Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 1

Vector Geometry
Overview: We introduce the concept of vectors in 2 and 3 space, including some elemen-
tary vector operations and component notation.
Motivation: Vectors are an elementary tool in engineering design and analysis. In ad-
dition, most practical engineering problems involve functions depending on multiple vari-
ables and understanding their behaviour relies on a good knowledge of vectors.
Key concepts in this lecture:
Vectors in 2 and 3 space.
Elementary vector operations.
Vectors written in component form.
Contents:
Geometric view of vectors and vector arithmetic in the plane.
Coordinate vectors of points in the plane.
Vector arithmetic in terms of coordinate vectors.
The length of a vector.
Extension of these concepts to vectors in 3 space.
Outcomes:
Ability to work with vectors in a geometric as well as in an algebraic setting.
Understanding the distinction between notation for a point and vector.
Recognition that vectors are independent of location within 2 or 3 space.
Exercises:
1. Exercise 12(a) (p. 574): 6.
2. In the gure below, express w in terms of u and v.
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 2

.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

w
u v
3. In the gure below, write each combination of vectors as a single vector.
(a)

AB +

BC (b)

CD +

DA
(c)

BC

DC (d)

BC +

CD +

DA
A
D
B
C
4. Copy the vectors in the gure below and use them to draw the following vectors.
(a) a +b (b) a b (c) 2a (d)
1
2
b
|
|
|
|
|
|*
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
b
5. In each of the following cases, nd the vector given by a =

AB. Draw

AB and the
equivalent representation starting at the origin.
(a) A(1, 3), B(4, 4) (b) A(1, 1), B(3, 4)
6. For each of the following, nd (i) ||a|| (ii) a +b (iii) a b (iv) 2a and (v) a unit
vector in the direction of a.
(a) a = [4, 3], b = [6, 2] (b) a = [6, 2, 3], b = [1, 5, 2]
7. If A, B and C are vertices of a triangle, nd

AB +

BC +

CA.
These exercises should take around 45 minutes to complete.
(Answers: 2. v u; 3.(a)

AC (b)

CA (c)

BD (d)

BA; 5. (a) a = [3, 1] (b) a = [2, 5];

6.(a)(i) 5 (ii) [2, 5] (iii) [10, 1] (iv) [8, 6] (v) [
4
5
,
3
5
], (b) (i) 7 (ii) [5, 7, 1] (iii) [7, 3, 5]
(iv) [12, 4, 6] (v) [
6
7
,
2
7
,
3
7
]; 7. 0;)
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 3
Vectors
When talking about quantities in engineering, we generally distinguish between scalars
and vectors.
A scalar quantity is characterized only by magnitude. Examples are mass, temperature,
time, speed etc.
A vector quantity is characterized by both magnitude and direction. Examples are force,
velocity etc.
Within a written mathematical statement, we use the following notation to distinguish
between scalars and vectors. For scalar quantities, we use a plain (usually lower case)
letter such as a. For vector quantities, in typewritten text we use a boldface (and again
usually lower case) letter such as a. Since this is dicult to do in handwritten text,
there we usually underline the letter with a tilde, i.e.
a
.
Geometrically, we represent vectors by a directed line segment as follows:
t
t
P
Q
@I
InitialPoint
@I
TerminalPoint
@I
Direction
a
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
If the vector goes from a point P to a point Q as shown for a above, then we often use
the notation

PQ to denote the vector as well.

The magnitude or length of a vector a is denoted by ||a|| or |a|. It is often also called
the norm of a.
We would like to do arithmetic with vectors in much the same way as we do with scalars.
The rst thing to consider is what we mean by the equality of two vectors.
We say that two vectors a and b are equal if they have the same length and direction.
For examples, in the cases below, a = b only in case (i).
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 4
(i)
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
a
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
b
a = b
(ii)
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
a
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
a = b
(iii)
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
a
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
b
a = b
(iv)
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
a
Z
Z
Z
Z
b
a = b
Notice that vectors are not tied to any particular location within the plane. As long as
they share the same length and direction, they are considered to be equal, regardless of
where in the plane we draw them.
Before talking about addition and subtraction of vectors, we need to dene the vector
equivalent of the scalar 0. The zero vector, denoted by 0, is simply dened to be a vector
which has no particular direction and zero length.
Going back to the notion of length of a vector, note that
||u|| 0 for any vector u and the only way in which ||u|| = 0 is if u = 0.
If ||u|| = 1 for a given vector u, then we say that u is a unit vector.
Ex: Consider a rhombus (a polygon with four equally long sides) PQRS:
t _
_
t .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
S
P Q
R
b
a
Clearly

PQ =

SR,

SP =

RQ, ||a|| = ||b||, but a = b.

Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 5
Vector Operations
Ideally, we like to apply all of the usual arithmetic we use for scalars to vectors. For
addition and subtraction, this is easily done. Multiplication is a little more dicult,
while no equivalent of scalar division exists for vectors.
The sum of two vectors a and b is written as
a +b
and we can use either the triangle law or parallelogram law to work out the sum.
t.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t|
|
|
|
|*
|
|
|
|
|
t

a
b
a
+
b
t.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
t

a
a
+
b
|
|
|
|
|*
|
|
|
|
|
t
b
In the triangle law, to add a and b, we simply place the vectors so that the initial point
of b coincides with the terminal point of a. a +b is then simply the vector whose initial
point is the initial point of a and whose terminal point is the terminal point of b. In the
parallelogram law, both vectors are drawn so that their initial points coincide and a +b
is then the diagonal of the parallelogram form by a and b.
Note the special rule for addition with the zero vector. For any vector u,
u +0 = 0 +u = u.
Also, it is clear from the workings of the parallelogram law that
a +b = b +a
for any pair of vectors a and b.
For a real (scalar) number, we know exactly what we mean by its negative. For vectors,
we have the following idea of negatives.
The negative of a vector u is denoted by u and it is simply the vector which has the
same length as u but is opposite in direction, i.e.
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 6
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
u
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
u
Clearly, u + (u) = 0.
The notion of the negative of a vector now lets us nd a way of subtracting vectors.
Basically, the dierence of vectors a and b is given by
a b = a + (b).
Note that we can determine ab easily from a and b by using a variation of the triangle
law. Since b + (a b) = a, we have
t|
|
|
|*
|
|
|
|
t _ t

a b
a b
t
b
a b
i.e. place a and b so that their initial points coincide. Then a b is the vector whose
starting point coincides with the terminal point of b and its terminal point coincides with
the terminal point of a.
Now we come to the question of multiplication. Because vectors are more complicated
objects than scalars, there are various ways in which we can multiply them. Well meet
actual multiplication of vectors over the next two lectures. For now, we restrict ourselves
to the idea of scalar multiplication.
Scalar Multiplication. Given a scalar c and a vector a, the scalar multiple ca is a vector
such that
(i) it has the same direction as a if c > 0;
(ii) its direction is opposite to that of a if c < 0.
In either case, the length of ca is |c| times the length of a, i.e. ||ca|| = |c| ||a||. e.g.
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 7
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
a
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
ca
c < 0 Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
a
Z
Z
Z
Z
ca
0 < c < 1
Note that multiplication by the scalar 0 always yields the zero vector, i.e. (0)u = 0 for
any vector u.
Quite often in practice, it is useful to deal with vectors whose length is exactly equal to
1, known as unit vectors. These can be created easily as follows. For any vector a = 0,
the unit vector in the direction of a is denoted by a and a =
a
||a||
, i.e. it is simply a
multiplied by the reciprocal of its own length.
Finally, notice that the only way in which two vectors can be parallel is if one can be
expressed as a scalar multiple of the other, i.e. a and b are parallel if a = cb for some
scalar c. Satisfy yourself that this requires the two vectors to have either the same or
opposite directions.
Ex: Let ABCDEF be a regular hexagon, M the midpoint of AD,

AB = a,

BC = b and

CD = c. Find

AC,

AD,

AM,

BE and

FC in terms of a, b and c.
Soln: We begin by drawing a diagram.
t
t
t t
t
t /
/
/
/
/
/
_
/
/
/
/
/ `
`
`
`
`
`
`
`*
`
`
`
A
B C
D
E F
a
b
c
t
M
Clearly, we have

AC =

AB +

BC = a +b,

AD =

AC +

CD = a +b +c,

AM =
1
2

AD =
1
2
(a +b +c),

BE =

BC +

CD +

DE = b +c + (a) = b +c a,

FC =

FA +

AB +

BC = (c) +a +b = a +b c.
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 8
Analytic Representation of Vectors in 2 and 3 Space
Vectors in 2 space (i.e. the Cartesian plane) and 3 space can be readily described in terms
of components. Consider the Cartesian plane with origin O. For any point P(a
1
, a
2
) in
the plane, we can write down its position vector as

OP = [a
1
, a
2
] = a.
Note how we use square brackets when writing out the vector (as opposed to round
brackets when we describe the coordinates of the point P).
_
'
x
y
O
t
a
2
a
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
P(a
1
, a
2
)
Now let us revisit some of the earlier concepts in terms of this analytic vector notation.
Suppose we have two vectors a = [a
1
, a
2
] and b = [b
1
, b
2
]. Suppose that a = b. Locate
both vectors in the plane such that the initial points coincide at the origin O. Then,
clearly, their terminal points and their respective coordinates must also coincide which
leads to a
1
= b
1
and a
2
= b
2
. In other words, two vector being equal is equivalent to each
of their components being equal.
Similarly, in 3 space, we can write a vector in component form as a = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
] and
equality between vectors again means that their components must be equal.
Next we look at the addition of two vectors a = [a
1
, a
2
] and b = [b
1
, b
2
].
_
'
x
y
O
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
(a
1
, a
2
)
a
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
a
+
b
t
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
t
(b
1
, b
2
)
(a
1
+b
1
, a
2
+b
2
)

a
1

b
1

a
2
b
2
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 9
Clearly, from the diagram,
a +b = [a
1
+b
1
, a
2
+b
2
].
Similarly, for two vectors a = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
] and b = [b
1
, b
2
, b
3
] in 3 space,
a +b = [a
1
+b
1
, a
2
+b
2
, a
3
+b
3
].
The operation of scalar multiplication is also easily carried out in component form. Sup-
pose we have a = [a
1
, a
2
] as shown below. What does ca look like?
_
'
x
y
O
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
t
.
.
.a
ca
(a
1
, a
2
)
(ca
1
, ca
2
)

a
1

ca
1

a
2

ca
2
Using the fact that the ratios of the respective sides of the similar triangles in the diagram
must be equal, we nd that
ca = [ca
1
, ca
2
].
Similarly, for a = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
] in 3 space,
ca = [ca
1
, ca
2
, ca
3
].
Finally, we look at how to determine the length of a vector in component form. Given
a = [a
1
, a
2
], consider the diagram below.
_
'
x
y
O
t
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
P(a
1
, a
2
)

a
1

a
2
Engineering Mathematics 140 - Notes for Lecture 1 10
Applying Pythagoras Theorem to the triangle in the diagram, we have
||a|| = ||

OP|| =

a
2
1
+a
2
2
.
Similarly, for a = [a
1
, a
2
, a
3
] in 3 space,
||a|| =

a
2
1
+a
2
2
+a
2
3
.
Note that these denitions satisfy the length properties we looked at before. Verify that
||ca|| = |c| ||a|| also holds in each case.
Ex: Find a +b, ka, a b and ||a|| if a = [2, 1, 0], b = [1, 3, 2] and k = 3.
Soln: We have
a +b = [2, 1, 0] + [1, 3, 2] = [1, 4, 2] ,
ka = (3)[2, 1, 0] = [6, 3, 0],
a b = [2, 1, 0] [1, 3, 2] = [3, 2, 2],
and ||a|| =

(2)
2
+ (1)
2
+ (0)
2
=

5.
What are the components of a vector joining two points A(a
1
, a
2
) and B(b
1
, b
2
) in the
plane?
t
t
/
/
//
/
/
//
t
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
_
O
A B
?
Letting O denote the origin, we have

OB =

OA +

AB. Re-arranging, we get

AB =

OB

OA, i.e.

AB = [b
1
, b
2
] [a
1
, a
2
] = [b
1
a
1
, b
2
a
2
],
i.e. the components of a vector between two points are obtained by simply subtracting
the coordinates of the initial point from the coordinates of the terminal point. In 3 space,
the same applies: for points A(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) and B(b
1
, b
2
, b
3
),

AB = [b
1
a
1
, b
2
a
2
, b
3
a
3
].
Ex: Given A(1, 2, 3) and B(3, 1, 0), nd

AB and

BA.
Soln:

AB = [3, 1, 0] [1, 2, 3] = [4, 3, 3].

BA = [1, 2, 3] [3, 1, 0] = [4, 3, 3].

(Note that

BA =

AB, as we would expect. . . )