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Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 76, No. 12, pp. 2051–2068, 2004.

© 2004 IUPAC

Integrated nanoscale electronics and


optoelectronics: Exploring nanoscale science
and technology through semiconductor
nanowires*
Yu Huang1,2,‡ and Charles M. Lieber3
1Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue 16-244, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA;
2Chemistry and Materials Science Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94551, USA; 3Department of
Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

Abstract: Semiconductor nanowires (NWs) represent an ideal system for investigating low-
dimensional physics and are expected to play an important role as both interconnects and
functional device elements in nanoscale electronic and optoelectronic devices. Here we re-
view a series of key advances defining a new paradigm of bottom-up assembling integrated
nanosystems using semiconductor NW building blocks. We first introduce a general ap-
proach for the synthesis of a broad range of semiconductor NWs with precisely controlled
chemical composition, physical dimension, and electronic, optical properties using a metal
cluster-catalyzed vapor–liquid–solid growth mechanism. Subsequently, we describe rational
strategies for the hierarchical assembly of NW building blocks into functional devices and
complex architectures based on electric field or micro-fluidic flow. Next, we discuss a vari-
ety of new nanoscale electronic device concepts including crossed NW p-n diode and crossed
NW field effect transistors (FETs). Reproducible assembly of these scalable crossed NW de-
vice elements enables a catalog of integrated structures, including logic gates and computa-
tional circuits. Lastly, we describe a wide range of photonic and optoelectronic devices, in-
cluding nanoscale light-emitting diodes (nanoLEDs), multicolor LED arrays, integrated
nanoLED–nanoFET arrays, single nanowire waveguide, and single nanowire nanolaser. The
potential application of these nanoscale light sources for chemical and biological analyses is
discussed.

INTRODUCTION
The rapid miniaturization of electronics to the submicron scale has led to remarkable increases in com-
puting power, while at the same time enabling cost reductions [1,2]. However, as the microelectronic
industry advances toward ever smaller devices, it is believed that both physical and economic factors of
current top-down silicon technology will soon limit further advances [3]. To go beyond these limits and
fuel the expected demands of future society will require revolutionary breakthroughs rather than cur-
rent evolutionary progress. In general terms, bottom-up assembled nanoscale electronics could provide

*Pure Appl. Chem. 76, 2051–2099 (2004). A collection of invited, peer-reviewed articles by the winners of the 2004 IUPAC Prize
for Young Chemists.
‡Corresponding author

2051
2052 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

unparalleled speed, storage, and size reductions and hold the promise of powering future electronic de-
vices that can outperform existing devices and open up totally new opportunities. To enable integrated
nanoelectronics will require conceptually new device building blocks, scalable circuit architectures, and
fundamentally different fabrication strategies. A bottom-up approach, where functional electronic struc-
tures are assembled from chemically synthesized, well-defined nanoscale building-blocks, has the po-
tential to go far beyond the limits of top-down technology by defining key nanometer-scale metrics
through chemical synthesis and subsequent assemblynot by lithography [4–7].
Previous studies have led to a broad range of proof-of-concept nanoscale devices including diodes
and transistors based on individual organic molecules [8–12], quantum dots [13,14], or carbon nano-
tubes (NTs) [15,16]. However, these studies of individual nanodevices represent only an initial step to-
ward nanoelectronic circuits. It remains a great challenge to advance from a single device level to the
functional circuit level due to (1) the insufficient control of the properties of individual building blocks,
(2) low device-to-device reproducibility, and (3) the lack of reliable methods for efficiently assembling
and integrating building blocks into device arrays and circuits. Therefore, to move to this critical level
of complexity and achieve integrated nanocircuits requires three fundamental advances, including (1)
the development of rational approaches for the synthesis of nanoscale building blocks with precisely
controlled chemical composition, physical dimension, and electronic, optical properties; (2) the devel-
opment of rational strategies for the assembly of building blocks into increasingly complex structures;
and (3) the demonstration of new nanodevice concepts that can be implemented in high yield by as-
sembly approaches, and the development of new circuit architectures that are amenable to integration
via self- or directed-assembly.
Central to the bottom-up approach are the nanoscale building blocks. One-dimensional (1D)
nanostructures represent the smallest dimension structure that can efficiently transport electrical carri-
ers, and thus are ideally suited to the critical and ubiquitous task of moving and routing charges, which
constitute information, in nanoelectronics. In addition, 1D nanostructures can also exhibit critical de-
vice function, and thus can be exploited as both the wiring and device elements in future architectures
for functional nanosystems. In this regard, two material classes, semiconductor nanowires (NWs) and
carbon NTs, have shown particular promise. Single-walled NTs have been used to fabricate field effect
transistors (FETs) [17,18], diodes [19,20], and logic circuits [21,22]. However, the inability to control
whether NT building blocks are semiconducting or metallic and difficulties in manipulating individual
NTs have made device fabrication largely a random event, and thus pose a significant barrier to achiev-
ing highly integrated nanocircuits.
Semiconductor NWs represent another important and highly versatile nanometer-scale wire struc-
tures [23,24]. In contrast to NTs, semiconductor NWs can be rationally and predictably synthesized in
single crystal form with all key parameters, including chemical composition, diameter, and length, and
doping/electronic properties, controlled [25–27]. Semiconductor NWs thus represent the best-defined
class of nanoscale building blocks, and this precise control over key variables has correspondingly en-
abled a wide range of devices and integration strategies to be pursued. For example, semiconductor
NWs have been assembled into a series of electronic electronics devices including crossed NW p-n
diodes [28–31], crossed NW-FETs [30], nanoscale logic gates and computation circuits [30], as well as
optoelectronic devices including nanoscale light-emitting diodes (LEDs) [31] and lasers [32]. In con-
trast to NTs, NW devices can be assembled in a rational and predictable manner because the size, in-
terfacial properties, and electronic properties of the NWs can be precisely controlled during synthesis,
and moreover, reliable methods exist for their parallel assembly [28,33]. In addition, it is possible to
combine distinct NW building blocks in ways not possible in conventional electronics and to leverage
the knowledge base that exists for the chemical modification of inorganic surfaces [34,35] to produce
semiconductor NW devices that achieve new function and correspondingly lead to unexpected device
and system concepts.
Here we review a series of key advances that defined a new paradigm of bottom-up assembly of
nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics from semiconductor NWs building blocks. We first introduce

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Integrated nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics 2053

a general approach for the synthesis of a broad range of semiconductor NW building blocks with con-
trolled properties. Next, we describe rational strategies for the hierarchical assembly of NWs into in-
creasingly complex architectures. Lastly, we will discuss a variety of nanoscale electronic and opto-
electronic devices and circuits assembled from these NW building blocks.

NANOWIRE BUILDING BLOCKS: SYNTHESIS AND PROPERTIES


Rational design and synthesis of nanoscale materials is critical to work directed toward understanding
fundamental properties, creating nanostructured materials, and developing nanotechnologies [36,37]. In
this regard, we have developed a general approach to controlled synthesis of a broad range of semi-
conductor NWs via a metal cluster-catalyzed vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) growth mechanism [38–41].
Here, the catalyst is envisioned as a nanocluster or nanodroplet that defines the diameter of the NWs
and serves as the site that directs preferentially the addition of reactant to the end of a growing NW
much like a living polymerization catalyst directs the addition of monomers to a growing polymer chain
(Fig. 1a). Within this framework, a broad range of semiconductor NWs [38–41], typically with dia-
meters on the order of 10 nm, and lengths extending up to tens of micrometers (Figs. 1b,c), can be ra-
tionally and predictably synthesized in single crystal form with all key parameters, including chemical
composition, diameter, and length, and physical properties controlled [25–27].

Fig. 1 Semiconductor NW building blocks. (a) Schematics illustrating the underlying concept for catalytic growth
of NWs. Liquid catalytic clusters act as the energetically favored site for localized chemical reaction, absorption of
vapor-phase reactant and crystallization of crystalline NWs. (b) The figure shows a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) image of as-synthesized semiconductor NWs. The circular insets show transmission electron microscope
(TEM) images of the NWs. (c) Table summarizing NW materials grown with metal cluster-mediated catalytic
approach. Adapted from [25].

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2054 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

The basic electronic properties of NWs can be characterized using electrical transport studies in
a nanowire field effect transistor (NW-FET) configuration (Figs. 2a,b). The NW-FETs are prepared by
dispersing a suspension of NWs in ethanol onto the surface of an oxidized silicon substrate, where the
underlying conducting silicon is used as a global back gate [27,28,42]. Source and drain electrodes are
defined by electron beam lithography followed by electron beam evaporation of metal contacts, and
electrical transport measurements are done at room temperature. Current (I) vs. source-drain voltage
(Vsd) and I vs. gate voltage (Vg) is then recorded for an NW-FET to characterize its electrical proper-
ties. Gate sweeping measurement of the NW-FET enables elucidation of important qualitative and
quantitative properties of NWs. For example, changes in Vg produce variations in the electrostatic po-
tential of the NW, and hence modulate the carrier concentration and conductance of the NW (Fig. 2b).
Depending on the conductance modulation, it is possible to determine the doping type and estimate the
carrier mobility in individual NWs using standard transistor formula: dI/dVg = µ(C/L2)Vsd and
C ≅ 2πεε0L/ln(2h/r), where µ is the carrier mobility, C is the capacitance, ε is dielectric constant, h is
the thickness of the SiO2 dielectric, L is the length, and r is radius of the NW [42]. In this way, we have
characterized a broad range of NW materials including p-type Si, n-type GaN, CdS, and InP NWs. In
all cases, the NW materials show excellent carrier mobility comparable to bulk materials (Fig. 2c) [43],
which demonstrates the high quality of these materials.

Fig. 2 Nanowire electronic properties. (a) Schematic of an NW-FET used to characterize electrical transport
properties of individual NWs. (inset) SEM image of an NW-FET; two metal electrodes, which correspond to source
and drain, are visible at the left and right sides of the image. (b) Source-drain current vs. source-drain voltage for
an n-type InP NW-FET. The numbers inside the plot indicate the corresponding gate voltages (Vg). The inset shows
current vs. Vg for Vsd of 0.1 V. (c) Table summarizing carrier mobility in various NW materials in comparison with
their bulk material counterpart of similar carrier concentration.

We have also carried out optical studies to investigate the photoluminescence properties of these
NW materials [39,44]. Photoluminescence measurements were made on individual NWs using a home-
built microluminescence instrument. Studies on a broad range of compound semiconductor NWs in-
cluding GaN, CdS, CdSeS, and CdSe showed clean luminescence with spectra maxima of ~370, ~510,
~600, and ~700 nm, respectively [31], which are consistent with near band edge emission in these ma-
terials, and thus demonstrate excellent optical properties of these NW materials. Furthermore, photolu-

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Integrated nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics 2055

minescence studies on InP NWs of variable sizes showed systematic blue-shift of emission peak from
~900 to ~810 nm as the diameter of the InP NWs is reduced from 50 to 10 nm, which can be attributed
to quantum confinement effect [44]. Therefore, it is possible to control the emission wavelength of these
NW materials by either varying the chemical composition or physical dimension, thus offering the
greatest flexibility to precisely tune the color of nano-photonic devices.

HIERARCHICAL ASSEMBLY NANOWIRES


The availability of a broad range of semiconductor NWs with controlled electronic and optical proper-
ties opens many exciting opportunities in fundamental sciences as well as technological applications.
To fully explore the potential of these NW building blocks for integrated nanosystems will require the
development and implementation of efficient and scalable strategies for assembling them into increas-
ingly complex architectures. First, methods are needed to assemble NWs into highly integrated arrays
with controlled orientation and spatial position. Second, approaches must be devised to assemble NWs
on multiple length scales and to make interconnects between nano-, micro- and macroscopic worlds. To
address these critical next levels of organization, we have focused significant effort on developing com-
plementary strategies for hierarchical assembly of NWs on surfaces, and describe two promising ap-
proaches below.

Electrical field-directed assembly


Applied electrical fields (E-fields) can be used effectively to attract and align NWs due to their highly
anisotropic structures and large polarizabilities (Fig. 3) [28]. This underlying idea of E-field-directed
assembly can be readily seen in images of NWs aligned between parallel electrodes (Fig. 3b), which
demonstrate that virtually all of the NWs aligned in parallel along the E-field direction. E-field directed
assembly can also be used to position individual NWs at specific positions with controlled directional-
ity. For example, E-field assembly of NWs between an array of electrodes (Fig. 3c) clearly shows that

Fig. 3 E-field-directed assembly of NWs. (a) Schematic view of E-field alignment. (b) Parallel array of NWs
aligned between two parallel electrodes. (c) Spatially positioned parallel array of NWs obtained following E-field
assembly. The top inset shows 15 pairs of parallel electrodes with individual NWs bridging each diametrically
opposed electrode pair. (d) Crossed NW junction obtained using layer-by-layer alignment with the E-field applied
in orthogonal directions in the two assembly steps. Adapted from [28].

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2056 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

individual NWs can be positioned to bridge pairs of diametrically opposed electrodes and form a par-
allel array. In addition, by changing the E-field direction with sequential NW solutions, the alignment
can be carried out in a layer-by-layer fashion to produce crossed NW junctions (Fig. 3d). These results
demonstrate clearly that E-field-directed assembly can be used to align and position individual NWs
into parallel and crossed arrays, which correspond to two basic geometries for integration, and thus pro-
vide one robust approach for rational and parallel assembly of nanoscale device arrays.

Fluidic flow-directed assembly


E-field-directed assembly, which represents the first demonstration of rational assembly of 1D nano-
structures, also has limitations, including (1) the need for substantial conventional lithography to pat-
tern microelectrode arrays used to produce aligning fields and (2) the deleterious effect of fringing elec-
tric fields at the submicron length scales. To achieve a greater flexibility in rational, parallel assembly
of 1D nanostructures into integrated nanosystems, we have developed a further powerful approach
based on fluidic flow [33]. In this method, NWs or NTs can be aligned by passing a suspension of NWs
through microfluidic channel structures, for example, formed between a poly(dimethylsiloxane)
(PDMS) mold [45] and a flat substrate (Fig. 4a). Images of NWs assembled on substrate surfaces
(Fig. 4b) within microfluidic flows demonstrate that virtually all of the NWs are aligned along the flow
direction. This alignment readily extends over hundreds of micrometers, and is limited only by the size
of the fluidic channels used. The alignment of NWs within the channel flow can be understood within
the framework of shear flow [46,47]. Specifically, the channel flow near the substrate surface resembles
a shear flow, and linear shear force aligns the NWs in the flow direction before they are immobilized
on the substrate.
The fluidic flow assembly approach can be used to organize NWs into more complex crossed NW
structures, which are critical for building high-density nanodevice arrays, using a layer-by-layer depo-
sition process (Fig. 4c). The formation of crossed and more complex structures requires that the nanos-
tructure–substrate interaction is sufficiently strong that sequential flow steps do not affect preceding
ones: we find that this condition is readily achieved by modifying the substrate surface with proper
functional chemical groups. For example, alternating the flow in orthogonal directions in a two-step as-
sembly process yields crossbar structures in high yield (Fig. 4d). Experiments have demonstrated that
crossbars extending over 100s of microns on a substrate with only 100s of nanometers separation be-
tween individual cross-points are obtained through a very straightforward, parallel, low-cost, and fast
process.
Fluidic flow directed assembly of multiple crossed NW arrays offers significant advantages over
previous efforts. First, it is intrinsically very parallel and scalable with the alignment readily extending
over very large length scales. Second, this approach is general for virtually any elongated nanostructure
including carbon NTs and DNA molecules. Third, it allows for the directed assembly of geometrically
complex structures by simply controlling the angles between flow directions in sequential assembly
steps. For example, equilateral triangles have been assembled in a three-layer deposition sequence using
60° angles between the three flow directions [33]. The method of flow alignment thus provides a flex-
ible way to meet the requirements of many device configurations in the future. An important feature of
this sequential assembly scheme is that each layer is independent, and thus a variety of homo- and het-
ero-junction configurations can be obtained simply by changing the composition of the NW suspension
used for each flow step.
To enable further control of spatial location and periodicity of assembled NW arrays, we have ex-
plored complementary chemical interactions between chemically patterned substrates and NWs
(Fig. 4e). Substrates for alignment are first patterned with two different functional groups, with one of
the functional groups designed to have a strong attractive interaction with the NW surface, and then fol-
lowing flow alignment, regular, parallel NW arrays with lateral periods the same as those of the surface
patterns are produced (Fig. 4f). These experiment demonstrates that the NWs are preferentially assem-

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Fig. 4 Fluidic flow-directed assembly of NWs. (a,b) Schematic (a) and SEM image (b) of parallel NW arrays
obtained by passing a NW solution through a channel on a substrate; (c,d) Schematic (c) and SEM image (d) of
crossed NW matrix obtained by orthogonally changing the flow direction in a sequential flow alignment process.
(e,f) Schematic (e) and SEM image (f) of regular NW arrays obtained by flowing NW solution over a chemically
patterned surface. (g,h) Parallel and crossed NW device arrays obtained with fluidic flow assembly. Adapted from
[33].

bled at positions defined by the chemical pattern, and moreover, show that the periodic patterns can or-
ganize the NWs into regular superstructures. It is important to recognize that the patterned surface alone
does not provide good control of the 1D nanostructure organization. Assembly of NTs [48,49] and NWs
on patterned substrates shows that 1D nanostructures align with bridging and looping structures over
the patterned areas and show little directional control. Our use of fluidic flows avoids these significant
problems and enables controlled assembly in one or more directions. By combining this approach with
other surface patterning methods, such as phase separation in diblock copolymers [50] and spontaneous
ordering of molecules [51], it should be possible to generate well-ordered NW arrays without the lim-
itations of conventional lithography.
The above discussions clearly demonstrate that NWs can be assembled on the surface with con-
trolled orientation and spatial location. By combining them with conventional lithography approach, a
variety of integrated device structures including parallel arrays (Fig. 4g) [52] and crossed arrays
(Fig. 4h) [33] can be explored. Such integrated device arrays offers a variety of opportunities for us to

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2058 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

investigate the fundamental properties of these NW materials and explore them for various device ap-
plication. In particular, the crossed NW matrix represents an important geometrical configuration for
nanocircuits, where each crossing point can function as an independently addressable nanoscale device
element.

NANOWIRE ELECTRONICS
The ability to rationally synthesize NWs with controlled electronic properties and to assemble NWs into
regular arrays readily enabled us to explore these NW structures for a variety of functional device ar-
rays.

Crossed nanowire devices


Direct assembly of highly integrated functional electronic circuits based on NWs requires (1) the de-
velopment of new device concepts with scalable device configuration and (2) high yield assembly of
these devices with controllable functional properties. The crossed NW matrix represents an ideal con-
figuration since the critical device dimension is usually defined by the cross-point and can be readily
scaled down to nanometer level, and crossed NW configuration itself is naturally a scalable architecture
and thus enables the possibility of massive system integration. Moreover, the crossed NW matrix is a
versatile structure and can be configured into a variety of critical device elements, such as diodes and
transistors. For example, a p-n diode can be obtained by simply crossing a p- and n-type NW as demon-
strated in the cases of p-Si/n-Si, p-InP/n-InP, p-InP/n-CdS and p-Si/n-GaN materials [28–31]. Electrical
measurements of such crossed junctions show clear current rectification across the junction and linear
current behavior in individual NWs, demonstrating the formation of p-n diode at the crossing point
(Fig. 5a). To gauge the reproducibility of these assembled NW p-n diodes, we have studied a large num-
ber of p-n junctions assembled from p-Si NWs and n-GaN NWs (inset, Fig. 5a) [30]. I-V measurements
made on over 100 crossed p-Si/n-GaN NW devices show that over 95 % of the junctions exhibit cur-
rent rectification with turn-on voltages of around 1.0 V. Reproducible assembly of crossed NW struc-
tures with predictable electrical properties contrasts sharply with results from NT-based device, and
readily enabled us also to explore the assembly and properties of integrated p-n diode arrays.
Significantly, electrical transport measurements made on a typical 4 by 1 crossed p-Si/n-GaN junction
array (Fig. 5b) show that the four nanoscale cross-points form independently addressable p-n diodes
with clear current rectification and similar turn-on voltages.
Nanoscale FETs can also be achieved in the crossed NW configuration using one NW as the ac-
tive conducting channel and the other crossed NW as the gate electrode (Fig. 5c). Significantly, the three
critical FET device metrics are naturally defined at the nanometer scale in the assembled crossed
NW-FETs (cNW-FETs): (1) a nanoscale channel width determined by the diameter of the active NW
(~2–20 nm depending on chosen NW); (2) a nanoscale channel length defined by the crossed gate NW
diameter (~10 nm); and (3) a nanoscale gate dielectric thickness determined by the NW surface oxide
(~1 nm). These distinct nanoscale device metrics lead to greatly improved device characteristics such
as high gain, high speed, and low power dissipation. For example, the conductance modulation of an
NW-FET is much more significant with the NW gate (>105) than that with a global back gate (<10)
(inset in Fig. 5d). Moreover, the local NW gate enables independently addressable FET arrays and thus
enables highly integrated nanocircuits.

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Fig. 5 Crossed nanowire devices. (a) Top, current-voltage (I-V) relation of the crossed p-n diode. Linear or nearly
linear I-V behavior of the p- (blue) and n-type (green) NWs indicates good contact between NWs and metal
electrodes. I-V curves across the junction (red) show clear current rectification. The top-left inset shows histogram
of turn-on voltage for over 70 as-assembled junctions showing a narrow distribution around 1 V. The bottom-right
inset shows a typical SEM image of a crossed NW p-n diode. Scale bar: 1 µm. (b) I-V behavior for a 4(p)x1(n)
multiple junction array. Inset shows an SEM image of a NW p-n diode array. (c) Schematics illustrating the crossed
NW-FET concept. (d) Gate-dependent I-V characteristics of a cNW-FET formed using a p-NW as the conducting
channel and n-NW as the local gate. The red and blue curves in the inset show Isd vs. Vgate for n-NW (red) and
global back (blue) gates when the Vsd is set at 1 V. The conductance modulation (>105) of the FET is much more
significant with the NW gate than that with a global back gate (<10). Adapted from [30].

Fig. 9 Nanowire optical waveguide, cavity, and laser with optical excitation. (a) Schematic showing an NW as an
optical waveguide; with cleaved ends it defines a Fabry–Perot cavity. (b) SEM image of a cleaved CdS NW end.
Scale bar, 100 nm. (c) Room-temperature photoluminescence image of a CdS NW uniformly excited with a
mercury lamp. (d) Photoluminescence spectrum from the NW end exhibiting periodic intensity modulation, which
corresponds to the Fabry–Perot modes of the NW. (e) Emission spectra from a CdS NW end with a pump power
of 190, 197, and 200 mW (red, blue, and green) recorded at 8 K show preferential gain at single mode and
demonstrate laser emission. Adapted from [32].

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2060 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

Fig. 10 Nanowire optical waveguide, cavity, and laser with electrical excitation. (a) Device schematic illustrating
a p-n diode formed between p-Si and n-CdS NWs, where the CdS NW forms the cavity and active medium. (b)
Optical image of a device with arrows highlighting the cross-point (blue) and CdS NW end (green). Scale bar, 5
µm. (c,d) The electroluminescence image obtained at room temperature with the device forward biased at 5 V.
White light illumination is used in image (c) to show the electrodes. The two bright spots highlighted by blue and
green arrows correspond to the emission from the cross-point and end, respectively. (e) Electroluminescence
spectra from the NW end show periodic intensity modulation, demonstrating NW can function as optical
waveguide and cavity in this injection device. (f) Schematic showing a hybrid device structure. In this structure,
electrons and holes can be injected into the CdS nanowire cavity along the whole length from the top metal layer
and the bottom p-Si layer, respectively. (g) Optical image of a device described in (f). The arrow highlights the
exposed CdS NW end. Scale bar, 5 µm. (h) Electroluminescence image recorded from this device at room-
temperature with an injection current of ca. 80 µA. The arrow highlights emission from the CdS NW end. The
dashed line highlights the NW position. (i) Emission spectra from a CdS nanowire device with injection currents
of 200 µA (red) and 280 µA (green) recorded at 8 K. These spectra are offset by 0.10 intensity units for clarity.
Adapted from [32].

Nanoscale logic gates and computational circuits


High-yield assembly of crossed NW p-n diodes and cNW-FETs from p-Si and n-GaN materials enables
more complex functional electronic circuits, such as logic gates to be produced. Logic gates are critical
blocks of hardware in current computing systems that produce a logic-1 and logic-0 output when the
input logic requirements are satisfied. Diodes and transistors represent two basic device elements in
logic gates [53]. Transistors are more typically used in current computing systems because they can ex-
hibit voltage gain. Diodes do not usually exhibit voltage gain, although they may also be desirable in
some cases [30,53]; for example, the circuit architecture and constraints on the assembly of nano-
electronics might be simplified using diodes since they are two-terminal devices, in contrast to three-
terminal transistors. In addition, by combining the diodes and transistors in logic circuits, it is possible
to achieve high voltage gain, while simultaneously maintaining a simplified device architecture. To
demonstrate the flexibility of these NW device elements, we have investigated both diode- and
FET-based logic.

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For example, a two-input logic OR gate was realized using a 2(p) by 1(n) crossed NW p-n diode
array [30]. When either of the input to the p-NW is high, a high output is obtained at the n-NW as the
p-n diode is forward biased; a low output is only achieved when both inputs are low; and thus realizing
the same function as a conventional logic “OR” gate (Figs. 6a,b). A logic AND gate was also assem-
bled from two p-n diodes and one cNW-FET (Figs. 6c,d), and a logic NOR gate with gain over 5 was
assembled from three cNW-FETs in series (Figs. 6e,f). Importantly, logic OR, AND, and NOR gates
form a complete set of logic elements and enable the organization of virtually any logic circuits. For ex-

Fig. 6 Nanoscale logic gates. (a,b) Schematic and measured output vs. address level relation for a logic OR gate
assembled from two-crossed NW p-n diode. The insets in (a) show the SEM image and equivalent electronic circuit
of the device. The bar is 1 µm. The inset in (b) shows the experimental truth table for nano-OR gate. (c,d)
Schematic and measured output vs. address level relation for a logic AND gate assembled from two-diode and one-
crossed NW-FET. The inset in (d) shows the experimental truth table for the nano-AND gate. (e,f) Schematic and
measured output vs. address level relation for a logic NOR gate assembled from three-crossed NW-FET. The inset
in (f) shows the experimental truth table for the nano-NOR gate. (g,h) Schematics for a logic XOR gate and logic
half adder realized by interconnecting individual logic gate elements. Significantly, the logic half adder assembled
this way can be used to do digital computation just as conventional electronics do. Adapted from [30].

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2062 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

ample, NW logic gates have been interconnected to form an XOR gate and a logic half adder, which
was used to carry out digital computations in a way similar to conventional electronics (Figs. 6g,h).

NANOSCALE PHOTONICS AND OPTOELECTRONICS


The availability of a wide range of NW materials readily allows us to choose materials with different
properties to tailor device functions in a manner that is unique to the bottom-up assembly approach. In
addition to nanoscale electronics, the broad range of optically active III-V and II-VI group compound
semiconductor NW materials are attractive as building blocks for miniaturized photonic and opto-
electronic devices. To this end, we have assembled of a variety of photonic devices, including nanoscale
LEDs and diode array, single NW optical waveguide, cavity, and laser.

Nanoscale LED and diode array


We have previous described a p-n diode can be obtained by crossing a p- and n-type NW. In direct band
gap semiconductors like InP, the p-n diode also forms the basis for the critical optoelectronics devices,
including LEDs and laser diodes (LDs). To assess whether our nanoscale devices might behave simi-
larly, we have studied the electroluminescence (EL) from crossed NW p-n junctions. Significantly, EL
can be readily observed from these nanoscale junctions in forward bias. A 3D plot of the EL intensity
taken from a typical NW p-n diode at forward bias (Fig. 7a) shows the emitted light comes from a point-

Fig. 7 NanoLED. (a) Crossed InP nanowire LED. (top) Three-dimensional (3D) plot of light intensity of the
electroluminescence from a crossed NW LED. Light is only observed around the crossing region. (bottom) 3D
atomic force microscope image of a crossed NW LED. (inset) Photoluminescence image of a crossed NW junction.
(b) Multicolor nanoLED array. Schematic of a tri-color nanoLED array assembled by crossing one n-GaN, n-CdS,
and n-CdS NW with a p-Si NW. The array was obtained by fluidic assembly and photolithography with ca. 5 µm
separation between NW emitters. (c) Normalized EL spectra obtained from the three elements. (d) Integrated as a
nanoFET-nanoLED array. Schematic of an integrated crossed NW-FET and LED. Inset shows SEM image of a
representative device (scale bar, 3 µm) and the equivalent circuit. (e) Plots of current and emission intensity of the
nanoLED as a function of voltage applied to the NW gate at a fixed bias of –6 V. (inset) EL intensity vs. time
relation a voltage applied to NW gate is switched between 0 and +4 V for fixed bias of –6 V. Adapted from [31].

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Integrated nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics 2063

like source, and moreover, comparison of EL and PL (inset, Fig.7a) images recorded on the same sam-
ple show that the position of the EL maximum corresponds to the crossing point in the PL image. These
data thus demonstrate that the emitted light indeed comes from the crossed NW p-n junction.
EL spectra (peaked 820 nm) recorded from the cNW-LEDs exhibit blue-shifts relative to the bulk
band gap of InP (925 nm). The blue-shifts are due in part to quantum confinement of excitons, although
other factors may also contribute. Furthermore, PL studies have demonstrated that the PL peak can be
systematically blue-shifted as the NW diameter is decreased [44], and thus these results provide a
means for controlling the color of the LEDs in a well-defined way. Indeed, EL results recorded from
p-n junctions assembled from smaller (and larger) diameter NWs show larger (smaller) blue-shifts. In
addition, the emission color from nanoLEDs can be further varied by using chemically distinct semi-
conductor NWs with different band gaps. Considering the wide range of group IV, III-V, and II-VI semi-
conductor NW materials available [25], it is possible to assemble a variety of NW-based nanoLEDs for
different spectral regimes [31]. Indeed, we have recently demonstrated that crossing p-type Si NWs
with n-type GaN, CdS, CdSeS, CdSe, and InP can produce nanoLEDs with emission spectra covering
the whole spectra regime from UV to near IR [31]. In such heterostructure devices, p-Si NWs are used
as the passive hole-injector, and the n-type compound NWs are used as electron-injector and active
emitter, which defines the wavelength of emission.
The bottom-up assembly approaches allows flexible combination of chemically distinct nanoscale
building blocks that would otherwise be structurally and/or chemically incompatible in a sequential
growth process typical of planar fabrication. This capability should enable assembly of nanostructures
with functions not readily obtained by other methods and open new opportunities. For example, we have
exploited the ability to form nanoLEDs with nonemissive Si NW hole-injectors to assemble multicolor
arrays consisting of n-type GaN, CdS, and CdSe NWs crossing a single p-type SiNW (Fig. 7b).
Normalized emission spectra recorded from the array demonstrate three spectrally distinct peaks with
maxima at 365, 510, and 690 nm (Fig. 7c) consistent with band edge emission from GaN, CdS, and
CdSe, respectively. The ability to seamlessly assemble/integrate different materials together and inde-
pendently tune the emission from each nanoLED offers substantial potential producing specific wave-
length sources, and demonstrates an important step toward integrated nanoscale photonic circuits.
Although lithography sets the integration scale of these multicolor arrays, it should be possible to cre-
ate much denser nanoLED arrays via (1) controlled growth of modulated NW superlattice structures
[54] and/or (2) selective assembly of different semiconductor materials [55].
In addition, we have assembled optoelectronic circuits consisting of integrated crossed NW LED
and FET elements (Fig. 7d). Specifically, one GaN NW forms a p-n diode with the SiNW, and a sec-
ond GaN NW functions as a local gate as described previously. Measurements of current and emission
intensity vs. gate voltage show that (i) the current decreases rapidly with increasing voltage as expected
for a depletion mode FET and (ii) the intensity of emitted light also decreases with increasing gate volt-
age. When the gate voltage is increased from 0 to +3 V, the current is reduced from ca. 2200 nA to an
off state, where the supply voltage is –6 V (Fig. 7e). Advantages of this integrated approach include
switching with much smaller changes in voltage (0 to 3 vs. 0 to 6 V) and the potential for much more
rapidly switching. The ability to use the nanoscale FET to switch reversibly the nanoLED on and off
has also been demonstrated (inset, Fig. 7e).
The potential of coupling the bottom-up assembly of nanophotonic devices together with top-
down fabricated silicon structures has also been investigated, since this coupling could provide a new
approach for introducing efficient photonic capabilities into integrated silicon electronics. To this end,
a hybrid top-down/bottom-up approach was employed (1) using lithography to pattern p-type silicon
wires on the surface of a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate, and then (2) assembling n-type emissive
NWs on top of silicon structures to form arrays consisting of p-n junctions at cross-points (Fig. 8a).
Conceptually, this hybrid structure (Fig. 8b) is virtually the same as the crossed NW structures de-
scribed above and should produce EL in forward bias. Notably, I-V data recorded for a hybrid p-n diode
formed between the p-Si and an n-CdS NW show clear current rectification (Fig. 8c) and sharp EL spec-

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2064 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

Fig. 8 Integration of nanowire photonics with silicon electronics. (a) Schematic illustrating fabrication of hybrid
structures. A silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate is patterned by standard electron-beam or photolithography
followed by reactive ion etching. Emissive NWs are then aligned onto patterned SOI substrate to form photonic
sources. (b) Schematic of a single LED fabricated by the method outlined in (a). (c) I-V behavior for a crossed p-n
junction formed between a fabricated p+-Si electrode and an n-CdS NW. (d) EL spectrum from the forward-biased
junction. (e) SEM image of a CdS NW assembled over seven p+-silicon electrodes on an SOI wafer; scale bar is
3 µm. (f) EL image recorded from an array consisting of a CdS NW crossing seven p+-Si electrodes. The image
was acquired with +5 V applied to each silicon electrode while the CdS NW was grounded. Adapted from [31].

trum peaked at 510 nm (Fig. 8d), which is consistent with CdS band edge emission. Importantly, the
photonic devices produced in this approach are highly reproducible and can be readily implemented in
integrated arrays. For example, a 1 × 7 crossed array consisting of a single CdS NW over 7-fabricated
p-Si wires (Fig. 8e) exhibits well-defined emission from each of the cross-points in the array (Fig. 8f).
Similar results were also obtained for two-dimensional arrays and demonstrate clearly that bottom-up
assembly has the potential to introduce photonic function into integrated silicon microelectronics.

Single nanowire waveguide, Fabry–Perot cavity and laser


In addition to LEDs, nanoscale optical waveguide, cavity, and laser are vital for the realization of highly
integrated photonic circuits. Importantly, free-standing semiconductor NWs can function as stand-alone
optical waveguides, cavities and gain medium to support lasing emission [32,56,57]. In general, a NW

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Integrated nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics 2065

can function as a single-mode optical waveguide much like a conventional optical fiber [58] when
1 ~ (πD/λ)(n12–n02)0.5 < 2.4, where D is the NW diameter, λ is the wavelength, and n1 and n0 are the
refractive indices of the NW and surrounding medium, respectively (Fig. 9a, see color plate, p. 2059).
If the ends of the NW are cleaved (Fig. 9b), they can function as two reflecting mirrors that provide op-
tical feedback and define a Fabry–Perot optical cavity with modes m(λ/2n1) = L, where m is an integer
and L is the length of the cavity. Photoluminescence image of CdS NWs of proper diameter shows pro-
nounced emission from both ends (Fig. 9c), clearly demonstrating waveguide effect along the NW axis.
Furthermore, spectra of the emissions from NW ends show prominent periodic modulation in intensity,
which can be attributed to the longitudinal modes of a Fabry–Perot cavity (Fig. 9d). For a cavity of
length L, the mode spacing, ∆λ, is given by (λ2/2L)[n1–λ(dn1/dλ)]–1, where dn1/dλ is the dispersion re-
lation for the refractive index. This expression provides a good description of the observed spacing
when the measured nanowire length. Moreover, analysis of similar data from NWs of varying length
demonstrates that the mode spacing is inversely proportional to the wire length as expected. Together,
these results demonstrate that the individual NW can function as nanoscale optical waveguide and
Fabry–Perot cavity. The observation of sharp modes in the uniform CdS NW gain medium suggests a
single NW can support laser emission. Indeed, optical excitation at higher powers leads to preferential
gain in a single mode and the onset of lasing (Fig. 9e).
The observation of laser emission with optical excitation further prompts us to investigate elec-
trically pumped nanolasers. To achieve electrical pumped lasers requires efficient injection of both elec-
trons and holes into the NW cavity and gain medium. Our initial studies of electrical injection into CdS
NW cavities were carried out using an n-type CdS and p-type silicon (p-Si) crossed NW structures
(Figs. 10a,b, see color plate, p. 2059). In forward bias, these crossed NW structures exhibit strong elec-
troluminescence with several important characteristics. Images of the electroluminescence (Figs. 10c,d)
show two points of emission: one corresponding to the n-CdS/p-Si NW cross-point and the other to the
end of the CdS NW. Significantly, the intensity of the end emission is at least two orders of magnitude
larger than the cross-point emission. Further more, EL spectra recorded from the CdS NW end exhibit
a prominent modulation in intensity, which can be assigned to the longitudinal modes of a Fabry–Perot
cavity formed in CdS NW in this crossed device (Fig. 10e). These results clearly demonstrating that the
CdS NWs can function as excellent waveguides and Fabry–Perot cavity in this relatively simple device
configuration, and suggest that at sufficiently high injection currents lasing should be achieved.
However, the crossed NW devices are clearly not optimal for achieving high-density injection into the
whole NW cavity, as high injection current invariably led to breaking down of the device at the cross-
point due to the nature of localized injection.
To enable more uniform injection, we have implemented a hybrid structure (Figs. 10f,g) in which
holes are injected along the length of a CdS NW cavity from a p-Si electrode defined in a heavily doped
p-Si layer on a planar substrate [32]. Images of the room-temperature electroluminescence produced in
forward bias from these structures (Fig. 10h) show strong emission from the exposed CdS NW end.
Low-temperature measurements made on the devices have shown the preferential pumping into single
mode. At low injection currents, the spectrum of the end emission (Fig. 10i) shows a broad peak with
FWHM ~5 nm. Significantly, when the injection current is increased further, it was found that the emis-
sion intensity increased abruptly, and the spectrum quickly collapsed into a limited number of sharp
peaks with a dominant emission line around 493 nm. Importantly, we find that the dominant mode has
an instrument resolution limited line width of only 0.7 nm, demonstrating that the injection lasing is
achieved in this new type of device. Using individual NWs as the laser cavity and gain medium for laser
diodes represents a new and powerful approach for producing integrated electrically driven photonic de-
vices. This basic approach, which relies upon bottom-up assembly of the key laser cavity/medium in a
single step, can be extended to other materials, such as GaN and InP NWs, to produce nanoscale lasers
that not only cover the ultraviolet through near infrared spectral regions, but also can be integrated as
single or multi-color laser source arrays in silicon microelectronics and lab-on-a-chip devices.

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2066 Y. HUANG AND C. M. LIEBER

Nanophotonics as excitation sources


The ability to assemble a wide variety of nanoscale light sources with tunable emission wavelength from
UV to near IR regime can lead to a range of exciting opportunities in intra/inter-chip optical communi-
cation, integrated chemical/biological sensing and medical diagnostics on the chip level. For example,
the localized EL from crossed NW nanoLEDs and hybrid LEDs can result in a near-field power densi-
ties greater than 100 W/cm2, which is sufficient to excite molecular and nanoparticle chromophores. To
explore this important possibility, we have used a CdS-based nanoLED to excite and record the emission
spectra from CdSe quantum dots (QDs) and propidium iodide (a fluorescent nucleic acid stain) (Fig. 11)
[31]. Notably, the emission of CdSe QDs and propidium iodide obtained by nanoLED excitation show
essentially the same spectra (solid lines, Figs. 11a,b) as those obtained using much larger conventional
excitation source (dashed lines, Figs. 11a,b). These results demonstrate that nanoLEDs could function as
efficient excitation sources for integrated chemical and biological analysis.

Fig. 11 Nanophotonics as excitation source. (a) Solid line is the emission spectrum recorded from CdSe QDs
excited using a p-Si/n-CdS NW nanoLED; the QD emission maximum was 619 nm. The increasing intensity on
the shorter wavelength side of the emission peak corresponds to the tail of the CdS nanoLED. Dashed line is the
spectrum of pure CdSe QDs excited using an Ar-ion laser. (b) Solid line is the emission spectrum from propidium
iodide excited using a p-Si/n-CdS NW nanoLED. Dashed line is emission spectrum of propidium iodide obtained
in aqueous solution (Fluorolog, ISA/Jobin Yvon-Spex). Adapted from [31].

SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE


In this review, we have made a brief survey of work drawn primarily from the authors’ thesis work.
Overall, these examples illustrate a series of key advances that should ultimately enable nanoelectron-
ics fabrication and manufacturing from the bottom-up. First, we have developed a general approach for
the synthesis of NW building blocks with well-controlled chemical compositions, physical dimensions,
and electronic properties. Second, we have developed rational methodologies to assemble NWs into in-
tegrated, increasingly complex arrays using electrical fields or micro-channel fluidics. Third, we have
assembled a wide range of nanoscale electronic and optoelectronic devices and circuits from NW build-
ing blocks, which hold the promise of powering future electronic devices that can outperform existing
devices and opening up totally new opportunities such as integrated, high-throughput, ultra-sensitive
bioassays.
There is a very bright future for these electronically well-defined NW building blocks both in
fundamental science and nanotechnologies. Specifically, we believe we have just started to explore the
very edge of a broad range of opportunities, and that there remain many fascinating fundamental prob-
lems in these NW systems, such as the role of finite size and coherent states. Well-defined semicon-
ductor NWs represent exciting systems to probe fundamental questions about localization or delocal-
ization of electrical carriers and optical excitons in 1D. Further investigations will be not only critical
to understanding fundamental issues in 1D systems, but also central to improved device characteristics

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Integrated nanoscale electronics and optoelectronics 2067

and possibly conceptually and fundamentally new types of devices such as single photon emitters and
detectors, which could be critical for future quantum communication and computation. Continuing ef-
forts will be required to develop even better control of NW synthesis and more and more sophisticated
assembly approaches that can vary device functionality over multi-length scales. Lastly, developing new
device concepts and integrated architectures will be increasingly essential as we move closer to ultra-
high-density, integrated nanosystems.

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