Timeline of Algebra

Circa 1800 BC Circa 1800 BC The Old Babylonian Strassburg tablet seeks the solution of a quadratic elliptic equation. The Plimpton 322 tablet gives a table of Pythagorean triples in Babylonian Cuneiform script. Indian mathematician Baudhayana, in his Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, discovers Pythagorean triples algebraically, finds geometric solutions of linear equations and quadratic equations of the forms ax2 = c and ax2 + bx = c, and finds two sets of positive integral solutions to a set of simultaneous Diophantine equations. Indian mathematician Apastamba, in his Apastamba Sulba Sutra, solves the general linear equation and uses simultaneous Diophantine equations with up to five unknowns. In Book II of his Elements, Euclid gives a geometric construction with Euclidean tools for the solution of the quadratic equation for positive real roots. The construction is due to the Pythagorean School of geometry.[citation
needed]

Circa 800 BC

Circa 600 BC

Circa 300 BC

Circa 300 BC

A geometric construction for the solution of the cubic is sought (doubling the cube problem). It is now well known that the general cubic has no such solution using Euclidean tools. Algebraic equations are treated in the Chinese mathematics book Jiuzhang suanshu (The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art), which contains solutions of linear equations solved using the rule of double false position, geometric solutions of quadratic equations, and the solutions of matrices equivalent to the modern method, to solve systems of simultaneous linear equations. Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria, treats algebraic equations in three volumes of mathematics. Hellenistic mathematician Diophantus lived in Alexandria and is often considered to be the "father of algebra", writes his famous Arithmetica, a work featuring solutions of algebraic equations and on the theory of numbers. Indian mathematician Aryabhata, in his treatise Aryabhatiya, obtains wholenumber solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern

Circa 100 BC

Circa 150

Circa 200

499

one, describes the general integral solution of the indeterminate linear equation, gives integral solutions of simultaneous indeterminate linear equations, and describes a differential equation. Circa 625 Chinese mathematician Wang Xiaotong finds numerical solutions to certain cubic equations. Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in his treatise Brahma Sputa Siddhanta, invents the chakravala method of solving indeterminate quadratic equations, including Pell's equation, and gives rules for solving linear and quadratic equations. He discovers that quadratic equations have two roots, including both negative as well as irrational roots.

628

Circa 7th century The Bakhshali Manuscript written in ancient India uses a form of algebraic Dates vary from notation using letters of the alphabet and other signs, and contains cubic and the 3rd to the 12th quartic equations, algebraic solutions of linear equations with up to five centuries.[2] unknowns, the general algebraic formula for the quadratic equation, and solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations and simultaneous equations. The Abbasid patrons of learning, al-Mansur, Haroun al-Raschid, and alMamun, had Greek, Babylonian, and Indian mathematical and scientific works translated into Arabic and began a cultural, scientific and mathematical awakening after a century devoid of mathematical achievements. The word algebra is derived from operations described in the treatise written by the Persian mathematician, Mu ammad ibn M s al- w rizm , titled Al-Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala (meaning "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing") on the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. Al-Khwarizmi is often considered the "father of algebra", for founding algebra as an independent discipline and for introducing the methods of "reduction" and "balancing" (the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation) which was what he originally used the term al-jabr to refer to. His algebra was also no longer concerned "with a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study." He also studied an equation for its own sake and "in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class of problems." Persian mathematician al-Mahani conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.

Circa 800

820

Circa 850

Circa 850

Indian mathematician Mahavira solves various quadratic, cubic, quartic, quintic and higher-order equations, as well as indeterminate quadratic, cubic and higher-order equations. Persian mathematician Al-Karaji (also known as al-Karkhi), in his treatise AlFakhri, further develops algebra by extending Al-Khwarizmi's methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities. He replaces geometrical operations of algebra with modern arithmetical operations, and defines the monomials x, x2, x3, .. and 1/x, 1/x2, 1/x3, .. and gives rules for the products of any two of these. He also discovered the first numerical solution to equations of the form ax2n + bxn = c. Al-Karaji is also regarded as the first person to free algebra from geometrical operations and replace them with the type of arithmetic operations which are at the core of algebra today. His work on algebra and polynomials, gave the rules for arithmetic operations to manipulate polynomials. The historian of mathematics F. Woepcke, in Extrait du Fakhri, trait d'Algbre par Abou Bekr Mohammed Ben Alhacan Alkarkhi (Paris, 1853), praised Al-Karaji for being "the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus". Stemming from this, Al-Karaji investigated binomial coefficients and Pascal's triangle. Chinese mathematician Jia Xian finds numerical solutions of polynomial equations of arbitrary degree. Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam gives a complete classification of cubic equations with positive roots and gives general geometric solutions to these equations found by means of intersecting conic sections. Indian mathematician Bh skara II, in his Bijaganita (Algebra), recognizes that a positive number has both a positive and negative square root, and solves quadratic equations with more than one unknown, various cubic, quartic and higher-order polynomial equations, Pell's equation, the general indeterminate quadratic equation, as well as indeterminate cubic, quartic and higher-order equations. Sharaf al-D n al-T s (11351213) wrote the Al-Mu'adalat (Treatise on Equations), which dealt with eight types of cubic equations with positive solutions and five types of cubic equations which may not have positive solutions. He used what would later be known as the "Ruffini-Horner method" to numerically approximate the root of a cubic equation. He also developed the concepts of the maxima and minima of curves in order to solve cubic equations which may not have positive solutions.[10] He understood the importance of the discriminant of the cubic equation and used an early version of Cardano's formula[11] to find algebraic solutions to certain types of cubic equations. Some scholars, such as Roshdi Rashed, argue that Sharaf alDin discovered the derivative of cubic polynomials and realized its

Circa 990

Circa 1050

1072

1114

Circa 1200

significance, while other scholars connect his solution to the ideas of Euclid and Archimedes. 1202 Algebra is introduced to Europe largely through the work of Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa in his work Liber Abaci. Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie deals with polynomial algebra, solves quadratic equations, simultaneous equations and equations with up to four unknowns, and numerically solves some quartic, quintic and higher-order polynomial equations. Jamsh d al-K sh developed an early form of Newton's method to numerically P solve the equation x N = 0 to find roots of N. Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagramma finds the solution of transcendental equations by iteration, iterative methods for the solution of non-linear equations, and solutions of differential equations. Arab mathematician Ab al-Hasan ibn Al al-Qalas d took "the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism." He used "short Arabic words, or just their initial letters, as mathematical symbols." Niccol Fontana Tartaglia and others mathematicians in Italy independently solved the general cubic equation. Girolamo Cardano publishes Ars magna -The great art which gives Fontana's solution to the general quartic equation. Rafael Bombelli recognizes the complex roots of the cubic and improves current notation. Franciscus Vieta develops improved symbolic notation for various powers of an unknown and uses vowels for unknowns and consonants for constants in In artem analyticam isagoge. Thomas Harriot in a posthumous publication is the first to use symbols < and > to indicate "less than" and "greater than", respectively. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz develops his notion of symbolic manipulation with formal rules which he calls characteristica generalis. Japanese mathematician Kowa Seki, in his Method of solving the dissimulated problems, discovers the determinant,[17] discriminant,[citation needed] and

Circa 1300

Circa 1400

Circa 1400

14121482

1535

1545

1572

1591

1631

1682

1683

Bernoulli numbers. 1685 Kowa Seki solves the general cubic equation, as well as some quartic and quintic equations. Leibniz solves systems of simultaneous linear equations using matrices and determinants. Gabriel Cramer, in his treatise Introduction to the analysis of algebraic curves, states Cramer's rule and studies algebraic curves, matrices and determinants. Niels Henrik Abel proved that the general quintic equation is insoluble by radicals. Galois theory is developed by variste Galois in his work on abstract algebra.

1693

1750

1824 1832