APNSLAReview UnitOne:ConstitutionalUnderpinnings

DeclarationofIndependenceItisthefoundingdocumentofUnitedStateswrittenbyThomasJeffersonand BenjaminFranklinamongtwoothersthatstatesbasicideologyofAmericanGovernment.Itstatesrightofcolonies separatingfromBritainandbeconsideredasasovereignnationbecauseofcontinuousinterferencefromBritish GovernmentwithoutColoniesRepresentationintheParliament. UnitedStatesConstitutionThecurrentbaseofAmericanGovernmentmadetoenhanceweaknessshownby ArticlesofConfederation.Itspecificallydetailsinthreebranchinggovernmentandgivesenoughauthorityand powerstocentralgovernmentbutnotsomuchenoughtoabusethepower. BillofRights1st10amendmentsaddedtotheConstitution,proposedonSeptember23,1789andlaterratified onDecember15,1791.Itwasoriginallyappliedtothefederalgovernmentonly,butunderthe14thamendment theSupremeCourtcametoapplyittothestatesaswell.TheFramerscreatedtheBillofRightstoensurethatall U.S.citizens'rightswouldbecoveredandthegovernmentwouldneverhavetoomuchpower.Thealsowantedto beassuredthattheConstitutioncouldneverbemisinterpretedtobeusedagainstthecitizensitwassupposedto protect. ArticlesofConfederationTheArticlesofConfederationwasournation's1stformofgovernmenthoweveritwasa veryflawedformofgovernment.UndertheArticlesofConfederationtheU.S.encounteredmanyproblemssuch astherewasnochiefexecutive,theCongresshadnopowertotaxwhichresultedwithstatescoiningtheirown moneyandCongressdidnothavethepowertoregulatecommerce.Also,statesconductedtheirownforeign affairswithnoconsiderationfortheneedsofotherstates.UndertheArticlesofConfederationtheeconomy deterioratesandthegovernmentisnotstrongenoughtodoanything.Althoughthisformofgovernmentwasvery flaweditdidhave2successeswhichwerethatundertheArticlestheU.S.wonthepeace(landthatwewanted) andtheU.S.wontheRevolutionaryWar.FollowingtheendofthewarwaswhenthepeopleoftheU.S.wereable toseethemanyproblemsoftheArticlessotheyheldthefirstContinentalCongresstocomeupwithaplanfora newgovernment. Federalist10and51(Madison) i)Federalist10and51 (1)Federalist10Madisonpointedoutthatthevoterswouldnotalwayssucceedinelecting enlightenedstatesmenastheirrepresentatives. Federalist51arguesthattheproposedfederalgovernmentsseparationofpowerswouldprohibitanyonebranch fromeitherdominatingthenationalgovernmentorviolatingtherightsofcitizens. GeneralPrinciplesandTerms PrinciplesofdemocracyThebaseofthedemocracyisthepeople.DemoisthepeopleinGreekandDemocracyis peoplecontrolledgovernmentmadeforpeoplesgoal.ThewethepeoplecomesfirstinDemocracy.They contradicttheEuropeanMonarchsystembecauseinDemocracy,allpeoplehavevoicesnotonlyRoyalsandgentry people. CommongoodCommongooddefinesthemajorityhappinessascommon;themajoritywouldbebenefitedfrom commongoods.

RepresentativedemocracyUnderRepresentativedemocracy,peopledonothavedirectvoicehowever,they electapersonwhowouldrepresentthemingovernment.ThisistheCongressSystem.ThepeopleinCongress havebeenelectedintheirstatestorepresenttheirstateandtheirpeople.Theypursuebenefitfortheirstatesand theirpeoplehowever,peopleintheirstatesdonothavedirectvoiceinGovernmentandtheyusetheirrepresents topresentandcalloutforproblemstoimprove. LimitedgovernmentReferstothedifferentbranchesofgovernmentandhowtheirpowersarechecked,or limited,andbalancedbecausethelegislative,executive,andjudicialbranchessharesomeauthorityandnobranch hasexclusivedomainoveranyactivity.Limitedgovernmentwouldpreventtyrannyfromoccurring.Foreachpower grantedtoeachbranch,anequalcontrolcheckwasestablished. Federalism FederalismisasystemcreatedbytheFramers.ItoriginatedintheConstitutionandstatedthatpowerwastobe dividedbetweenthestateandnationalgovernment.Thatway,theindependentstatesarealtogetherunderone nationalgovernment.Thepowerofthenationalgovernmentisderivedfromthepeople.Thereisalsotheideaof DualFederalismwhichisthebeliefthathavingseparateandequallypowerfullevelsofgovernmentwasthebest arrangement.Inthiscase,thenationalgovernmentcannotexceeditsenumeratedpowerssetoutinthe Constitution.CooperativeFederalismisalsocalledmarblecakefederalismwhichbeganintheNewDealera. Thiswaswhenthenationalgovernmentwasstrongerandthereweremanyfederallyfundedprograms.Inthis case,thestategovernmentstooksecondary,butcooperative,rolesingoverningthestates.TheLayerCake Federalismconsistsofthreelevels:national,state,andlocalallwithclearresponsibilities. TheFramerschosefederalismbecausetheyworkedtocreatesomethingthatAmericanswouldrecognizeunlike theunitarysystemfoundinGreatBritain.Theyalsowantedonethatwouldfixmanyoftheproblemsexperienced bytheconfederatedgovernmentestablishedbytheArticlesofConfederation. Separationofpowers Separationofpowersisdirectlylinkedtothesystemofchecksandbalances.Theyseparatedthepowersofthe threebranches,executive,legislative,andjudicialsothatonebranchwouldnotabusetheirpowersanddoesnot takeadvantageoftheothertwo.Itusesasystemofchecksandbalancessothateachbranchhasoversightover theothertwo.Ithasthreekeyfeatures: 1)threedistinctbranchesofgovernment:legislative,executive,andjudicial 2)threeseparatelystaffedbranchestoexecuteeachofthepowers 3)Constitutionalequalityandindependenceofeachbranch Thebasicpoweroftheexecutivebranchistoenforcelaws,thelegislativebranchmakeslaws,andthejudicial branchinterpretsthem.Withthisidea,theHouseofRepresentatives,president,Senators,andcourtjudgesareall responsivetotheconstituents,us.Someexamplesofspecificpowersofeachbranchare: Executive:grantpardons Legislative:declarewar Judicial:declarethingsunconstitutional

Checksandbalances TheideasofMontesquieuandtheFramerswereusedtodeviseasystemofchecksandbalances.Thesetwo influencessaidthateachbranchcouldbeusedtocheckthepowersoftheothertwobranchesofgovernment.This way,eachbranchsharessomeauthorityandnobranchhasexclusivedomainoveranyactivity.Thisbalancesthe powerwithinthefederalgovernment.Someexamplesofchecks: ExecutiveBranch:vetolegislation,recommendappointments,andappointfederaljudges LegislativeBranch:overridepresidentialveto,confirmpresidentialappointments,impeachandremovepresident, impeachjudges JudicialBranch:ruleexecutiveactions/lawsunconstitutional,declarelegislationunconstitutional RuleoflawTheruleoflawisthatgovernmentexistinordertoprotectpeopleandtheirpropertiesincluding theirlikes.Anygovernmentwhodisregardsthemshouldbescatteredandrebuiltbypeopleagain.Itisalsoknown asSocialContractTheorybyJohnLocke. FramersoftheConstitutionFramerswere74delegateschosenfromtheirstatesforconventioninPhiladelphia. AmongthemwereBenjaminFranklinandJamesMadison.TheFramersarealsoreferredastheFounding Fathers. McCullochV.MarylandThiscasedonebyMarshallsolidifiesFederalGovernmentpowerisbeyondstatesreach. TheCongressrighttocharterbankinMarylandwerenotobligatedtopaytaxtostateofMarylandsince SupremacyClausestatesthatFederalGovernmentpolicyisfirstprioritythanStatepolicy. Amendmentprocess 2/3ofbothhousesofCongress 2/3ofstatelegislaturesrequestingCongresstocallanationalconvention ?ofallstatelegislatures ?ofthestates ConsentofthegovernedThePresidentdonothaveabsolutepowerandoneofSenatesroleistoadviseand consent.Asaresult,Presidentmustget2/3ofapprovalorratificationfromSenateinordertocarryouthis agenda.Thisappliestoappointmentandtreatiesandtherehavebeendisputes.Forexample,PresidentWilson wasnotabletoratifytreatyofVersaillesbecauseSenaterejectedthem. MajorityruleThecentralpremiseofdirectdemocracyinwhichonlypoliciesthatcollectivelygarnerthesupport ofamajorityofvoterswillbemadeintolaw.Basically,thepublicsmajorityopinionwillruleanddeterminethe decisionsmadebythosewhogovernthem. PopularsovereigntyTomakethingsfair,U.S.governmentfollowspeoplesopinionsoifmanypeoplewants change,thegovernmentmakesadjustmentsforthemajoritypartofpeopletomaketheirlivesbetter.Therefore,a groupwithmanymembersinunisonofaideaorprinciplehavestrongvoiceingovernment.

ElasticclauseArticle1,Section8oftheConstitutiongivespowertomakealllawsnecessaryandproperfor carryingoutthepowersandthepurposesoftheConstitution. DevolutionThehandingdown,orpassingdownofpropertytoasuccessor.Forexample:Amanownsproperty, andhehasason.Hepassesitdowntothem.Thesonisanheir. ShaysRebellionRebellionleadbyDanielShayandveteransofRevolutionaryWarwhowenteconomicalcrises duetothemoneygovernmentowesthem.Morethan1500armedfarmersmarchedtoSpringfieldandrestrains thestatecourt.ItshowstheweakcentralgovernmentsdisadvantagebyprovingthatCongresscouldnotmuster armyduetoitsweakcentralpower. 10thAmendmentTheTenthAmendmentwaspartoftheBillofRightswhichwasproposedinSeptemberof1789. ItstatesthatanypowersnotgiventothefederalgovernmentbytheConstitution,norprohibitedbytheStates, arereservedtotheStatesrespectively,ortothepeopleInotherwords,thepowersnotstatedinthe Constitution,thefederalgovernmentcannotclaimthemtobepartoftheirenumeratedpowers.Theseunstated powersaretobegiventothepeople/States. Powers Deniedpowersboththenationalandstatehavedeniedpowers;restraints.Forstates,theseincludemaking treatieswithotherstateswithoutCongressionalapproval.Forthenationalgovernmenttheyincludefavoringone stateoveranotherinregulatingcommerce.Neitherstatenornationalmaypassabillofattainder(lawdeclaringan actillegalwithoutjudicialtrial). Delegatedpowers(enumerated)seventeenspecificpowersgrantedtotheCongressunderArticleI,Section8,of theConstitution.Thesepowersincludethepowertocoinmoney,conductforeignrelations,declarewar,provide armyandnavy,andmakelawsnecessaryandpropertocarryoutotherenumeratedpowers. Reserved(police)powerspowersreservedtothestatesbytheTenthAmendment.Someofthesepowersinclude astatesrighttolegislatepublichealth,safetyandwelfareforitscitizens.Criminalpunishmentarealso dependentonthestate;deathpenalty. Concurrentpowerspowerssharedbythenationalandstategovernments.Someofwhichincludethepowerto tax,establishcourts,charterbanks,borrowmoney,andmakeandenforcelaws. Expressedpowerssameasdelegatedpowers Impliedpowers(elasticclause,necessaryandproperclause)Apowerderivedfromanenumeratedpower.These powersarenotstatedspecificallyintheConstitutionbutareconsideredsoclosetotheenumeratedpowersand bothnecessaryandproper.

UnitTwo:PoliticalBeliefsandBehaviors
ReapportionmentRedistributionofrepresentationinalegislativebody DemographictrendsSinceafterthetransportationhavebeenadvancedandcontinentaltravelhavebeen possible,manypeoplemovedoutofcrowdedNortheasternpartofUSandmovedtosunnywestorsouth.Florida wasabletoattractmanyretiredpeoplebecauseoftaxlawwhileCalifornia,manypeoplehavegoneforgoldrush. Asaresult,CaliforniaismostpopulatedstateandhasahugepowerinHouseofRepresentativesincetheyhave morethan50membersrepresentingthem.

VotingtrendsAsthepeopleinAmericagrowmoreandmorediversethetrendsandvotingpatternshave changeddrastically.BecauseofthebabyboomaftertheSecondWorldWar,thereisagreatnumberofelderly peopleinAmerica.Thishasgreatinfluenceonvotingtrends.Seniorsareveryadamantofhavingtheirview represented,becauseofthisagreatnumberofthemturnouttovoteforpeoplewhowillholdupMedicareand SocialSecurityfunding.Anotherfactoristheincreaseinimmigration.Minoritiesareturningoutinthevotesto havetheirvoicesheard.Minoritieshaveatendencytovotetowardscandidatesrepresentingminorityrightsand equalopportunityinthejobmarket. CensusdataEverytenyearsacensusistakentodeterminethepopulationofAmerica.Thecensusnumbersgo towardsredistrictingintermsofCongressrepresentatives,whichcaninturngreatlyinfluencethevotingforthe candidateandpossiblyoverthrowaincumbentinafavorofsomeonemoresetonthenewareasviews. ReferendumAreferendumisaprocedurewhereastatelegislaturesendsaproposedpieceoflegislationtothe statesvotersforapprovalonit. InitiativeAprocessthatallowscitizenstoproposelegislationandsubmitittothestateelectorateforpopular vote. Primaryandgeneralelectionsprimaryelectionsanelectioninwhichvotersdecidewhichofthecandidates withinapartywillrepresentthepartyinthegeneralelection(primariescanbeeitheropenorclosed,blanketor runoff) generalelectionselectioninwhichvotersdecidewhichcandidateswillactuallyfillelectivepublicoffices IncumbentsIncumbentsarethecurrentholderofthegovernmentofficeandtheyenjoymanyadvantageson reelection.Theygainnamerecognitionandmorefrequentlyaccesstomedia.ThePoliticalActionCommitteesalso tendstosupportcurrentincumbentsunlesstheincumbentswerenotcooperatingwiththembutitrarelyhappens. Asaresult,therateofwinningreelectionforincumbentsaresurfacing95%. Politicalsocializationtheprocessthroughwhichanindividualacquiresparticularpoliticalorientations;the learningprocessbywhichpeopleacquiretheirpoliticalbeliefsandvalues. Politicalefficacytheextenttowhichpeoplefeeltheyhaveanimpactorexertsomeinfluenceonpublicaffairs. VotingbehaviorAccordingtomostelectionresults,peopletendstovoteforcandidatesthataremoresimilarto them.Races,religion,personalideologicalbelief,genderandageaffectsthevotingbehavior.Forexample,JohnF. KennedywasabletobecomePresidentduetostrongsupportfromCatholic.AlGoreattractedmanyvotesfrom JewishpeoplebecausehisrunningmateJosephLiebermanisJewish.Theimmigrantsandminoritiestendstovote forDemocratsbecausetheyhavenotsettledinU.S.solidlyandwantschangewhileolderresidentswhohave perfectlifewantstocontinuethepeacefulnessofnochangesotheytendstobeRepublican. PartyidentificationPartieshaveitsdistinguishedcolororplatform.Forexample,GreenPartystronglysuggests forenvironmentalimprovementwhiletheoneoftwobigparties,Democratstendstobeliberalandwillingto changethewayAmericanslive.RepublicanswantsUnitedStatestostaysameandtendstobeconservative,letting statesgainmorepowerthanliberals. UnitThree:PoliticalParties,InterestGroupsandMassMedia ElectoralprocessElectoralisamustforthePresidentialelectionsincePresidentgetselectedSemiDirectlyor representatively.ThepopularvotecannotgivePresidentapasstowhitehouse,insteadElectoralvoteisneeded. Allthoughnowitisrarelyeffectselection,theElectoralCollegevotingcountsasthepasstoWhiteHouse.Electoral

Collegevotesaredistributedbypopulation.ThenumberofRepresentativesandaddedbytwosoproducing3 electoralvoteseveninsmallstates.Electoralvotesarenowdeterminedbymajorityofdirectvotes.Onelectionof 2000,BushwasabletowinelectionbecausehewonallvotesatFlorida.Nowtheyarecontroversybecausethey contradicttheAmericanPeopleschoice. InterestgroupsInterestgroupsarethecommercialorbusinesscorporationorcompaniesthatattemptsto benefittheircompanybypassingorintroducingbillsthroughCongressmembersandbypersuasionbackedby money.Forexample,PhilipMorrisCompanybenefitsbythelowtaxoncigaretteincertainstatessuchasVirginia. Theycontributemanymoneytogovernmenttobenefitontheirsales. PoliticalpartiesGroupofincumbentsandpeoplewhoareundersamepoliticalbannersharingidenticalpolitical ideology.Theirpoliticalbeliefsdeterminethepartyandthepartycouldhelpanindividualtryingtowinelectionby supplyingwithmoneyandtheirinfluencesovermanydifferentareas. MediaanditsroleMediainformsandexposesgovernmenttopublic.Forexample,theycoveredwholewarin Vietnam,whichtriggeredpeopletospeakagainstthewar.AlsoStateoftheUnioniscoveredbymediarealtime, sopeoplecanhearthePresidentsreportinshortesttimepossible.Themediahaveevolveditswayfrom newspapertoradiotoTVandnowtoInternet. Politicalactioncommittees(PACs)Thesearefederallyregisteredfundraisingcommitteesthatrepresentan interestgroupinthepoliticalprocessthroughcampaigndonations.Unlikethecontributionsofinterestgroups,the moneydonatedbyPACsarenontaxdeductible.PACsdonothavepeoplecalllegislators;instead,theyhave contributorswritechecksspecificallyforacampaign.PACswillsupportthosewhohavehelpedtheminthepast.In return,ifaPAChassponsoredyouandyourcampaign,youareverylikelytoreturnthefavoronceyougetelected toapositionbypassinglawsinfavorofthem.PACshavegreatlyinfluencedcampaignsofcongressional incumbentsbecausePACsaremostlikelytosponsorincumbents.TheyaverageoverhalfofaHousecandidates totalcampaignspending.Manyofthecandidatesrunninginthe2004electionaresponsoredwithPACmoneyand onceelectedintooffice,willhavetheirideasandmoralsinmindwhendecidingonlegislation. LobbyistsLobbyingisawayforinterestgroupsandorganizationstoseekinfluenceinlegislationandpersuade politicalleaderstosupportagroupsposition(O'Connor,615).Alotofpoliticallyactivegroupsturntolobbying asawaytogettheirideasandproposalsoutintheopenandheardbythosealreadyinoffice;whothereforehave thepowertopromotechange.Lobbygroupscanbebothgoodandbad;dependingonwhatandwhoyouare lobbyingfor.Lobbygroupscantestifyathearingsandcontactlegislators.Theycanbegoodinthiscasebecause theywillprovideinformationtothepeopleinorderforthepublictomakeagooddecision.Lobbygroupsmightbe biasandnotprovideallthefacts.GroupswillalsotrytoinfluencewhogetsnominatedintoCourt systems.Grassrootslobbyingisaformoflobbyingthatattemptstoinvolvethosepeopleatthebottomlevelofthe politicalsystem.ItiscertaingroupsgettingpeoplelikeyouandItohelpintheircampaignprocesses.

Political Action Committees (PAC) vs. Special Interest Groups

ThereisaBIGdifferenceinbeingamemberofaPoliticalActionCommitteeandbeingamemberofaSpecial InterestGroup. APACisorganizedforthepurposeofraisingandspendingmoneytoelectanddefeatcandidatesorissues.It consistsoftwoormoreindividualswhosepurposeistosupportoropposeanycandidate,issue,orpoliticalparty. ItisregulatedbyStateandFederallaws.PoliticalActionCommitteesarefundedbydonationswhicharevoluntary andaregivenbycitizenswhobelieveinthecause.ThepeoplearenotnecessarilymembersoftheCommitteebut canbebuttheydonotpaydues.PACshavetobeaccountableforallcontributionsandexpensesandtheymustbe reportedinatimelyfashiontoeithertheDivisionofElections,theSupervisorofElectionsorMunicipalClerk.

Ontheotherhand,aSpecialInterestGroupisanorganizationwhosepurposeistoinfluenceoradvocatefor specialcauses.Themainpurposeistoenlightenandprovideinformationtopoliticiansinordertoinfluence theirdecision.Usuallymembersofthesegroupsareenticedtojoinandbecomeamemberforsomesortof benefit.Membershipduesaremandatory,notvoluntary.SpecialInterestGroupsarenotaccountableanddonot havetomakeanyelectionTreasuryReport.AARPisaSpecialInterestGroupthatgivesdiscountstoitsmembers forvariousservices.Theyadvocateforbettermedicalinsuranceratesfortheirmembers,asanexample.Thereare manySpecialInterestGroupsandtheyallcomeindifferentcategorieswithdifferentadvocacies,someofwhich are: NationalAssociationofRealtors NationalBuildersAssociation NationalRightToLife ChristianCoalition AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion NationalRifleAssociation LeagueofCities,tonameaveryfew. So,thedifferenceisvoluntaryDONATIONSforthepurposeofelectingoropposingcandidatesand/orissueswith mandatoryreportingversusrequiredMEMBERSHIPDUEStoanentitythatadvocatesissueswithnoaccountability. CandidatesWhenelectioniscoming,thepeoplewhoattemptstowinthepostareknownascandidates.They preparesforelectionandoneoutofmanyarethepotentialofficeholders. CampaigningThecampaigningiscandidatesattempttowinelectionbyadvertisingandpersuading.The candidateandhis/herassociateestablishesagroundandpersuadepeoplewithsimilarthoughtstovoteforthem. Variesfrommediacampaigntograssrootcampaigning.Thecampaigncoststremendousmoneyandusually, candidatesarebackedbystrongPACsorcontributionsfrompeopleorparty. ThirdpartiesThesearethepoliticalpartiesotherthenthetwomajorones,currentlythedemocratsand Republicans.Althoughusuallynotwinningtheelection,theycanhavelargeinfluencesonthefinalresults.Someof themostfamousthirdpartiesarethebullmoosepartyandTheDixiecratsThelargestcurrentthirdparty wouldbethegreenpartyorteaparty.Thirdpartiesoftenrepresentveryspecificideassuchasthegreenparty, whichisstronglyinfavorofenvironmentalprotection.Otherthanthat,theyareverysimilartothedemocratic platform.SomeofthemostfamousthirdpartycandidatesarePerot,Nader,andRoosevelt,Rooseveltbeingthe onlyonetowinthepresidencyrunningunderathirdparty.Theycanhowever,beimportantinelectionsbecause insomecases,peoplewhomighthavevotedforamajorpartyvoteforathirdparty,whichcouldtakejustenough votesawayfromthemajorpartytomakethedifferenceinelections. PublicopinionWhatthepublicthinksaboutaparticularissueorsetofissuesatanypointintime.Attitudes, perspectives,andpreferencesofapopulationtowardevents,circumstances,andissuesofmutualinterest.Itis characteristicallymeasuredbythesamplesurveyorpublicopinionpoll. RankandfilepartymembersThesepartymembersincludealloftheordinarymembersofthegroupwhich excludestheofficeholdersandcandidates.Alloftheothermembersworkingforthepartyfitintothiscategory. Theyaretheorganizationalparty,whostafftheparty'sorganizationandcanincludethevolunteersforthe campaign.Theworkersarethecampaignmanager;whotravelsandworkswiththecandidateandthepolitical consultantwhorecommendsthecampaigntofollowcertainstrategiesandtechniquestowinanelection.The othermembersincludethemediaconsultant,whoproducesthecandidate'sadvertisements,thepollster,the directmailer,andthefinancechair.Anotherbiggroupofpartymembersarethepartyelectoratewhoconsider themselvestobeaffiliatedwiththatparty.

PartyactivistsTheseactivistsareconsideredtobeinthecategoryoftheorganizationalparty.Theyarehighly interestedinpoliticsandareinvolvedwithorganizingeventsandraisingmoneytohelpsupporttheircause.Most oftheiractivitiesdon'tdirectlyinvolvethecandidate.Theytrytogetintouchwiththevotersbyanymeans necessary.Theirgoalistomakethevoters'opinionsofthecandidateimprove.Somevolunteerswalktohouses, doortodoortosolicitvotes,someusethetelephoneandothersfindotherwaystoconnectwiththevoters. UnitFour:Institutions:PresidencyandCongress LawmakingProcessTheAmericanlawmakingprocessisverycomplexandhingesonasystemofchecksand balances.Allthreebranches,theexecutive,thelegislative,andthejudiciarybranch,areinvolved.Althoughmost billsaredrawnupbytheexecutivebranch,theymustbeputintothecongressthroughacongressman.Thenthey areputthroughcommitteeandiftheypass,votedonbyboththehouseandthesenate.Iftheypass,the presidenthasthechancetovetothebill,whichwouldmeanthatitrequiresa2/3voteofcongresstopass.Thisis veryrare.Then,ifabillpassestheexecutiveandlegislativebranches,itmustfinallypassthejudiciary branch.HeretheSupremeCourtjudgesvotetoseeifthelawisconstitutional.Iftheypassit,thenthebill becomesalaw. RulesCommitteeBecauseofitslargesize,nearlyalloftheHousesmostimportantlegislativedecisionsare madebyspecializedcommitteesandsubcommittees.Mostarepermanentlegislativecommitteescalledrules committeeswithcontroloveraparticularsubjectarea,suchasagricultureorthemilitary.Legislativecommittees andsubcommitteesholdhearingsonpressingissues,directresearchstaffs,anddraftlegislation.Thecommittees thenmakelegislativerecommendationstotheHouseasawhole.Inmostcases,theHousesupportsthe recommendationsofitscommittees.Acommitteemaychoosenottoactonabill,whicheffectivelyscuttlesthe proposal.Legislativecommitteesalsooverseetheexecutiveagenciesrelatedtotheirareaofspecialization.The RulesCommitteehelpstheSpeakeroftheHouseschedulebillsbyissuingspecialrulesgoverningamendments, debates,andvotingprocedures PowersofCongressThepowersofCongressarefoundinArticleI,section8,oftheConstitution.Themost importantpoweristheauthoritytomakelaws,whichissharedbyboththeSenateandHouseofRepresentatives. ThepowersofCongressinclude: layandcollecttaxesandduties borrowmoney regulatecommercewithforeignnationsandamongstates establishrulesfornaturalization(citizenship)andbankruptcy coinmoney;setitsvalue postalservice issuepatentsandcopyrights createcourtsinferior(lower)thantheSupremeCourt declarewar raiseandsupportanavyandarmyandmilitia ConstituentServiceConstituentservicesrefertoanyservicesthatofferinformationtotheconstituentsaboutthe candidatesofelection.Theseincludenewspapers,TV,andInternet.Therearecertaintrendsthatareoccurring nowadayswiththeseservices.MajorpresidentialelectionsinWashingtonoftenreceives90%ofmediacoverage alltime.However,legislativeelectionstendtoreceiveafarlessamountofmediacoveragethereforelessamount ofconstituentservice.Intheselegislativeelections,thecandidatesareusuallythosewhoarelittleknowninthe nation,andmakingtheirnametobeknownisthemajorbattleforthem.Usingconstituentservicehasgrowninits importanceandsignificanceintermsofvotingresults.

FilibusterInSenateONLYFilibusterisdefinedasaformalactionofhaltingactionsonabillbystartingan unlimiteddebatesorspeeches.ASenatormaydoanythingduringafilibuster;hemayreadapoem,orhemayread acookbook.Filibusterbecameimportantespeciallyduringtheslaverydebates.Alsoin1917,elevensenators wagedafilibusteragainstanimportantbillbyPresidentWilson,andalso,in1964,northernliberalsenators continuedafilibusterfor82days,inanefforttopreventanamendmentthatwouldweakencivilrightsmovement. PresidentialelectionprocessTheConstitutionrequiresthatthepresidentmustbe: 35yearsold 14yearsaU.S.resident &anaturalborncitizen Thelengthofthepresident'stermwasquitecontroversial.Four,seven,andelevenyeartermsweresuggestedat theConventionandseveraloftheFramerssuggestedalimitofoneortwoterms.Hamiltonsuggestedthe presidentshouldservefor'goodbehavior'.Thecompromisewasafouryeartermwitheligibilityforreelection. GeorgeWashington,thefirstpresident,servedtwotermsandthensteppeddown.Thispatternbecametraditional forover150years.FDRranfor,andwon,fourterms.Hislongtenureinofficeledtothepassageofthe22nd Amendmentwhichlimitedpresidentstotwofouryeartermsoratotalof10yearsinoffice. PowersofthePresidentformalandinformal IncontrasttoArticle1'slaundrylistofpowersforCongress,ArticleIIisquiteshortanddetailsfewpowers.Distrust ofapowerfulexecutiveisonereasonforthevaguenessinArticleII.Alackofconsensusamongthedelegatesto theconventionalsocontributedtothesituation.TheFramersalsotookgreatcomfortinknowingthatGeorge Washingtonwouldbethefirstpresident.Hewaswidelyrespectedandseenasastatesman,notapolitician.They believedthatWashingtonwouldsetaprecedentofresponsibleexerciseofexecutivepower. ThepresidentreceivedcertainenumeratedpowersintheConstitutionthatwewilldiscussshortly.Butthefirstline ofArticleIImaybethemostimportantgrantofpowertothepresident.Itstates"theexecutivepowershallbe vestedinaPresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica."Muchlikethe'necessaryandproper'clauseforCongress, theexecutivepowerclausehasbeenthebasisforimpliedpowersorhasbeenanelasticclauseallowingthe powersofthepresidenttoexceedthelistofenumeratedpowersinArticleII. BudgetarypowersofexecutivesApresidentalsosetsprioritiesandpolicythroughthebudgetproposal.The OfficeofManagementandBudget(beganunderFDRbutrenamedbyNixon)playsastrongroleinpresidential budgetmaking.However,Congressremainsaveryimportantplayerinthebudget.Thelessonof1998wasthe yearofthebalancedbudgetthatCongressandtheOMBandthepresidentmustworktogethertoachievetheir goals. VetoPresidentscanrejectanycongressionallegislationeitherthroughageneralvetoorapocketveto(wetalked aboutthisduringtheCongresssectionofthecourse).Thethreatofvetocanoftenhaveasignificanteffecton congressionalactionthusallowingthepresidentanotherinfluenceonlawmaking.However,theCongresscan overrideavetowitha2/3rdsvoteofbothhouses.Historically,therehavebeenover2,500presidentialvetoesand onlyabout100havebeenoverridden. Thelineitemvetois:Manygovernorshavethepowertostrikeout,orveto,specificlineswithinabill.In1996,the RepublicanCongresspassedsuchalineitemvetoaspartoftheContractwithAmerica.Thegoalwastocontrol

porkbarrelspendingbyallowingthepresidenttovetopartsofaspendingbillthatwouldbreakthebudget.In 1998,theSupremeCourtdeclaredthelineitemvetounconstitutional. CouncilofEconomicAdvisorsAmongthemostimportantmembersofExecutiveOfficeofthePresident,relates totheeconomyandtheyprovideadvicetoimproveeconomy.Workscloselywithtraderepresentative. OfficeofManagementandBudgetNixonchangedthenamefortheExecutiveOfficeofthePresidenttothisto clarifythefunctionintheexecutivebranch. ElectoralCollegeagroupofmenselectedbythestatelegislatureswhoelectthepresident.Theynowvotethe waythemajorityofthepeopleinthestatevote.ThereisonememberoftheElectoralCollegefromeachstatefor eachcongresspersontheyhaveinWashingtonD.C. ConferencecommitteeacommitteeofSenatorsandHousemembersthatmeetstoresolvedifferencesin legislation. RegionalinterestseachregionoftheU.S.countsontheirSenatorsandHousememberstobringhomethe baconwhenitcomestolegislation.Amemberwillnotgetrepresentedunlessheorsheporkbarrelsome helpfullawsthatwillbenefithisorherhomeregion.Legislationtohelpaspecificareaisoftenpassedinreturnfor thatcongresspersonscomplianceonanissueofnationalsignificance. CommitteemembershipCommitteesareveryimportantintheHouseandtheSenate,becausetheyarewhere mostoftheworkgetsdone.Committeechairsarechosenbasedonseniority:theeldestmemberofthemajority partyineachcommitteeis,byprecedent,thehead.Thisisnotawrittenlaw,butitisadeeprooted tradition.EachmemberofCongressisacommitteemember,assignedatthebeginningofeach Congress.MemberstrytogetontoinfluentialandpowerfulcommitteessuchastheHouseRulesCommitteeand theWaysandMeansCommittee.However,theseareveryhardtogetintounlesstherepresentativehasalotof experienceandinfluence.Committeemembershipisbasedonasortofsenioritysystemaswell,withmore experiencedmembersgettingonbettercommitteesthanyounger,newerrepresentatives.Membersofthe majoritypartyalsotendtogetmoreprioritywhencommitteesarechosen. Cloturewhen2/3ofthesenatevotetohaveacloture,therecanbeamaximumof30morehoursofdebateon thebillortopicbeforethebillmustbebroughttoavote.Itistheonlywaytoendafilibusterbyasenator. LimitsonpresidentialpowerBecausetheU.S.Governmentisbasedonasystemofchecksandbalances,there arechecksonexecutivepowerjustasthereareontheothertwobranches.Forexample,thepresidenthasthe powertovetoanyactofCongress,butCongresscanoverridethepresidentsvetowitha2/3voteandenactthat pieceoflegislatureanyway.Also,withthepresidentspowertoappointfederaljudgescomestheneedforthose appointmentstobeapprovedbytheSenate.Thislimitonpresidentialpowercanbecomeveryprominentwhen thePresidentandtheSenateareofopposingpoliticalparties.Similarly,Congressmustapprovetreatiesmadeby thepresidentbeforetheytakeeffect,alongwithdeclarationsofwar.Thepowertowagewarcausedalotof controversyduringtheVietnamWar,whenPresidentJohnsonsenttroopsoverwithoutofficiallydeclaring war.ThisledtothepassageoftheWarPowersActin1973,whichfurtherrequiresthepresidenttoget CongresssapprovalbeforesendingU.S.troopsintoanyconflict.Thankstotheselimitsonpresidentialpower, ourchiefexecutivedoesnothaveabsolutepower;hemustshareitwiththelegislativeandjudicialbranchestoo. Presidentialappointment:Cabinet,Advisors,WhiteHouseStaff cabinet,advisors,WhiteHousestaff

TheCabinetisaninformalinstitutionbasedonpracticeandprecedentwhosemembershipisdeterminedby traditionandpresidentialdiscretion.ItisnotmentionedintheConstitution.Bycustom,thecabinetisselected bythepresident.ThecabinetappointmentsaresubjectedtoSenateconfirmation.Today,presidentsinclude theirvicepresidentsinCabinetmeetings.Thecabinetiscomposedofpresidentsadvisers.Theirmainjobisto helpthepresidentexecutethelawsandassisthiminmakingdecisions. TheWhiteHousestaffiscomposedofpersonalassistantstothepresident.Thesesadvisersarenotsubjectto Senateconfirmation.Theirpowerisderivedfromtheirpersonalrelationshiptothepresident.

EssayDiscussion

WhatarethefundamentalprinciplesofAmericangovernmentthatareexpressedintheConstitutionincluding itsamendments?Howdothesefundamentalprinciplesaffectthelivesofcitizens? ThephaseWethePeopleoftheUnitedStatesboldlyproclaimedthatalooseconfederationofindependent statesnolongerexistedfromArticleofConfederation.Thisphraseexplainedthatthepowerofgovernmentcame directlyfromthepeople,notstates.TheConstitutionisbasedonfederalsystem,whichdividesthepowerof governmentbetweenastrongnationalgovernmentandtheindividualstates.TheTenthAmendmentstatesthat powersnotgiventothenationalgovernmentwerereservedbythestatesorthepeople,whichfurtherclarifiedthe federalstructure.OneofthemostimportantfeatureoftheConstitutionisSeparationofpowersandchecksand balances.Thethreebranchesofgovernment:executive,legislative,andjudicial,arepossessequalpowerand operateindividually.Allthreebrancheshavethepowertocheckononeanother.InArticleI,thelegislativepower isvestedintheCongress,butthepresidentisgivenlegislativepowersviahisabilitytovetolegislation,althoughhis vetocanbeoverriddenbytwothirdsvoteintheCongress.Judicialinterpretationthenhelpstoclaritythe implementationoflegislationenactedthroughthisprocess.TheBillofRightsgavetheundeniablerightstothe citizens.ThesearethefirsttenamendmentsintheConstitution.Thefundamentalprincipleshelptoensurethe safetyandrightsofthecitizens.Italsopreventstheformationofcorruptionandictatorshipwithinthe government. Howispowerdividedandsharedinafederalsystemofgovernment?Whatistheintentoffederalism? UnitarygovernmentwasunacceptableduetotheBritishexperienceandconfederationhadfailedunderthe Articles,sotheFoundingFatherscreatedahalfwayhousetheycalledfederalism.Underfederalism,poweris dividedamongthestatesandthenationalgovernment.Thispowerbetweenthestatesandnationalgovernment canbeseenthrough: SeparationofPowers TheFramersfearedgovernmentandwantedtolimitit,theydidn'twanttoputtoomuchpowerintoonesetof hands.Sotheydividedpowerverticallythroughfederalismandhorizontallythroughseparationofpowersamong thethreebranchesofgovernment.Eachbranchwouldbeindependentandequalwithdifferentstaffsand functions.

ChecksandBalances Thepowerofeachbranchofgovernmentischeckedorlimitedandbalancedbypowersheldbyotherbranches. Thiswaynoonebranchcantyrannizetheotherbranchesorthepeople. TheSupremacyClause ArticleIVsaysthatfederallawissupreme.Soifthestatesandfederalgovernmentargue,thefedswin.Thiswas designedtoavoidmanyoftheexcessesundertheArticlesofConfederation. Theintentofthisstructureistocreateanationinwhichpowerisdividedequallyandsothatneverwillthe governmentsystemturnorbecomecorruptinanyway. HowispowerdividedandsharedbythelegislativeandexecutivebranchesofUSgovernments?Whatisthe intentofthisstructure? Therearesomeuniquepowersthateachbranchpossesses.Theyusethemagainsteachotherforcheckand balancesortoenforcetheirpreferredpolicies.Forexample,legislativeroleofadviseandconsentgaveSenate oversightofpullingoutanyofcabinetmemberstoquestionthemabouttheprogresswithinExecutiveBranch.The Congressalsohavepowertotaxanddeclarewaralthoughoncetheydeclarewar,Presidentgainsenormous power.ThePresidentcanvetoanyofbillsthathedonotlikehowever,linevetoareconsideredunconstitutional recently.ThePresidentcanbepotentiallymorepowerfulifhesucceedsingettingapprovalforthejudgesthat wouldbemoreclosetohisideologicalmind.Theintentofdistributingdifferentuniquepowertobranchesareto preventanysinglebranchtobecometoopowerfulsuchasEnglishMonarchinmedievalage. WhatelementsoftheAmericanpoliticalsystemhelptoestablishandmaintainademocraticsystemof government? ThefactthattheFramerschosefederalismasthebasisofourConstitution.Thisgaveboththenationalandstate governmentsseparatepowers,yetitkeptthemunitedunderasingleandpowerful(enough)nationalgovernment. AccordingtoArticleIoftheConstitution,thenationalgovernmentisgivenenumeratedpowersthatarespecifically stated.IntheTenthAmendment,anypowernotstatedintheConstitution(butnotprohibitedintheStates)are giventothestatesastheirrights.Thisgivesthepeoplethepowertogivepowertothenationalgovernment.In otherwords,thenationalgovernmentspowerisbasedonthepeople.Atthesametime,thepeopleareallowed tokeeptheirnaturalrightsbutmustgiveupalittlesomethingtocompensate. Howdopoliticalparties,specialinterestgroups,individualcitizens,andthemediacontributetoandinfluence theelectoralprocess? Politicalparties,specialinterestgroups,andindividualcitizens,andthemediaallgreatlycontributeto andinfluencetheelectoralprocess. Althoughpeopledonotusuallyvoteaccordingtopoliticalparties,theyareimportantinidentifyingwhich banneraspecificcandidateisrunningunder.Thecandidateusuallythenstandsforthebeliefsandgoalsofhisor herownpoliticalpartysothatoncetheygainpower,theycanenforcetheirownpoliticalagenda. Specialinterestgroupscontributegreatlytotheelectoralprocessthroughtheiruseoffinancialpower. WhenaspecificinterestorPACsupportsacandidate,theyareusuallyexpectingsomeoftheirwantsandneedsof thegovernmenttobeimplementedinreturn.Onamostbasiclevel,moneyequalspower,andpoweristhemost

fundamentalthinginthisformofgovernment.Byfundingaspecificcandidate,thesespecialinterestgroupsare abletoswayacandidateintoadoptingsomeoftheinterestgroupsownideasandgoals.Thisinfluentialtoolcan bebothhelpfulaswellasverydangerouswhenitcomestogainingpower. Individualcitizensarealsoallowedtocontributeprivatedonationstocandidates.However,thereisalimit astohowmuchtheycancontributepercandidate,peryear,andperelection. Themediaalsogreatlycontributestotheelectoralprocessinthatithelpsaspecificcandidatetostayon trackwithhisorherowncampaign.Themediausuallyreflectswhatthegeneralpublicisthinking.Andalthough themediacannottelluswhattothink,theycantelluswhattothinkabout.Asuccessfulcandidatewillusethe mediatoherorherbestadvantage.Somecandidatesmayevenattempttouseamethodcalledspinto manipulatethemedia. Whatfactorsinfluencetheactionofthelegislativebranch?Theexecutivebranch? Thelegislativebranchsactionscanbeinfluencedthroughavarietyofways.Themostprominentfactorhowever istheinfluenceoftheconstituentsonCongressman.ConstituentswanttheirRepresentativesandSenatorstovote thewaytheywantandofteninfluencetheCongressmanthroughbribes,speeches,orletters.Colleaguesofthe CongressmanmayalsoinfluencetheactionsofthelegislativebranchbecausetheymayaffecthowaCongressman formulatesadecision.Colleaguesoftenlobbyeachotherandoftengointoaprocessknownaslogrolling.The politicalpartythatthelegislatorbelongstomayalsoinfluencetheactionsofthelegislativebranchasawhole. ThesefactorsmayinfluencetheactionsofaCongressmanandasawholeinfluencetheactionsofthelegislative branch. Theexecutivebranchcanalsobeinfluencedthroughavarietyoffactors.Theparty,hisCabinetmembers,and advisorscaninfluencetheexecutivebranchorthepresident.TheCabinetandadvisorsnormallydevisewell supportedadviceforthePresidenttobasehisideasupon.Withthisadvice,thePresidentcandecideastowhat actionstotake.Alloftheseinstitutionsattempttoadvisethepresidentastowhattodecideandinturn,this affectstheactionsoftheexecutivebranch. Inwhatwayscannational,stateandlocalgovernmentmakepoliciestomeetthechangingneedsofcitizens? Considerexecutiveandlegislativeactions. National,stateandlocalgovernmentscanmakepoliciestomeetthechangingneedsofcitizensbytakingpublic opinionintoeffect.Publicopinioncanhaveahugeeffectonhowthegovernmentisabletochangepolicies.They areabletotrytopassanamendmentorbilltohelptheneedofcitizens.Although,passingamendmentsandbills arenearlyimpossibleitcouldbehardforthegovernmentstodothis.Thenational,state,andlocalgovernment couldusethepublicopinionwhentryingtogetelectedandthenturningaroundoncegettingelectedandmake thelawthatisneeded.Forexample,ifapresidentwantstomakealawpassedforgeneralwelfareallhewould needtodoisgetarepresentativeinCongresstorightitandpassituptothepresidenttopass.Thebillbecoming alawprocesscanbedifficultfortogetpassedCongress,butifthepresidentbelievesthatitisagoodbillfromthe beginningitmaybeeasierforittobepassed. Howmanycitizensorgroupinitiatechangeingovernmentalpolicyandinstitutions? Citizensorgroupscaninitiatechangeingovernmentalpolicyandinstitutionsbycontacting(usingthetelephone, emailorwritingaletter)totheircongressman/womanthatrepresentstheirdistrict.Itisthispersonsjobtolisten tothepeopletheyrepresenttohelpthenationimproveandbeagovernmentthatcanreallybearepresentation ofwhattheAmericanpeoplewantandbelievein.Citizensorgroupscanalsogetintouchwiththeirstate/district lobbyistwhichcanfurthertheirideastohighergovernmentalauthorities.Itisalsoveryimportantforcitizensor

groupstoinitiatethechangeandgetincontactwithothersbecausethegovernmentcannotsensewhatthe peoplewant,itneedstobetold. Whatistheinfluenceofdemographicchangesongovernmentfundingdecision? ThefirstwaveofimmigrationintheUnitedStateswastheWesternEuropeansfleeingfromreligiouspersecutionin the1600sandearly1700s.IrishCatholicscameovertotheUSafterapotatofamineinthe1850s.Chineselaborers cametoworkontherailroadwhileNorthernandEasternEuropeansarrivedbetweenthe1880sand1910s.More recentlycametheSoutheastAsians,Mexicans,Cubans,andmore.Intheyear2000,whitesmadeup75.1%ofthe USpopulation,AfricanAmericans12.3%,andHispanics12.5%.Neverdiddemographersexpectthepopulationof HispanicstoexceedAfricanAmericansuntiltheyear2050. Lifeexpectancyalsoincreasedovertheyears.WhentheUSwasfoundedtheaveragelifespanwas35years.Now, theaverageforwomenis80yearsand74formen.Aspeoplegrowolder,thedemandsongovernmentchange also.Forexample,inFlorida,citizens(mostover65years)arenotasconcernedabouteducationthanthosestates withmoreoftheyoungergeneration.Whenpeoplearebornalsoaffecthowtheywillviewthegovernment,the economy,andthesocialevents.Forexample,peoplebornafterWWIIarereferredtoasBabyBoomers.They willgrowupinamuchdifferentAmericathentheirparents.Alsobecauseoftheeconomicdownturninthe 1980s,manycollegegraduatescouldnotfindjobsandblamedthegovernmentforignoringtheirneeds.Lower birthrates,changesinfamilysize,andthecommonnessofsingleparentfamiliesalsoaffectthekindofdemands peopleputongovernment.