THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication: Definitions Communication is a transaction whereby participants together create meaning throu gh the exchange

of symbols,( Fielding, 2004). This definition stresses 4 major points: Communication as a transaction i.e it involves two or more people who construct meaning together, taking one another into account and working together according to a set of rules. People working together i.e for people to work together they have to learn to de velop mutual expectations. This enable people to work together. The creation of meaning i.e people need to ensure that others understand what t hey are saying. Effective communication demands people work together to ensure t hat the meaning created is the same for all. The exchange of symbols i.e this exchange enable people to create meanings. Thes e symbols may be verbal, non-verbal or graphic. Communication is the exchange of thoughts, ideas, feelings, information, opinion s and knowledge. It involves the mutuality of understanding, (www. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION -These are basically the components that help defining communication itself. -These elements had been used by various authors/authorities to come up with dif ferent communication models. Sender -This is the initiator of the communication process. -The sender has an intention to communicate with another person, this intention is a result of a stimuli. -The sender then encodes the message. Message

Channel The message is sent through a channel which can be made of a variety of material s e.g In written communication the channel consist of paper or any other writing material. Noise -The communication channel is subjected to various sources of noise. -In some contexts noise is referred to as filter - Normally noise within a channel cause communication breakdown -Even a solid channel such as paper can be crushed or stained and such phenomena are noise in the communicative sense. Receiver -The intended destination of a messages.

-The receiver decodes the message according to his/her knowledge of the subject, ability to use and interpret language and past experiences, (Fielding, 2004). Feedback -This is the response given by the receiver to the sender.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION -Different authorities came up with different communication models -Earlier versions of communication models failed to deal much on one important e lement of communication: feedback. Shannon-Weaver 1949

-The second model stresses the transactional and continuing nature of communicat ion. -In this model the sender and receiver are shown to be constantly exchanging mes sages until they reach an understanding, (Fielding, 2004). - This model shows the convergence nature of communication as the sender and rec eiver are both encoders and decoders of messages.

FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION -Communication in an organization has a purpose and messages do not float around randomly. -Messages have specific audiences and contain a specific content. NETWORKS These are interconnecting lines of communication used to pass informatio n from one person to another. -Networks ensure that messages do not flow randomly and aimlessly. -Networks can be classified as centralized or decentralized Centralized- depend on one person Decentralized- do not depend on one person at the centre. Centralized Networks The chain Circle Wheel -The wheel structure allows messagesto be sent from the centre to each person on the outside

-Each person communicates with the centre but is unable to communicate with othe rs at the same level. -The chain is similar to the wheel except that the people at the ends can commun icate to one or two people next to them. Decentralized Network All-Channel Network

This channel allows all members to send messages to, and to receive messages fro m, all other members Roles Within The Networks -Within networks individuals have specific tasks/roles that they perform. -The roles are as follows: Isolate, Liaison, Gatekeepers, Stars and Outside link / Cosmopolite. Isolate -This is the person who works on his/ her own because hre/she has been given a t ask to do that separates him/her from the group. -Isolates run the risk of not being able to work properly. Liaison -These people form links between various work groups in an organization and they are critical for the effective working of an organization. -Liaisons receive more feedback and have more opportunities to deal with others in their jobs. Gatekeepers They regulate the flow of information within the organization. They decide what information will be sent on to other member of the netw orks. Gatekeepers can prevent information overload by screening and filtering messages, however they can screen out important messages. Stars They are normally the focus of most of the communication within the grou p. Stars have many relationships with other organizational members and they tend to have a great deal of on-the-job influence with other members. They are usually opinion leaders they are powerful and respected and are followed without having any formal leadership role. Cosmopolite/ Outside Link This person has a high degree of communication with the organisations env ironment. Cosmopolites bring and give information to surrounding groups or other o rganizations. Their contacts outside the system bring vital information about the envi ronment within which the organization works. (Identify who these people are in organization) Vertical communication The flow of communication up and down the organizational hierarchy. Downward communication comprise messages from managers to subordinates a nd it can be in form of memos, notices, instructions, appraisals, etc

Vertical communication comprise of messages from subordinates going up t he hierarchy to managers. Upward communication can be in form of proposals, oral and written repor ts, suggested. Lateral/Horizontal Communication Communication between people at the same level in an organization eg m anagers from different sections of the organization. Informal Communication/ Grapevine When staff in organizations find that the prescribed patterns do not giv e them the all information they switch on to their own informal channels. Informal communication, normally referred to as grapevine is build aroun d social relationships of members within an organization.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Muddled Messages Effective communication stars with a clear message Ambiguous messages distort the process of communication. These messages leave the receiver unclear on the intentions of the sende r, the sender can be confused by such vague messages. Stereotyping Stereotyping causes people to typify a person, a group of people or a th ing on oversimplified conceptions, beliefs or opinions; thus basketball players can be stereotyped as tall, people raised on diary farms as interested in animal s, women as inferior, etc Stereotyping can substitute for thinking, analysis and open mindedness t o a new situation which is not good for a communication process. Stereotyping is a barrier to communication when it causes people to act as if they already know the message that is coming from the sender ; or when the y feel the receiver should not get a particular message because of who they are ; or when people feel no message is necessary because everyone knows. Wrong Channel Variation of channels help the receiver understand the nature and import ance of a message, e.g Using a training video on cleaning practices helps new em ployees grasp the importance placed on animal health. When choosing a channel the sender needs to be sensitive to such things as the complexity of the message ; the consequences of misunderstanding a messag es ( medication for a sick person VS a guess about tomorrows weather) ; the know ledge, skills and abilities of the receiver (a new employee VS a partner in busi ness) ; immediacy of action to be taken for the messages (instructions for this mornings works VS a plan of work for 2010).

Languages Different languages pose a barrier to communication as people will have difficulties in understanding each other. -

Lack of feedback Feedback is the mirror of communication, it mirrors what the sender has sent. Without feedback communication is one way. Feedback happens in a variety of ways Asking a person to repeat what has been said A subtle stare, a puzzled look, a nod or failure to ask any questions after comp licated instructions have been given - Feedback should be helpful rather than hurtful. Prompt feedback is more effective than saved up until the right moment. Feedback should deal in specifics rather than generalities. Poor listening skills Listening is difficult; A typical speaker says about 125 words per minut e and a typical listener can receive 400-600 words per minute Thus about 75% of listening time is free time but this free time often s ide tracks a listener. Selective listening is also a barrier to effective communication. Listeners should be active listeners rather that passive listeners throu gh some of the following actions Giving the speaker undivided attention Avoid interrupting the speaker Withholding judgement until the speaker has finished talking Ask questions Physical Distractions/Barriers Physical barriers in an organization include Large working areas that are physically separated from each other Marked out territories, empires into which strangers and other work mates are no t allowed Closed office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different sta tus Research has shown that one of the most important factors in building co hesive teams is proximity. Emotions Ones emotions could be a barrier to communication if they are engrossed i n their emotions for some reason In such case one tends to have trouble listening to others or understand ing messages being conveyed to them. Some emotional interferences include hostility, anger, resentfulness, fe ar and stress. Lack of subject knowledge If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he/she may not be able to convey a message clearly. The receiver will have difficulties in understanding the message thus po sing a barrier to communication. Senders should research much on any subject they have to communicate if they are not familiar with what that subject entails so that they communicate fa cts. A receiver might also have less knowledge pertaining a particular subjec t and so will not understand a good message from the sender. Receivers who do no t have adequate subject knowledge should be given a brief background of the subj ect so that they familiarize with the message.

Perceptual barriers We all see the world differently , if we didnt there was no need to commu nicate. Cultural barriers Cultural differences can be a barrier to communication as people can ste reotype people from other cultures as inferior. Differences in culture bring about differences in the way non-verbal com munication acts are interpreted e.g Looking directly into another persons eyes is a sign of concerntration in American countries whilst that same gesture is a si gn of disrespect in African countries.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND GROUP COMMUNICATION Interpersonal Communication This is communication that occurs between people who have known reach ot her for some time. It involves few participants, interactions are within close physical pro ximity to each other and feedback is immediate. Interpersonal communication calls good control of language, good listeni ng, sensitivity to non-verbal communication, and tolerance. It involves a range of spoken and written messages,(Fielding,2004). Good interpersonal skills between two people communicating with each other are: Being assertive rather than aggressive, Clearly stating ones feelings, perceptions and interpretations of what others hav e said and done, Clearly stating what you intend to do, Clearly stating the motives behind what you have said or what you plan to do, Giving and receiving feedback. The Johari Window The Johari Window was designed by Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham. It shows the relationship between what the individual chooses to reveal about himself or herself and what he chooses to keep hidden.

Known to Self Open Blind Hidden Unknown

Not Known to Self

The Open section stresses that we know certain things about ourselves an d are prepared to share them with others. The more we share with others about ou r hopes, , fears and expectations, the easier they will find communicating with us. The Blind Section shows that there are areas of ourselves that we do not know about. However others know about these areas, these can be mannerisims tha t others find irritating. The Hidden section stresses that we are aware of certain things about ou rselves but choose not to reveal them to others. The unknown section represents information that we do not know about our

selves, others do not have this information either. Group Communication A group is a number of people who have gathered together working towards a certain goal. People in groups develop sets of values and norms that help them work to gether; interact together , sometimes over an extended period; share a goal; are prepared to take risks in an group

Advantages of groups Groups enable people to: Get to know each other Work well together Exchange information, ideas, opinions and attitudes Stimulate each other Become involved in common tasks Work together to achieve the companys goals. Group Implications to Communication For groups to work well managers and other organizational members need to ensure that: Effective listening takes place People are sensitive to each others needs Individuals are allowed to express themselves freely Individuals hear each other out A supportive climate is developed People value each other People express themselves clearly and openly People acknowledge each others contributions as valuable. Types of groups There are two broad types of groups which are : Formal and Informal groups. Informal Groups These are casual groups without formal leaders. They gather informally for example in a tea room. People simply get toge ther and engage in an informal chat. Informal groups result in the development of informal lines of communica tion. Informal groups are important to organizations as they help people to kn ow each other better, they develop trust amongst people, and the relationships d eveloped help form a better working environment. Tension releasing groups are an example of informal group. In these grou ps people discuss their anger and tension. This serves as an outlet for tensions that could cause great problems if allowed to continue.

Formal groups These groups normally have an appointed instructor or leader who guides the group. Learning groups are an example of formal groups. Through learning groups people are able to increase their knowledge and learn to:

Evaluate ideas Define problems Work together Cope with new information Policy making groups are formal groups that work together to: Decide on company policy Create rules for the company Plan for the future Problem solving groups are formal groups set up to solve problems. Problem-solving groups are highly task oriented and follow certain proce dures to solve problems. Decision-making groups are formal groups that have leaders whose task is to see that policies are put into practice. Decision-making groups have to make sure that they have the best informa tion for making decisions, and some of their decisions may be unpopular for exam ple deciding on whom to make redundant. Ineffective groups Some groups do not work well Such groups have a destructive climate in the group; and have a desire t o maintain group cohesion at all cost. Destructive climate A destructive climate in a group will develop if members do not value ea ch others contributions; listen to each other properly. Other characteristics of a destructing culture are: Being too judgmental on others ideas and values A superior attitude towards others in the group Rejecting others ideas as worthless Refusal to work with others on an equal basis. Maintaining group cohesion If a group decides to maintain its cohesion at all cost then the group m ay become blind to its weaknesses. This attitude may lead to: Refusal to accept any ideas that might change the groups present position Acceptance of only the ideas that support the groups views Refusal to think critically An illusion that the groups position can never be challenged An assumption that everyone else holds the same beliefs as the groups