex mesh/ring networks to be
realised, something which was not possible with PDH, means that the
synchronisation design for SDH networks is more complex than PDH networks.
Timing loops occur when each piece of equipment in a ring is synchronised to
the adjacent equipment. If the previous chain example is considered, a loop
occurs when the headend becomes synchronised to the other end of the chain. A
timing loop rapidly degrades the accuracy of every equipment clock in the loop,
and traffic becomes seriously errored.
SDH networks make extensive use of rings, hence timing loops are a real threat.
SDH networks, therefore, need to be designed to minimise the opportunity for
timing loops to occur, especially under fault scenarios.
Although synchronisation of SDH networks is more complex than that of PDH
networks, SDH provides functionality such as Synchronisation Status
Equipment Equipment Equipment
Clock
Source
Quality
= 100%
Quality
= 97%
Quality
= 94%
Synch
Distribution
Synch
Distribution
167 168
10 Synchronisation
169 168 169 168
Figure 10-1 Synch Chains
External Timing Equipment
The accuracy of the internal equipment clocks is deliberately limited because
accuracy is expensive. When long synchronisation chains are constructed,
however, the accuracy of the free-running clock needs to be increased. The
normal way to achieve this is to use equipment dedicated for this purpose.
Specialised equipment, termed a reference clock or timing generator, provides a
highly accurate timing source, usually derived from an atomic clock. The head
of the chain then needs to synchronise its clock to this external reference clock.
Every piece of equipment that passes timing information along the chain slightly
degrades the accuracy of the clock signal. After passing through about 20 pieces
of equipment, the clock signal degrades to a point where slips can occur and
hence traffic becomes errored. A special purpose external clock filter, termed a
Synchronisation Supply Unit (SSU) is then required to process and recover the
clock. Another name for this type of unit is a Transit Node Clock (TNC).
Reference Clock Sources
Reference clocks come in a variety of forms, each of which has strengths and
weaknesses. The ultimate timing accuracy is derived from Cesium, however,
cheaper alternatives such as Rubidium and Quartz are available. GPS is rapidly
growing in popularity as a very high accuracy timing source, usually used in
conjunction with Cesium or Rubidium.
GPS uses a ring of satellites around the earth distributing timing information,
primarily intended for military use. GPS provides Cesium level accuracy for a
fraction of the cost. GPS timing information, however, is not entirely reliable
and is subject to outages, sometimes deliberately introduced by the US military.
When used with Cesium or Rubidium as a back-up, the combination can provide
the ultimate global timing reference.
Synchronising SDH Networks
High accuracy clocks are expensive so the fibre optic transmission network is
used to distribute synchronisation. This avoids the need to put a very high
accuracy timing source at every location in the network.
The principles used to synchronise PDH networks are very different to those
used by SDH networks. A key difference is that PDH embeds timing
information in the multiplexing structure and hence a multiplexed signal can be
used to carry timing, whereas SDH transfers timing using the optical line signal.
It should be noted that SDH network elements that are operating asynchronously
will carry traffic error free, however, they are designed to be synchronous.
Pointer movements will result in asynchronous operation, causing jitter and
wander to the tributary output signals.
Coupled with the fact that SDH enables complex mesh/ring networks to be
realised, something which was not possible with PDH, means that the
synchronisation design for SDH networks is more complex than PDH networks.
Timing loops occur when each piece of equipment in a ring is synchronised to
the adjacent equipment. If the previous chain example is considered, a loop
occurs when the headend becomes synchronised to the other end of the chain. A
timing loop rapidly degrades the accuracy of every equipment clock in the loop,
and traffic becomes seriously errored.
SDH networks make extensive use of rings, hence timing loops are a real threat.
SDH networks, therefore, need to be designed to minimise the opportunity for
timing loops to occur, especially under fault scenarios.
Although synchronisation of SDH networks is more complex than that of PDH
networks, SDH provides functionality such as Synchronisation Status
Equipment Equipment Equipment
Clock
Source
Quality
= 100%
Quality
= 97%
Quality
= 94%
Synch
Distribution
Synch
Distribution
167 168
10 Synchronisation
169 168 169 168
Messaging (SSMB) and remote management of synchronisation functions, to
help operational staff to manage the synchronisation network.
Figure 10-2 Timing Loops
Synchronisation Status Messaging
SSMB is an enhancement to SDH to provide timing configuration management
in SDH rings. SSMB can minimise the risks of timing loops and free-running
clocks in SDH rings. Although SSMB can improve the resilience of a
synchronous network, it is not a substitute for design. SSMB does not design the
network for you, it is basically a protection mechanism. Although it is feasible
to use SSMB in mesh topologies, care must be taken to ensure that the protocol
does not cause timing loops.
SSMB is a messaging protocol where SDH elements can distribute information
about the quality of clocks that are available. In the event of a fibre break or
similar network fault, the multiplexers exchange information about clock
quality, so that each element can decide on which clocks to use.
Used carefully, SSMB can greatly improve the resilience of the network, by
eliminating timing loops and free-running clocks. SSMB does, however, have
some weaknesses which need to be taken into consideration when the
synchronisation network is being designed. SSMB does not provide any
mechanism to degrade t he clock as it is propagated around a network. If a
network element is locked to a high quality clock it will pass on a good SSMB
value. The next network element locks to this good clock and passes on the same
value. Each network element does the same while the clock quality value
remains the same. It must be remembered that each network element slightly
degrades the quality of the clock and hence after the clock has passed through a
number of network elements, its real quality will not be as good as the original
SSMB value.
Another factor, which needs to be given consideration in synchronisation
network design, is that distribution of the SSMB information around the
network takes time. This means that in meshes, and to some extent rings, the
time taken for a new SSMB value to be distributed by each network element
takes time. If a network element locks to a new clock and hence a new SSMB
value too quickly, the network many not have had enough time to stabilise. Out
of date values may still be in the network and the network may end up chasing
a non-existent clock, rather like a dog chases its tail. This, at best, results in rapid
switching between clock sources at each network element or at worst, a massive
timing loop. The problem cannot be totally eliminated but the chances of it
occurring can be minimised by careful network design and by configuration of
the network elements to slow their response time to switch to a new clock.
Although networks using SSMB must be carefully designed, they permit rapid
automatic reconfiguration of a synchronous network when there is a failure of a
synchronisation source and greatly reduce the duration and quantity of pointer
movements.
Well synchronised ring Timing loop
169 170
10 Synchronisation
170
Messaging (SSMB) and remote management of synchronisation functions, to
help operational staff to manage the synchronisation network.
Figure 10-2 Timing Loops
Synchronisation Status Messaging
SSMB is an enhancement to SDH to provide timing configuration management
in SDH rings. SSMB can minimise the risks of timing loops and free-running
clocks in SDH rings. Although SSMB can improve the resilience of a
synchronous network, it is not a substitute for design. SSMB does not design the
network for you, it is basically a protection mechanism. Although it is feasible
to use SSMB in mesh topologies, care must be taken to ensure that the protocol
does not cause timing loops.
SSMB is a messaging protocol where SDH elements can distribute information
about the quality of clocks that are available. In the event of a fibre break or
similar network fault, the multiplexers exchange information about clock
quality, so that each element can decide on which clocks to use.
Used carefully, SSMB can greatly improve the resilience of the network, by
eliminating timing loops and free-running clocks. SSMB does, however, have
some weaknesses which need to be taken into consideration when the
synchronisation network is being designed. SSMB does not provide any
mechanism to degrade t he clock as it is propagated around a network. If a
network element is locked to a high quality clock it will pass on a good SSMB
value. The next network element locks to this good clock and passes on the same
value. Each network element does the same while the clock quality value
remains the same. It must be remembered that each network element slightly
degrades the quality of the clock and hence after the clock has passed through a
number of network elements, its real quality will not be as good as the original
SSMB value.
Another factor, which needs to be given consideration in synchronisation
network design, is that distribution of the SSMB information around the
network takes time. This means that in meshes, and to some extent rings, the
time taken for a new SSMB value to be distributed by each network element
takes time. If a network element locks to a new clock and hence a new SSMB
value too quickly, the network many not have had enough time to stabilise. Out
of date values may still be in the network and the network may end up chasing
a non-existent clock, rather like a dog chases its tail. This, at best, results in rapid
switching between clock sources at each network element or at worst, a massive
timing loop. The problem cannot be totally eliminated but the chances of it
occurring can be minimised by careful network design and by configuration of
the network elements to slow their response time to switch to a new clock.
Although networks using SSMB must be carefully designed, they permit rapid
automatic reconfiguration of a synchronous network when there is a failure of a
synchronisation source and greatly reduce the duration and quantity of pointer
movements.
Well synchronised ring Timing loop
169 170
10 Synchronisation
171
171 Evolving SDH to support Data-centric and Wavelength Services

Evolving SDH to support Data-centric and
Wavelength Services

There is an increasing need to transport new, non-SDH framed data ser-
vices in the metro area and to extend the reach of these services from the
metro area across national or international networks. Typical examples
are Gigabit Ethernet services for corporate LAN extension, and storage
services to provide Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery capabili-
ties.

This chapter examines two key technologies in this field Ethernet over
SDH (EoSDH) using Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) and Resilient
Packet Ring (RPR), both which allow such data-centric services to be
carried across SDH core networks.

GFP will typically be used more frequently in point-to-point and point-
to-multipoint applications similar to wavelength services, whereas RPR
is targeted towards LAN Services across ring-based architectures. Which
of these technologies is better suited will depend on the specific network
and service mix being addressed and can be decided on a case by case
basis.

Deploying metro-to-long haul wavelength services us-
ing Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)

Introduction

Modern SDH solutions meet the key enterprise need to transport a wide
range of non-SDH protocols including ESCON, FICON (IBM main-
frame networking), Fibre Channel (Storage Area Networks), Ethernet
and Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) over a Metro Area Network (MAN).
11
Evolving SDH to support Data-centric and Wavelength Services 172
Previously, enterprises deployed translation devices routers to convert
these protocols to standard TDM interfaces such as E1 and E3, or data
interfaces such as ATM, carried over SDH channels, usually leased from
network operators. This approach often required the client signal to be
transmitted at less than its native rate, and to undergo complex protocol
translations at the network edge. For the fixed cost of SDH/DWDM
equipment and dark fibre, an enterprise could significantly reduce its
monthly leased line costs while transporting these protocols at their na-
tive rates.

As the enterprise demand for these protocols has increased, so has the
requirement to extend their reach for example, in storage networking
where Business Continuity sites must be suitably remote from the main
data centre. Modern solutions can be extended to create regional optical
networks, but in most countries there is an existing huge investment in
regional and long haul networking the SDH network. The challenge is
to enable non-SDH services to be carried effectively over this existing
infrastructure.

For this purpose Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) has been introduced
- a standard developed in North America (T1X1) and internationally
(ITU G.7041) as a generic encapsulation method for data transport. GFP
thus provides a bridge linking data and SDH networks. By mapping
broadband data traffic using GFP, these enterprise-focused services can
now be transported and managed over the vast number of SDH networks
available today.

Network Architecture

Ethernet over SDH is a convenient access technology for the enterprise,
since it allows client signals to be in their native formats at the point
where they are handed over to the network. Most regional and long haul
core networks are primarily based on SDH today, and SDH provides the
necessary tools to deliver SLA measurements and end-to-end service
assurance.

The best approach is to combine EoSDH access with the current SDH
metro/long haul core infrastructure. In this approach broadband services
are wrapped with a SDH wrapper at the ingress of network access sys-
tems. This will enable these services to be transported over the existing
SDH network using existing SDH networking tools and methods.
172

Evolving SDH to support Data-centric and
Wavelength Services

There is an increasing need to transport new, non-SDH framed data ser-
vices in the metro area and to extend the reach of these services from the
metro area across national or international networks. Typical examples
are Gigabit Ethernet services for corporate LAN extension, and storage
services to provide Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery capabili-
ties.

This chapter examines two key technologies in this field Ethernet over
SDH (EoSDH) using Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) and Resilient
Packet Ring (RPR), both which allow such data-centric services to be
carried across SDH core networks.

GFP will typically be used more frequently in point-to-point and point-
to-multipoint applications similar to wavelength services, whereas RPR
is targeted towards LAN Services across ring-based architectures. Which
of these technologies is better suited will depend on the specific network
and service mix being addressed and can be decided on a case by case
basis.

Deploying metro-to-long haul wavelength services us-
ing Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)

Introduction

Modern SDH solutions meet the key enterprise need to transport a wide
range of non-SDH protocols including ESCON, FICON (IBM main-
frame networking), Fibre Channel (Storage Area Networks), Ethernet
and Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) over a Metro Area Network (MAN).
11
Previously, enterprises deployed translation devices routers to convert
these protocols to standard TDM interfaces such as E1 and E3, or data
interfaces such as ATM, carried over SDH channels, usually leased from
network operators. This approach often required the client signal to be
transmitted at less than its native rate, and to undergo complex protocol
translations at the network edge. For the fixed cost of SDH/DWDM
equipment and dark fibre, an enterprise could significantly reduce its
monthly leased line costs while transporting these protocols at their na-
tive rates.

As the enterprise demand for these protocols has increased, so has the
requirement to extend their reach for example, in storage networking
where Business Continuity sites must be suitably remote from the main
data centre. Modern solutions can be extended to create regional optical
networks, but in most countries there is an existing huge investment in
regional and long haul networking the SDH network. The challenge is
to enable non-SDH services to be carried effectively over this existing
infrastructure.

For this purpose Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) has been introduced
- a standard developed in North America (T1X1) and internationally
(ITU G.7041) as a generic encapsulation method for data transport. GFP
thus provides a bridge linking data and SDH networks. By mapping
broadband data traffic using GFP, these enterprise-focused services can
now be transported and managed over the vast number of SDH networks
available today.

Network Architecture

Ethernet over SDH is a convenient access technology for the enterprise,
since it allows client signals to be in their native formats at the point
where they are handed over to the network. Most regional and long haul
core networks are primarily based on SDH today, and SDH provides the
necessary tools to deliver SLA measurements and end-to-end service
assurance.

The best approach is to combine EoSDH access with the current SDH
metro/long haul core infrastructure. In this approach broadband services
are wrapped with a SDH wrapper at the ingress of network access sys-
tems. This will enable these services to be transported over the existing
SDH network using existing SDH networking tools and methods.
173

Figure 11-1

Broadband Service Adaptation

The goal is to provide managed transparency for broadband services.
In other words, to the network user the network looks like a transparent
pipe, but the carrier has comprehensive visibility of the performance of
the service end-to-end across the network. In this way a detailed and
flexible set of SLAs can be defined and monitored. This section will
address the functions that must occur at the edge of the network for ser-
vice transparency.

The service mapping function shown in Figure 11-1 includes the physi-
cal service interface, bi-directional service performance measurement
(input to the network, and egress from the network), and service encap-
sulation.

Figure 11-2

Network adaptation creates common networking containers compatible
with the network technology. In the case of optical networking, SDH or
SONET compatible containers are optimum. To provide great flexibility
in service offerings, GFP is an optimal solution for broadband traffic.
GFP containers enable multiplexing and switching, and make service
monitoring information readily available for both network management
and control systems. The networking attributes are key functions that
allow the carrier to manage connectivity and support efficient network
and service operations. Additionally, this adaptation is critical for man-
agement of traffic that is handed off between carriers. Unambiguous
service performance data must be readily available, without de-mapping,
at key parts of the network.

Generic Framing Procedure - An overview

Generic Framing Procedure is an encapsulation method whose definition
has been completed and documented as a global standard by ITU-T
G.7041. Two modes of GFP are defined: transparently-coded and frame-
mapped.

174

Figure 11-1

Broadband Service Adaptation

The goal is to provide managed transparency for broadband services.
In other words, to the network user the network looks like a transparent
pipe, but the carrier has comprehensive visibility of the performance of
the service end-to-end across the network. In this way a detailed and
flexible set of SLAs can be defined and monitored. This section will
address the functions that must occur at the edge of the network for ser-
vice transparency.

The service mapping function shown in Figure 11-1 includes the physi-
cal service interface, bi-directional service performance measurement
(input to the network, and egress from the network), and service encap-
sulation.

Figure 11-2

Network adaptation creates common networking containers compatible
with the network technology. In the case of optical networking, SDH or
SONET compatible containers are optimum. To provide great flexibility
in service offerings, GFP is an optimal solution for broadband traffic.
GFP containers enable multiplexing and switching, and make service
monitoring information readily available for both network management
and control systems. The networking attributes are key functions that
allow the carrier to manage connectivity and support efficient network
and service operations. Additionally, this adaptation is critical for man-
agement of traffic that is handed off between carriers. Unambiguous
service performance data must be readily available, without de-mapping,
at key parts of the network.

Generic Framing Procedure - An overview

Generic Framing Procedure is an encapsulation method whose definition
has been completed and documented as a global standard by ITU-T
G.7041. Two modes of GFP are defined: transparently-coded and frame-
mapped.

175

Transparently coded mode
( GFP-T )
Frame-mapped mode ( GFP-F )
allows 8B10B-coded SAN and
LAN signals (e.g. GbE, FC, FI-
CON, ESCON) to be transported
and switched across an optical
network while preserving the rele-
vant 8B10B code information.

Permits multiplexing, at a client
frame granularity, of multiple cli-
ent ports/types
streaming modeeven if full
interface capacity (e.g. GbE) is not
being used.
PDU-aware modegaps be-
tween packets are indicated using
null framesenabling the option
of statistical multiplexing of dif-
ferent GFP channels.

GFP is a powerful tool for relatively simple multi-service adaptation
(independence from Layer 2 or Layer 3 protocols) with broadband and
ultra-broadband capacity.

It is an interoperable global ITU standard with mapping to SDH,
SONET, and OTN networks. Especially when combined with virtual
concatenation, it provides efficient network resource utilization with low
overhead and the ability to utilize paths through the network that are
diversely routed and lower in capacity than the actual payload. Minimal
buffering is required at adaptation points for low latency and jitter per-
formance.


Figure 11-3

Case studies in GFP for services

Figure 11-3 shows an example of three separate customers who want to
deploy GigE and Fibre Channel services across a metro core. This ap-
proach is typical of current deployments of Metro DWDM services.

Three pairs of fibre are used to support the three customers end-to-end
across the network. The cost of this approach becomes more significant
as we move to the core of the network as these fibre pairs could poten-
tially be shared by many customers. The end-to-end distance of the links
is limited to 150 km due to current DWDM limitations. These systems
are also difficult to engineer as the end-to-end fibre performance must be
characterized for each individual customer.

Finally, current DWDM technology does not provide comprehensive
service management and SLA enforcement so each system must be
monitored separately. Failures within the network become difficult to
track. All of these challenges have restricted this technology to only the
largest customers, so far.
176

Transparently coded mode
( GFP-T )
Frame-mapped mode ( GFP-F )
allows 8B10B-coded SAN and
LAN signals (e.g. GbE, FC, FI-
CON, ESCON) to be transported
and switched across an optical
network while preserving the rele-
vant 8B10B code information.

Permits multiplexing, at a client
frame granularity, of multiple cli-
ent ports/types
streaming modeeven if full
interface capacity (e.g. GbE) is not
being used.
PDU-aware modegaps be-
tween packets are indicated using
null framesenabling the option
of statistical multiplexing of dif-
ferent GFP channels.

GFP is a powerful tool for relatively simple multi-service adaptation
(independence from Layer 2 or Layer 3 protocols) with broadband and
ultra-broadband capacity.

It is an interoperable global ITU standard with mapping to SDH,
SONET, and OTN networks. Especially when combined with virtual
concatenation, it provides efficient network resource utilization with low
overhead and the ability to utilize paths through the network that are
diversely routed and lower in capacity than the actual payload. Minimal
buffering is required at adaptation points for low latency and jitter per-
formance.


Figure 11-3

Case studies in GFP for services

Figure 11-3 shows an example of three separate customers who want to
deploy GigE and Fibre Channel services across a metro core. This ap-
proach is typical of current deployments of Metro DWDM services.

Three pairs of fibre are used to support the three customers end-to-end
across the network. The cost of this approach becomes more significant
as we move to the core of the network as these fibre pairs could poten-
tially be shared by many customers. The end-to-end distance of the links
is limited to 150 km due to current DWDM limitations. These systems
are also difficult to engineer as the end-to-end fibre performance must be
characterized for each individual customer.

Finally, current DWDM technology does not provide comprehensive
service management and SLA enforcement so each system must be
monitored separately. Failures within the network become difficult to
track. All of these challenges have restricted this technology to only the
largest customers, so far.
177

Figure 11-4

In the scenario shown in Fig 11-4, both access and core networks are
deployed with shared DWDM rings. The last mile CPE-to-metro edge
links are carried on private DWDM systems, but the multiple customer
are transported over shared DWDM infrastructure in the metro-edge to
core networks. This architecture is an improvement because:

x Traffic from multiple users is carried over the same fibre pair,
making efficient use of access and core fibre. The architecture
will facilitate networking to different locations as any POP
traversed by these shared access and core DWDM rings can
now support DWDM services.
x DWDM distances will also improve, as now the spans of the
DWDM shared rings are no longer limited to a 150 km end-to-
end distance limit. Engineering is simplified because the shared
rings only have to be engineered once. The only custom engi-
neering required is from the CPE to the metro edge POP and in-
terconnection of the customer between shared rings.

Issues that must still be addressed include the continued need for end-to
end service management and support for increased distances. The other
key issue is the need to optically engineer each end-to-end service even
though it travels over a shared infrastructure. Every time a new service is
added, an engineer would need to calculate the fibre losses for each indi-
vidual lightpath being provisioned on an end-to-end basis. Finally, a
technician would be required to physically go to each and every POP
along the service path to patch the optical cables.

Figure 11-5

This example in Figure 11-5 introduces Ethernet over SDH. Multiple
transparent services are GFP mapped into SDH VC4-4c payloads and are
carried as a VC4-4c lambda to the metro edge office. At this point, the
signal can be carried as a virtually concatenated SDH signal to a metro
core office and onward through the core long haul SDH network. The
network operator can take advantage of SDH overhead for line and path
troubleshooting and can transported the signal over extended distances
beyond the technical limitations of DWDM. At the final metro edge POP
to the CPE, the reverse process will take place taking the GFP mapped
SDH signal back to the corresponding transparent service.

Figure 11-6

This architecture addresses all of the issues previously identified:

178

Figure 11-4

In the scenario shown in Fig 11-4, both access and core networks are
deployed with shared DWDM rings. The last mile CPE-to-metro edge
links are carried on private DWDM systems, but the multiple customer
are transported over shared DWDM infrastructure in the metro-edge to
core networks. This architecture is an improvement because:

x Traffic from multiple users is carried over the same fibre pair,
making efficient use of access and core fibre. The architecture
will facilitate networking to different locations as any POP
traversed by these shared access and core DWDM rings can
now support DWDM services.
x DWDM distances will also improve, as now the spans of the
DWDM shared rings are no longer limited to a 150 km end-to-
end distance limit. Engineering is simplified because the shared
rings only have to be engineered once. The only custom engi-
neering required is from the CPE to the metro edge POP and in-
terconnection of the customer between shared rings.

Issues that must still be addressed include the continued need for end-to
end service management and support for increased distances. The other
key issue is the need to optically engineer each end-to-end service even
though it travels over a shared infrastructure. Every time a new service is
added, an engineer would need to calculate the fibre losses for each indi-
vidual lightpath being provisioned on an end-to-end basis. Finally, a
technician would be required to physically go to each and every POP
along the service path to patch the optical cables.

Figure 11-5

This example in Figure 11-5 introduces Ethernet over SDH. Multiple
transparent services are GFP mapped into SDH VC4-4c payloads and are
carried as a VC4-4c lambda to the metro edge office. At this point, the
signal can be carried as a virtually concatenated SDH signal to a metro
core office and onward through the core long haul SDH network. The
network operator can take advantage of SDH overhead for line and path
troubleshooting and can transported the signal over extended distances
beyond the technical limitations of DWDM. At the final metro edge POP
to the CPE, the reverse process will take place taking the GFP mapped
SDH signal back to the corresponding transparent service.

Figure 11-6

This architecture addresses all of the issues previously identified:

179
x It optimizes the use of metro core and access fibre and existing
SDH facilities

x It solves any distance limitations of DWDM and can now trav-
erse SDH facilities over vast metro core or long haul networks

x It provides full service assurance and SLA enforcement as pro-
vided by SDH today

x No special engineering is needed as the core of the network fol-
lows the same engineering as SDH today. Services can also be
turned up easily since end-to-end provisioning is becoming
available for SDH-based core bandwidth
Resilient Packet Ring ( RPR ) technology

The metro bottleneck

Today, interconnecting enterprise local area networks (LANs) across
metro and wide area networks (MANs/WANs) calls for a mix of skills
and technologies that challenge even the most adept network manager.
Complex schemes are required, involving multiple data conversion steps,
that complicate and slow down transmission. The LANs native Ethernet
frames are translated to a variety of protocols and mapped onto point-to-
point circuits using time division multiplexing (TDM), frame relay,
ATM, and other techniques.

These circuits are the key bottlenecks in todays network, often slowing
data transmission to one tenth the speed of the LANs that they intercon-
nect. The conversion and mapping process inevitably leads to higher
expense and lower reliability. The service provider faces the overwhelm-
ing task of provisioning the networks multiple systems in a timely fash-
ion. Service velocity suffers as weeks or even months go by between the
order and the delivery of a new circuit.

Router-based networks make the problem worse since they require carri-
ers to deploy additional, complex routing devices to scale Ethernet over
the fibre infrastructure. Highly qualified IP engineers are required to roll
out and manage these services on a wide scale. Initial customers are eas-
ily provisioned, but adding new customers involves significant planning
and effort because the routed network must be engineered to scale and
maintain optimal utilization levels. Most importantly, these networks
must be engineered to convert complex addressing schemes and to avoid
the problem of address overlap. Security and customer separation need
to be carefully addressed.

Service providers need a solution that leverages their investment in their
infrastructure and operations staff. Today, that proven infrastructure is
the synchronous transmission network (SDH / SONET). Its advantages
in terms of scalability, manageability, bandwidth capacity, reliability,
and reach are well known. However, since the SDH / SONET network is
circuit-based, traditional approaches to transporting data over SDH /
SONET have been cumbersome to provision. The ultimate solution is a
highly efficient metro network that can leverage the existing SDH /
180
x It optimizes the use of metro core and access fibre and existing
SDH facilities

x It solves any distance limitations of DWDM and can now trav-
erse SDH facilities over vast metro core or long haul networks

x It provides full service assurance and SLA enforcement as pro-
vided by SDH today

x No special engineering is needed as the core of the network fol-
lows the same engineering as SDH today. Services can also be
turned up easily since end-to-end provisioning is becoming
available for SDH-based core bandwidth
Resilient Packet Ring ( RPR ) technology

The metro bottleneck

Today, interconnecting enterprise local area networks (LANs) across
metro and wide area networks (MANs/WANs) calls for a mix of skills
and technologies that challenge even the most adept network manager.
Complex schemes are required, involving multiple data conversion steps,
that complicate and slow down transmission. The LANs native Ethernet
frames are translated to a variety of protocols and mapped onto point-to-
point circuits using time division multiplexing (TDM), frame relay,
ATM, and other techniques.

These circuits are the key bottlenecks in todays network, often slowing
data transmission to one tenth the speed of the LANs that they intercon-
nect. The conversion and mapping process inevitably leads to higher
expense and lower reliability. The service provider faces the overwhelm-
ing task of provisioning the networks multiple systems in a timely fash-
ion. Service velocity suffers as weeks or even months go by between the
order and the delivery of a new circuit.

Router-based networks make the problem worse since they require carri-
ers to deploy additional, complex routing devices to scale Ethernet over
the fibre infrastructure. Highly qualified IP engineers are required to roll
out and manage these services on a wide scale. Initial customers are eas-
ily provisioned, but adding new customers involves significant planning
and effort because the routed network must be engineered to scale and
maintain optimal utilization levels. Most importantly, these networks
must be engineered to convert complex addressing schemes and to avoid
the problem of address overlap. Security and customer separation need
to be carefully addressed.

Service providers need a solution that leverages their investment in their
infrastructure and operations staff. Today, that proven infrastructure is
the synchronous transmission network (SDH / SONET). Its advantages
in terms of scalability, manageability, bandwidth capacity, reliability,
and reach are well known. However, since the SDH / SONET network is
circuit-based, traditional approaches to transporting data over SDH /
SONET have been cumbersome to provision. The ultimate solution is a
highly efficient metro network that can leverage the existing SDH /
181
SONET-based optical infrastructure, while taking advantage of LAN
data networks.

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) technology is a solution that addresses the
needs of data-centric carriers and enterprises. This high-performance
solution breaks through the bottleneck in the metro while delivering the
key features of simplicity, speed, and reliability.

Introducing Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) technology addresses the growing need to
explode the bandwidth bottleneck found in todays metro access net-
works. Efficient use of bandwidth and reliability of transmission are tar-
geted at ring topologies deployed in metro areas worldwide. A resilient
packet ring combines the low cost and simplicity of packet-based, con-
nectionless networking with the reliability, bandwidth, and scalability of
optical networks. The result is the best of both worlds - a resilient,
packet-oriented, ring-based solution that provides virtual mesh network
connectivity.

Figure 11-7

The Nortel Networks OPTera Packet Edge System makes use of the con-
cept of a LAN switch extending across the MAN and WAN. The nodes on
the RPR ring act as a distributed Ethernet learning bridge, effectively
connecting buildings in a MAN as if they were simply segments on a
LAN.

RPR shares bandwidth among the sites on the optical transport ring to
provide logical connectivity and optimal bandwidth sharing. Built on the
proven SDH / SONET infrastructure already available in virtually all
metro fibre rings, introducing RPR allows some or all of the rings
bandwidth to be used as shared bandwidth among many sources of
packet data. The result is a dramatic improvement in bandwidth effi-
ciency and simplified provisioning of service.

A Layer 2 encapsulation header is used to segregate customer traffic and
to switch it to the multiple egress points across the service provider net-
work. There is no need to manage the IP addressing or the Q-tagging
VLAN schemes used by the enterprise. The Nortel Networks encapsula-
tion technique scales to support millions of unique customer VLANs.
Nortel Networks OPTera Packet Edge System effectively transports
these packets within a distributed Ethernet learning bridge across the
metro.

Scalability

The Nortel Networks RPR implementation leverages the existing SDH /
SONET transport architecture - transparently. Traffic from multiple cus-
tomers is packed into standard SONET STS-Nc envelopes, in Resilient
Packet Rings, around the physical ring. These STS-Nc payload enve-
lopes can be sent through any intervening SDH / SONET
Add/Drop/Multiplex (MUX) or DWDM transport system for transmis-
sion over any distance (across town, the continent, or the world). At the
far end, a terminating OPTera Packet Edge System module delivers the
packets to their destination ports. As a result, the SDH / SONET trans-
port system becomes a distributed backplane where packets can find
their way to the appropriate destinations by means of standard Layer 2
techniques and without the complexities of overlay networks. Since mul-
tiple OPTera Packet Edge System modules can be put on a virtual ring,
they provide an efficient multicast technology that drops copies of
packets at multiple destinations.

Efficiency

Bandwidth efficiency is achieved through the following mechanisms that
are available with RPR technology:

182
SONET-based optical infrastructure, while taking advantage of LAN
data networks.

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) technology is a solution that addresses the
needs of data-centric carriers and enterprises. This high-performance
solution breaks through the bottleneck in the metro while delivering the
key features of simplicity, speed, and reliability.

Introducing Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)

Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) technology addresses the growing need to
explode the bandwidth bottleneck found in todays metro access net-
works. Efficient use of bandwidth and reliability of transmission are tar-
geted at ring topologies deployed in metro areas worldwide. A resilient
packet ring combines the low cost and simplicity of packet-based, con-
nectionless networking with the reliability, bandwidth, and scalability of
optical networks. The result is the best of both worlds - a resilient,
packet-oriented, ring-based solution that provides virtual mesh network
connectivity.

Figure 11-7

The Nortel Networks OPTera Packet Edge System makes use of the con-
cept of a LAN switch extending across the MAN and WAN. The nodes on
the RPR ring act as a distributed Ethernet learning bridge, effectively
connecting buildings in a MAN as if they were simply segments on a
LAN.

RPR shares bandwidth among the sites on the optical transport ring to
provide logical connectivity and optimal bandwidth sharing. Built on the
proven SDH / SONET infrastructure already available in virtually all
metro fibre rings, introducing RPR allows some or all of the rings
bandwidth to be used as shared bandwidth among many sources of
packet data. The result is a dramatic improvement in bandwidth effi-
ciency and simplified provisioning of service.

A Layer 2 encapsulation header is used to segregate customer traffic and
to switch it to the multiple egress points across the service provider net-
work. There is no need to manage the IP addressing or the Q-tagging
VLAN schemes used by the enterprise. The Nortel Networks encapsula-
tion technique scales to support millions of unique customer VLANs.
Nortel Networks OPTera Packet Edge System effectively transports
these packets within a distributed Ethernet learning bridge across the
metro.

Scalability

The Nortel Networks RPR implementation leverages the existing SDH /
SONET transport architecture - transparently. Traffic from multiple cus-
tomers is packed into standard SONET STS-Nc envelopes, in Resilient
Packet Rings, around the physical ring. These STS-Nc payload enve-
lopes can be sent through any intervening SDH / SONET
Add/Drop/Multiplex (MUX) or DWDM transport system for transmis-
sion over any distance (across town, the continent, or the world). At the
far end, a terminating OPTera Packet Edge System module delivers the
packets to their destination ports. As a result, the SDH / SONET trans-
port system becomes a distributed backplane where packets can find
their way to the appropriate destinations by means of standard Layer 2
techniques and without the complexities of overlay networks. Since mul-
tiple OPTera Packet Edge System modules can be put on a virtual ring,
they provide an efficient multicast technology that drops copies of
packets at multiple destinations.

Efficiency

Bandwidth efficiency is achieved through the following mechanisms that
are available with RPR technology:

183
x Statistical Multiplexing: Since packet traffic tends to be
bursty in nature, the shared bandwidth of RPR reduces the
wasted bandwidth of circuit-based connections whose fixed
bandwidth is consumed even in periods of low-packet traffic.

x Spatial Reuse: RPR frames traverse the shortest path between
communicating nodes on the fibre ring. Bandwidth is consumed
only on those link segments that interconnect those nodes, not
around the entire ring. Spatial reuse is another form of statisti-
cal gain that increases with the number of nodes in a ring.

x Ring Protection: Since protection is provided using Layer 2
mechanisms, the reservation of 50 percent of the rings band-
width for protection is no longer required. Depending on the
types of traffic offered, this reserved protection bandwidth can
be reduced for other customer data traffic.

RPR provides bandwidth efficiency through statistical multiplexing of
bursty packet traffic, through spatial reuse around the ring, and by using
Layer 2 ring protection. The result is more capacity available for revenue
generating packet services.

OPTera Packet Edge Solution

The Nortel Networks OPTera Packet Edge System brings data network-
ing to a new level by taking the simplicity of LAN Ethernet natively into
the metro. Plug-in modules transform the Nortel Networks Metro 3300 /
3400 / 3500 and OME6500 Multiservice Platforms into hybrid systems
that are capable of concurrently supporting high speed data services,
voice traffic, and other traditional TDM (circuit-based) service offerings.

The RPR technology integrated into the OPTera Packet Edge System
uses an advanced ring architecture that provides native Ethernet inter-
faces, distributed Layer 2 packet switching, and data transport over
shared bandwidth. The solutions enabled by this architecture include
Internet access, Virtual Private Ethernet, data centre connectivity, and
outsourced IP applications. To the service provider, these solutions
translate into new opportunities for revenue-generating, value-added
services. To the enterprise, economical and scalable bandwidth with low
end-to-end delay enables a host of applications never before possible.

With the advantage of the OPTera Packet Edge System, carriers and ser-
vice providers can deploy and upgrade a single network infrastructure
that delivers a wide range of revenue generating, resource-efficient data
and voice services.

Standards Evolution

The IEEE 802.17 Working Group brings together the leading technical
experts in the field of networking to generate a standard specification for
the RPR MAC and PHY(s). Nortel Networks has been a leader in this
standards effort since its original call-for-interest session, held in early
2000. John Hawkins, Marketing Manager of Optical Ethernet for Nortel
Networks, is the current chairman of the Resilient Packet Ring Alliance,
an industry advocacy group promoting RPR technology and its stan-
dardization by IEEE.
184







and voice services.

Standards Evolution

185







and voice services.

Standards Evolution

List of Abbreviations List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
ADM Add Drop Multiplexer.
ANSI American National Standards Institute
APS Automatic Protection Switching
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AU Administrative Unit
AUG Adminstrative Unit Group
BML Business Management Level
CCITT Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and
Telephony (now the ITU-T)
Ch Channel
DCN Data Communications Network
DPRing Dedicated Protection Ring
DSC Digital Switching Centre
D-WDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer
DXC Digital Cross-connect
EM Element Manager
EML Element Manager Layer
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexer
GPS Global Positioning System
GSC Group Switching Centre
HCI Human Computer Interface
HDSL High-speed Digital Subscriber Line
HO High Order
IP Internet Protocol
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
ITU-T International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications
Standardisation Sector
LAN Local Area Network
LE Local Exchange
LO Low Order
MSC Main Switching Centre
MSOH Multiplex Section Overhead
MSP Multiplex Section Protection
MS-SPRing Multiplex Section Shared Protection Ring
MUX Multiplexer
12
185 186
12 List of Abbreviations
187 186 187 186
List of Abbreviations
ADM Add Drop Multiplexer.
ANSI American National Standards Institute
APS Automatic Protection Switching
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AU Administrative Unit
AUG Adminstrative Unit Group
BML Business Management Level
CCITT Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and
Telephony (now the ITU-T)
Ch Channel
DCN Data Communications Network
DPRing Dedicated Protection Ring
DSC Digital Switching Centre
D-WDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer
DXC Digital Cross-connect
EM Element Manager
EML Element Manager Layer
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FDM Frequency Division Multiplexer
GPS Global Positioning System
GSC Group Switching Centre
HCI Human Computer Interface
HDSL High-speed Digital Subscriber Line
HO High Order
IP Internet Protocol
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
ITU-T International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications
Standardisation Sector
LAN Local Area Network
LE Local Exchange
LO Low Order
MSC Main Switching Centre
MSOH Multiplex Section Overhead
MSP Multiplex Section Protection
MS-SPRing Multiplex Section Shared Protection Ring
MUX Multiplexer
12
185 186
187 186 187 186
NE Network Element
NEL Network Element Layer
NM Network Manager
NML Network Manager Layer
OA&M Operation, Administration and Maintenance
OAM&P Operation, Administration, Maintenance and Provisioning
OC Optical Carrier
OSC Optical Supervisory Channel
OSI Open Systems Interconnect
OSS Operation Support System
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
POH Path Overhead
POTS Plain Old Telephone Service
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PTT Post, Telephones and Telegraph - former name for government-
controlled public telecommunications operator
RDI Remote Defect Indication
REI Remote Error Indication
RSOH Repeater Section Overhead
Rx Receive
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SLA Service Level Agreement
SML Service Management Layer
SNCP Subnetwork Connection Protection
SOH Section Overhead
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
SPRing Shared Protection Ring
SSMB Synchronisation Status Message Byte
SSU Synchronisation Supply Unit
STM Synchronous Transport Module
STS Synchronous Transport Signal
TDM Time Division Multiplex
TMN Telecommunications Managed Netork
TNC Transit Node Clock
TU Tributary Unit
TUG Tributary Unit Group
Tx Transmit
VC Virtual Container
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexer
187 188
188
NE Network Element
NEL Network Element Layer
NM Network Manager
NML Network Manager Layer
OA&M Operation, Administration and Maintenance
OAM&P Operation, Administration, Maintenance and Provisioning
OC Optical Carrier
OSC Optical Supervisory Channel
OSI Open Systems Interconnect
OSS Operation Support System
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy
POH Path Overhead
POTS Plain Old Telephone Service
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PTT Post, Telephones and Telegraph - former name for government-
controlled public telecommunications operator
RDI Remote Defect Indication
REI Remote Error Indication
RSOH Repeater Section Overhead
Rx Receive
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SLA Service Level Agreement
SML Service Management Layer
SNCP Subnetwork Connection Protection
SOH Section Overhead
SONET Synchronous Optical Network
SPRing Shared Protection Ring
SSMB Synchronisation Status Message Byte
SSU Synchronisation Supply Unit
STM Synchronous Transport Module
STS Synchronous Transport Signal
TDM Time Division Multiplex
TMN Telecommunications Managed Netork
TNC Transit Node Clock
TU Tributary Unit
TUG Tributary Unit Group
Tx Transmit
VC Virtual Container
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexer
187 188
MF 190
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11 Evolving SDH to support Data-centric and Wavelength Services

11 Evolving SDH to support Data-centric and Wavelength Services

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