BASIC THEMES IN ADVANCED LEVEL GEOGRAPHY STATISTICS

BULWA DENIS BELLO Email: bulwad@yahoo.com Mob: +256782096203, +256752597466

Copyright @ Bulwa Denis Bello All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any electronic means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the author. All orders, comments and questions should be addressed to:

Bulwa Denis Bello P.O. Box 10282, Kampala, Uganda, East Africa. Email: bulwad@yahoo.com Mob: +256782096203, +256752597466

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

In such a wide understanding of this kind, I cannot forego the acknowledgement of all the academicians who have extended a hand to enable me succeed with this project. I wish to recognize the role played by the members of the Geography Department of Hilton High School Mukono, St. Josephs S.S.S Naggalama, Seeta High School Mukono, Trinity College Nabbingo, Department of Humanities Nkozi NTC and Ggaba Primary Teachers College etc. I am particularly delighted to extend my heartfelt appreciation to all the Head teachers of the different academic institutions I went through during my academic period of formation plus all those academic institutions that I worked with before and after my academic formation most especially Dr.J.C Muyingo of Uganda Martyrs S.S Namugongo, Mr.Wadega Paul of Hilton High school Mukono, to mention but a few for their parental and inspiring words of wisdom, courage and counseling. I commend the role played by my beloved long time good friend Lady Mirembe Charity and not worth forgetting, our good beloved blood friends Nakazzi Chloe, Bulwa Collin, Kayaga Evans and Nambi Crystal. Thank you for your full time moral and psychological support. I wish to extend my heartfelt appreciation to young academician editorial committee and worth to mention; Mayabi Susan Mombo, Anguko Beatrice, Bukirwa Marie, Akello Ritah, Odong Stephen, Nampijja Annet, Namahe Teddy.

May the good Lord bless you all and reward you dearly.

Any errors in this edition are purely my responsibility and I do welcome any comments or compliments as I aspire to inspire before I expire in the academic sphere

DEDICATION.
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I dedicate this publication to my beloved parents Mr. Gerald Majjela Nsubuga, my beloved deceased mum Mrs. Teopista Kiiza Nsubuga and my wonderful Aunt Ms Immaculate Nansubuga, who sacrificed all that they had to enable me swim in the pools of this wonderful academic world.

Not forgetting all my supportive relatives and friends who greatly helped me during my time of academic formation i.e. morally and financially namely; Rev.Fr.Henry Kiwanuka Nsubuga, Mr.Kabanda Lawrence, Mr.Zakalia Lule, Mr.Nsubuga Deogratious Lutalo, Ms Nansubuga Christine to mention but a few.

May the Almighty God reward you dearly.

PREFACE.

I am overwhelmed by the pleasure to present this edition of Basic Themes in Advanced Level Geography Statistics. I have been inspired by the high demand for my services from the various schools, students and Higher Institutions of Learning that I have worked and dealt with. More so the continued out cry by the Geography students in relation to Section A (Statistics) which is compulsory at UNEB i.e. P250/2-World Problems and Development.

This edition is thoroughly researched and beefed up with ideas from different modern text books written by remarked academicians.

It provides basic notes, approaches, methodology, analysis and interpretation of the different statistical methods from the simplest to the more technical methods.

The book gives a broad coverage to Advanced level Geography Statistics, useful to candidates as they prepare themselves for UNEB final Examinations.

For the years I have marked Geography P250/2 at National level, I have discovered that majority of the Geography Students do perform poorly in Statistics i.e. Section A yet it is compulsory hence affecting their final grades.

CONTENTS

Chapter

Page
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Preface Acknowledgement Dedication Introduction to Advanced Level Geography Statistics CHAPTER 1 LINE AND CURVE GRAPHS a) Simple line graphs b) Comparative or Grouped line graphs c) Compound or Cumulative line graphs d) Divergence line graphs BAR GRAPHS a) Simple bar graphs b) Comparative or Grouped bar graphs c) Compound or Cumulative bar graphs d) Divergence bar graphs

AGE AND SEX GRAPHS (POPULATION PYRAMIDS CHAPTER 2

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CIRCULAR GRAPHS CHAPTER 3 STATISTICAL CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS USING CIRCLES. a) PIE CHART b) COMPOUND OR COMPARATIVE OR PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED CIRCLES c) PROPORTIONAL SEMI-CIRCLES CHAPTER 4 STATISTICAL CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS USING RECTANGLES a) SIMPLE DIVIDED RECTANGLE b) COMPOUND OR CUMULATIVE DIVIDED RECTANGLE CHAPTER 5 STATISTICAL CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS USING SQUARES -PROPORTIONAL SQUARES

CHAPTER 6 WIND ROSE a) SIMPLE WIND ROSE

b) COMPOUND OR CUMULATIVE WIND ROSE.

CHAPTER 7

STATISTICAL MAPS
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a) DOT MAP b) SHADING OR CHOROPLETH MAP c) FLOW MAP d) ISOLINE MAP.

REFERENCE BOOKS 1. World Problems and Development with statistics for A level students Munanura Charles and Muhangi.

2. A Practical guide to statistical maps and diagrams H.C Truran.

3. Advanced Practical Geography: Arthur Guest.

4. Human Geography: Patrick.J. Mc Bride.

5. Human Geography, Theories and their applications M.G Bradford and W.A Kent.

6. Statistics in A level Geography Julius Kansiime.

7. Practicals in Geography Smith.Obright

8. Phillips Atlas: Revised Edition

INTRODUCTION

Statistics is one of the ways through which Geographical information is represented using lines or curves-(Graphs), tables, diagrams, charts, statistical maps etcTherefore, for any Geography student to excel in paper 250/2,he/she must be well versed with the required statistical methods for his or her level as prescribed by UNEB.

This edition only suits Geography Advanced Level Secondary School Students.

GENERAL RULES IN ADVANCED LEVEL GEOGRAPHY STATISTICS

All statistical diagrams and maps should have a Title, key and a scale(s) N.B The scale appears on a given method where it is applicable The title is derived from the heading of the table of the raw data given. It should include the name of the method and the wording of the raw data heading. Statistical diagrams, maps and charts must be shaded for interpretation and Neatness of the diagrams, maps and charts should be highly emphasized. All the graph methods, both the vertical and horizontal axes must be well labeled indicating what variables have been plotted on the two axes and their units. For all line and curve graphs, both the vertical and horizontal axes must begin from zero. All the scales must be equated to the least units e.g. 1cm represents 50c. Statistical information should be analyzed for assessment and comparison purposes. We usually identify situations where there was an increase, a decrease, uniformity, progressive, regressive changes in the data provided. For the methods involving percentages and degrees, when you add up the values to get the totals and the figures do not make 100% or 3600, the balance of the figures is referred to as OTHERS on the key and that value should be plotted last after all the other values have been plotted. Raw data can be portrayed using more than one method. Therefore it is advisable to for someone to try out more than a single method for effective analysis and presentation.
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presentation purposes.

Always equip yourself with statistical instruments like the ruler, pencil, coloured pencils, Set Square, set divider, set compass, protractor, calculator, and a graph book. Since this section involves mathematical solutions, it is advisable for students to carry out continuous practice so as to keep him/herself conversant with every method.

STATISTICAL GRAPHS. These graphs are classified into two broad categories namely: Line and curve graphs Bar graphs. They deal with dependent variables e.g. production, population, rainfall, temperature etc. and these variables are plotted on the vertical Axis. The independent variables e.g. hours, weeks, months, years are plotted on the horizontal axis. These graphs are usually plotted on squared papers for purposes of accuracy. Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed on each graph.

LINE GRAPHS. For the line graphs, variables are shown using straight lines while the variations are shown using a smoothly drawn curve.

A SIMPLE LINE GRAPH. Procedure: The variables are shown using straight lines while the variations are shown using a smoothly drawn curve.

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The dependent variables e.g. production, population, rainfall, temperature etc. and these variables are plotted on the vertical Axis. The independent variables e.g. hours, weeks, months, years are plotted on the horizontal axis. Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed on each graph. Both the vertical and horizontal axes should begin from zero. Use small dots while plotting the variables so that on joining them to develop a curve or line, they are invisible. Develop short form figures for the scales instead of using elongated figures that may cause confusion. Example: The table below shows temperature statistics of station z in western Nigeria in 2008 Month J Temperature(0) 19 F 26 M 28 A 27 M 18 J 17 J 14 A 18 S 16 O 17 N 20 D 23

Use a simple line graph to portray the temperature statistics received by station z above. Procedure: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed. For the vertical scale, observe the highest and the lowest values e.g.280c and 140c. Develop a vertical scale where the highest and the least values can be plotted e.g. 1cm reps 50c Horizontal scale will be 1cm reps a month. Join the dots using a smooth line to come up with a curve. N.B You can put the dot any where in the space of the given month or year but it is most preferable to place the dot in the middle of the space of the given month or year.

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A LINE GRAPH SHOWING TEMPERATURE STATISTICS RECEIVED BY STATION Z IN WESTERN NIGERIA IN 2008.
Temperature (oC) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D Months

Advantages of a simple line graph. A simple line graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods. It has simple calculations. It is more accurate because of a few numbers and calculations.

Disadvantages of a simple line graph. It represents very little (simple) information. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.
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Its use is restricted to one commodity only.

COMBINED TEMPERATURE LINE AND RAINFALL BAR GRAPH. This method involves representing both rainfall and temperature data on the same graph using a line for temperature and bars for rainfall. At the Advanced level, both rainfall and temperature should be plotted co-currently or intertwined. Example: The table below shows the mean monthly climatic statistics for Bethlehem in 2008
Month Temperature oc Rainfall(mm) J 9 190 F 10 260 M 13 380 A 17 470 M 21 580 J 22 610 J 24 740 A 24 980 S 23 110 O 21 130 N 17 200 D 11 178

Use a combined temperature line and rainfall bar graph to portray the mean monthly climatic statistics for Bethlehem in 2008 Procedure: At the Advanced level, both rainfall and temperature should be plotted co-currently or intertwined. Usually the left hand side of the graph is demarcated with rainfall values while the right hand side of the graph is demarcated with temperature values. Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed. Both the vertical and horizontal axes should begin from zero. Develop a vertical scale where the highest and the least values can be plotted i.e. 1cm reps 100mm, 1cm reps 150mm for rainfall 1cm reps 50c for temperature Horizontal scale will be 1cm reps a month.
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Join the dots using a smooth line to come up with a curve.A

COMBINED TEMPERATURE LINE AND RAINFALL BARGRAPH SHOWING THE MEAN MONTHLY CLIMATIC STATISTICS FOR BETHLEHEM IN 2008.
30 25 Temperature 20 15 10 5 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D Months 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Temperature Rainfall

R/f Vs = 1cm rep 100mm Temp Vs = 1cm rep 30C Hs = 1cm rep 1 month. Advantages of a combined temperature line and rainfall bar graph. It is simple line graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It portrays more than one item i.e. temperature and rainfall. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods.

Disadvantages of a combined temperature line and rainfall bar graph. It may cause confusion since two items ar0e plotted co-currently or intertwined on the same graph. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.
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It can not be super imposed on a map. It requires accuracy simple more than one item is plotted.

GROUP OR COMPARATIVE LINE GRAPH This method portrays geographical information that is complex. The information used in this method, involves many dependent and independent variables e.g. population, production, crops (dependent variables) months, years (independent variables). Under this method, more than one line or several lines are used to portray the information provided.

Example: The table below shows the percentage of employees in UK in the selected industries between 1950 1952. YEAR 1950 1951 1952 TEXTILES 41 5 4 FOOT& WEAR ENGINEERING 2 46 60 47 40 25 TOURISM 10 9 11

Use a grouped or comparative line graph to portray the information provided in the table above. Procedure: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed. For the vertical scale, observe the highest and the lowest values e.g.60% and 2%.
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Develop a vertical scale where the highest and the least values can be plotted e.g. 1cm reps 10% since the values are in percentages totaling up to 100% Horizontal scale will be 4cm reps 1 year in order to avoid congestion of the lines. Shade the lines using different designs in order to come up with unique or different curved lines for easy interpretation. Draw a few lines on the graph depending on the space available. The lines should not over criss cross in order to avoid confusion while interpreting the graph drawn. A few words may be written directly on the graph for easy comparison. Place the dots directly in line with of the given year. There is no addition on the vertical axis under the group or comparative line graph. The values are plotted in their raw form. While plotting data using this method, the values for each variable are plotted at once across all the given years i.e. from the top to the bottom or from the first year up to the last year. It is advisable either to begin with the least values and end with the highest values or vice versa. There is no shading of the space between the lines drawn under this method.

A GROUPED OR COMPARATIVE LINE GRAPH SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF EMPLOYEES IN UK IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIES BETWEEN 1950-1952.

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Percentage of employees in UK

80 60 40 20 0 1950 1951 Years 1952 TEXTILES FOOT & WEAR ENGINEERING TOURISM

Advantages of a grouped or comparative line graph. It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It portrays a wide range of items or information. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods. It can be super imposed to contain additional information. It consumes less space. It is good for comparison purposes.

Disadvantages of a grouped or comparative ling graph. It may cause confusion since more than one line is drawn on the same graph. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary. It needs more time while drawing compared to the simple line graphs. Reading and interpreting individual values is not easy.
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COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE LINE GRAPHS. Under this method, data or information is portrayed in accumulative way. The lines plotted are not supposed to criss cross. In case this happens, the whole graph becomes wrong. There is vertical addition of the values for each item to be plotted so that the cumulative way comes out i.e. the line segments separate the component parts of the sum total of the values plotted for each variable or item.

Example: The table below shows the % H.E.P energy consumption in the selected industries in Japan between 1940-2000. YEAR 1940 1960 1980 2000 INDUSTRY 33 24 11 08 MINING 32 39 42 42 TEXTILES 16 21 23 24 FOODS & DRINKS 19 16 24 26

Procedure: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed.

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Develop a cumulative table to portray the progressive totals of the variables given. Draw lines portraying a variation in the variables given. Shade the space between the lines drawn for distinction purposes to show what area has been covered by a given variable. You can add some simple writings on the lines to indicate what each line represents. With the compound or divided or cumulative line graph, you can plot the values beginning from the least values ending with the highest values or you can begin with the highest values and end with the least values. While plotting, use the values developed in the cumulative table but not the original values. Therefore the cumulative table is very important as you begin your work.

Cumulative table: Sector Industry Mining Textiles Foods & Drinks. 1940 33 65 81 100 1960 32 63 84 100 1980 11 53 76 100 2000 08 50 74 100

A COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE LINE GRAPH SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE H.E.P ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIES IN JAPAN BETWEEN 1940-2000.

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% H.E. P ENERGY

CONSUMPTION

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1940 1960 Y ears 1980 2000

Industry Mining Tex tiles Foods &Drinks

Advantages of a compound or divided or cumulative line graph. It portrays a wide range of items or information. A compound line graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. The totals are clearly shown on the graph. It is easy to interpret if well drawn. It occupies small space since a few variables are plotted.

Disadvantages of a compound or divided or cumulative line graph. A wide range of calculations are involved in the initial stages of the graph development e.g. the calculations for the cumulative table. A lot of time is required while drawing. It requires a lot of accuracy while calculating and drawing. Single values are hard to read from the graph because of the cumulative figures.

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DIVERGENCE LINE GRAPH This method portrays variations in form of fluctuations of a given product below or above average for a given period of time e.g. such fluctuations can be envisaged in population growth, mineral, crop production, imports and exports, profits and losses. Procedure: Add all the figures provided and get their total. Calculate their average. Calculate the divergences of each year by subtracting the average from each value of a given specific year. The graph must be divided into two sections i.e. the positive (upper) and the negative (lower) separated by a thick zero marked line. Develop a vertical scale using the values of the divergences extracted and that scale should be used on both the positives (Excess) and the negatives (shortfall). Values that are positive are plotted on the upper positive side of the graph while the negative values are plotted on the lower side of the graph. The graph possesses only one vertical and horizontal scale. Join the dots of the values plotted with a straight line using a ruler. Example: The table below shows immigrants from LDCS to USA from 1970 - 1977 in millions. 1970 645 1971 464 1972 700 1973 515 1974 560 1975 643 1976 548 1977 660

Source: world population journal 1980. Calculations: (i) Total =645+464+700+515+560+643+548+660

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Total =4735 Number of values Average (ii) 8 591.8(mean)

Calculations for the divergences. 645-591.8= +53.2 464-591.8= -127.8 700-591.8= +108.2 515-591.8= -76.8 560-591.8= -31.8 643-591.8= +51.2 548-591.8= -43.8 660-591.8=+68.2

Plot the divergences following the order of their appearance in the table from the first up to the last figure.

A DIVERGENCE LINE GRAPH SHOWING IMMIGRANTS FROM LDCS TO USA FROM 1970-1977 IN MILLIONS.

150 125

150 125
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100 75 50 25
IMMIGRANTS (MILLIONS)

100 75 50 25 0 -25 -50 -75 100 125 150 197 0 197 1 197 2 197 197 3 4 Years 197 5 197 6 197 7
IMMIGRANTS (MILLIONS)

-25 -50 -75

-100 -125 -150

SCALE 1cm rep 25 million Advantages of a divergence line graph. It portrays a variation in the variables i.e. where there was an excess or a short fall. Little time is taken while drawing the graph. It is easy to draw after deriving the divergences. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It occupies less space compared to the more complex methods.
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It can be used for comparison purposes.

Disadvantages of a divergence line graph. It involves mathematical calculations while deriving the divergences. Since it portrays divergences rather than the original values, confusion may arise during interpretation. It only portrays data for a single variable e.g. production of a given mineral, crop, exports and imports, population growth etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary. If it is super imposed, it gets congested. Development of the vertical scale tends to be hard if there are a wide range of figures.

BAR GRAPHS These are used to portray statistical data or information using bars. They include: a) A Simple bar graph. b) A Grouped or comparative bar graph. c) A Compound or divided or cumulative bar graph. d) An Age and sex bar graph (population pyramid).

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A SIMPLE BAR GRAPH This method portrays data using bars in a simple form. In Type A, bars are plotted lying in a vertical form. Under this format, the data provided in the table indicates the aspect of time e.g. months, years etc. Procedure: The dependent variables e.g. production, population, rainfall, temperature etc. and these variables are plotted on the vertical Axis. The independent variables e.g. hours, weeks, months, years are plotted on the horizontal axis. Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed on each graph. Both the vertical and horizontal axes should begin from zero. Bars can be drawn occupying fully the available space on the horizontal axis. Bars should be shaded uniformly since data of a single variable is plotted.

Note: Bars can be drawn while spaced. This is mainly recommended when you are plotting data concerning production of crops, minerals, timber, population etc. But while plotting climatic data, it is highly recommended to draw the bars without spaces although either way, the presentation is accepted. What matters most while plotting is the length but not the width of the bars. The bars should be of the same size in order to avoid misinterpretation. Information can be easily added on the graph if the bars are drawn horizontally.

Example:
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The table below shows the mean monthly rainfall of Natal-South Africa 2006 Month Rainfall (mm) Source: National meteological Centre-Natal South Africa J 130 F 120 M 170 A 180 M 240 J 270 J 300 A 290 S 270 O 240 N 200 D 170

A SIMPLE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL OF NATALSOUTH AFRICA 2006. 1(bars drawn vertically without spaces)
300 250 200 150 100 50 0

J F M A M J J A S O N D M o n ths

2 (bars drawn vertically with spaces in between)

Rainfall (mm)

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300 250 200 150 100 50 0

F M A M J

S O N D

Months

In Type B, bars are plotted lying in a horizontal form. Using this second style, bars are drawn lying horizontally especially if the data given in the table does not indicate the aspect of time. Therefore the horizontal scale is developed using the variables given.

Example: The table below shows the imports of Rwanda in (000) Dollars. Oil 300,000 Clothings 489,874 Electronics 320,625 Machinery 187,478 Drugs 296,111 Food 95,421

Source: African journal

A SIMPLE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE IMPORTS OF RWANDA IN (000) DOLLARS. 1(bars drawn horizontally without spaces)

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Rwanda's imports

Food 1 Drugs M achinery Electronics Clothing 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Oil Dollar (000)

2 (bars drawn horizontally with spaces)

Rwanda's imports

Food 1 Drugs Machinery Electronics Clothing 0 100 200 300 Dollar (000) 400 500 600 Oil

Advantages of a simple bar graph. A simple bar graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods. It is a accurate because of a few calculations. Disadvantages of a simple bar graph. It represents very little (simple) information. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.
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Small values are difficult to plot on the vertical axis. It is restricted to one type of data e.g. production, rainfall.

GROUPED OR COMPARATIVE BAR GRAPH This method represents data in a grouped form for each year but each variable is shaded differently for easy interpretation. Procedure: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed. For the vertical scale, observe the highest and the lowest values. Develop a vertical scale where the highest and the least values can be plotted e.g. 1cm reps 1000 crop tones. Horizontal scale will be 4cm reps 1 year in order to avoid congestion of the lines There should be uniform space left between each group of bars drawn. It is advisable to plot the data in a descending order i.e. starting from the highest figure ending with the least figure from left to right. Bars should be shaded differently and the same shading pattern used in the first set of bars should be maintained across all the other sets of bars drawn for the following years. There is no addition on the vertical axis under the group or comparative bar graph. The values are plotted in their raw form. Each year should get the values for each item.

Example: The table below shows the principal crops of Canada by area 1970-1973. WHEAT BARLEY HAY OATS
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1970 1971 1972 1973

4760 5462 6500 5950

1300 1215 915 1111

2300 2580 2430 2412

780 753 670 500

Source: Agricultural statistics in the prairies of Canada. A GROUPED OR COMPARATIVE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL CROPS OF CANADA BY AREA 1970-1973.
8000 (Crops) 6000 4000 2000 0 1970 1971 1972 1973 (Years) W HEAT BARLEY HAY OATS

Advantages of a grouped or comparative bar graph. It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It portrays a wide range of items or information. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods. It is good for comparison purposes. Little time is taken because of simple calculations.

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Disadvantages of a grouped or comparative bar graph. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary. It needs more accuracy while drawing compared to the simple bar graphs. A wide range of values makes the vertical scale hard to develop. It occupies big space since many bars are drawn. Many items plotted do cause congestion.

COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE BAR GRAPH. This method portrays data in a cumulative way. Bars accumulate on top of one another whereby each bar represents the sum total of each variable.

Example: The table below shows the % H.E.P energy consumption in the selected industries in Japan between 1940-2000. YEAR 1940 1960 1980 2000 INDUSTRY 33 24 11 08 MINING 32 39 42 42 TEXTILES 16 21 23 24 FOODS & DRINKS 19 16 24 26

Source: world energy journal report 2006. Use a compound bar graph to portray the above statistical information. Procedure of construction: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed.
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Develop a cumulative table to portray the progressive totals of the variables given. Draw bars portraying a variation in the variables given. Shade the bars drawn differently for distinction purposes to show what area has been covered by a given variable. With the compound or divided or cumulative bar graph, you plot the values beginning from the highest values ending with the least values. The order of plotting and shading followed in the first set of bars should be maintained throughout the other bars be drawn after. There is vertical addition of the values for each item to be plotted so that the cumulative way comes out i.e. the line segments separate the component parts of the sum total of the values plotted for each variable or item.

While plotting, use the values developed in the cumulative table but not the original values. Therefore the cumulative table is very important as you begin your work. Equal space should be left between the bars drawn portraying data for each year.

Cumulative table: Sector Industry Mining Textiles Foods & Drinks. 1940 33 55 71 100 1960 24 63 84 100 1980 11 53 76 100 2000 08 50 74 100

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A COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIES IN JAPAN BETWEEN 1940-2000.
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1940 1960 1980 2000 Years H.E.P ENERGY CONSUMPTION %

Foods & Drinks. Textiles Mining Industry

Advantages of a compound or divided or cumulative bar graph. It portrays a wide range of items or information. A compound bar graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. The totals are clearly shown on the graph. It is easy to interpret if well drawn. Limited space is used because a few variables are plotted.

Disadvantages of a compound or divided or cumulative bar graph. A wide range of calculations are involved in the initial stages of the graph development e.g. the calculations for the cumulative table.
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A lot of time is required while drawing. It requires a lot of accuracy while calculating and drawing. Single values are hard to read from the graph because of the cumulative figures.

DIVERGENCE BAR GRAPH This method portrays variations in form of fluctuations of a given product below or above average for a given period of time e.g. such fluctuations can be envisaged in population growth, mineral, crop production, imports and exports, profits and losses. Procedure: Add all the figures provided and get their total. Calculate their average. Calculate the divergences of each year by subtracting the average from each value of a given specific year. The graph must be divided into two sections i.e. the positive (upper) and the negative (lower) separated by a thick zero marked line. Develop a vertical scale using the values of the divergences extracted and that scale should be used on both the positives (Excess) and the negatives (shortfall). Values that are positive are plotted on the upper positive side of the graph while the negative values are plotted on the lower side of the graph. The graph possesses only one vertical and horizontal scale. Draw bars of a uniform size. Equal space should be left between the vertical axis and the adjacent bar. The same space should be left between the other bars during construction.

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Example: The table below shows immigrants from LDCS to USA from 1970 - 1977 in millions. 1970 645 1971 464 1972 700 1973 515 1974 560 1975 643 1976 548 1977 660

Source: world population journal 1980. Use a divergence bar graph to portray the above statistical information. Calculations: (iii) Total =645+464+700+515+560+643+548+660 Total = 4735 Number of values Average 8 591.8(mean)

(iv)

Calculations for the divergences. 645-591.8= +53.2 464-591.8= -127.8 700-591.8= +108.2 515-591.8= -76.8 560-591.8= -31.8 643-591.8= +51.2 548-591.8= -43.8 660-591.8=+68.2

Plot the divergences following the order of their appearance in the table from the first up to the last figure.
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A DIVERGENCE BAR GRAPH SHOWING IMMIGRANTS FROM LDCS TO USA FROM 1970-1977 IN MILLIONS. 150 125
IMMIGRANTS (MILLIONS)

150 125 100 75 50 25 0 -25 -50 -75 -100 -125 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977
IMMIGRANTS (MILLIONS)

100 75 50 25 0 -25 -50 -75 -100 -125

Advantages of a divergence bar graph. It portrays a variation in the variables i.e. where there was an excess or a short fall. Little time is taken while drawing the graph. It is easy to draw after deriving the divergences. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods.

Disadvantages of a divergence bar graph. It involves mathematical calculations while deriving the divergences.

37

Since it portrays divergences rather than the original values, confusion may arise during interpretation. It only portrays data for a single variable e.g. production of a given mineral, crop, exports and imports, population growth etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.

AGE AND SEX GRAPHS (POPULATION PYRAMIDS) This method involves bars drawn to portray population (demographic) characteristics given for either a region or a country. The final appearance of the bars after drawing is in a pyramidal shape. Procedure of construction: The bars are drawn horizontally not vertically using the horizontal axes and scales. Two bar graphs are drawn side by side representing different sexes. The size of the age groups is represented on the horizontal scale while the age groups are represented on the vertical scale. The females and males are represented on different sides i.e. side by side. Usually the age group interval ranges between a five year period e.g. 0-4. 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, etc. but any other age group interval can be used basing on the data or information given. It is advisable to plot the females on the right hand side and the males on the left hand side of the graph. A uniform horizontal scale is written on both the female and the male side. For comparison purposes, the two horizontal scales must be drawn in the same order. Always choose a convenient scale to help you draw a graph to look normal.
38

Avoid developing an exaggerated horizontal or vertical scale in order for your graph not to look so wide or elongated nor too narrow. Example: The table below shows the age structure of population in USA (1990 Population Census). AGE GROUP 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80+
SOURCE: World Population journal 1995

MALE % 9.5 8.0 7.5 7.4 8.8 9.4 8.6 7.8 7.6 6.8 4.7 4.0 3.7 3.4 2.4 1.0 0.8

FEMALE % 8.5 7.0 6.9 6.9 8.6 8.9 8.4 7.9 7.3 7.0 5.8 4.6 4.2 3.6 2.6 1.6 1.4

Use an Age and sex graph to portray the above statistical information.

39

AGE AND SEX GRAPH SHOWING THE AGE STRUCTURE OF POPULATION IN USA (1990 POPULATION CENSUS).

80+ 75 79 70 74 65 69 60 64 55 59 50 54 45 49 40 44 35 39 30 34 25 29 20 24 15 19 10 14 5 9

KEY Population
Scale: H.S. 1cm represents 1%

40

10

6 5 4 MALE

0 4 0 Age 0 Group

3 4 5 6 FEMALE

10

Advantages of Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid) It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It summarises the population composition clearly. Less mathematical calculations are involved. Disadvantages of Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid). The method is only limited to population figures/data/information. If the data provided is ungrouped, it is tiresome to group it. A lot of time is needed for drawing. It only portrays data for a single variable i.e. population etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary

SUPER IMPOSED AGE AND SEX GRAPH (POPULATION PYRAMID) This graph is used to portray demographic or population characteristics of both the females and the males of different years e. 2000 and 2002.
41

A special and different procedure of constructing a super imposed age and sex graph is used. Procedure of construction: The bars are drawn horizontally not vertically using the horizontal axes and scales. Two bar graphs are drawn side by side representing different sexes. The size of the age groups is represented on the horizontal scale while the age groups are represented on the vertical scale. The females and males are represented on different sides i.e. side by sied. Usually the age group interval ranges between a five year period e.g 0-4.5-9,10-14,15-19, etc. but any other age group interval can be used basing on the data or information given. It is advisable to plot the females on the right hand side and the males on the left hand side of the graph. A uniform horizontal scale is written on both the female and the male side. For comparison purposes, the two horizontal scales must be drawn in the same order. Always choose a convenient scale to help you draw a graph to look normal. Avoid developing an exaggerated horizontal or vertical scale in order for your graph not to look so wide or elongated nor too narrow. Plot the values or population characteristics of the same sex for the two years intertwined in one bar i.e. the males of 2000 and 2008. Always begin with the plotting of the population characteristics of the first year (base year) e.g. 2000 and then plot the population characteristics for the last year 2008 (final year) inside the bar of the first (base) year 2000. Maintain a uniform size of the bars. Shade the bars for both the females and the males. The same shading should be maintained all through. Example:
42

The tables below shows the age structure of population in Canada 2000-2008 2000 AGE GROUP 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80+ % MALES 25 20 19 15 10 7.4 5 2.0 1.5 % FEMALES 23 21 17 15 10 8.4 6 3.0 1.7

2008 AGE GROUP 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 % MALES 15.4 18 15.8 12.6 12 % FEMALES 14.0 16 14 12.0 11.5
43

50-59 60-69 70-79 80+

12.2 11 6.5 1.6

13 12 9 3.5

Source: Population journal 2009. Use a super imposed population pyramid to portray the above information in the table. A SUPER IMPOSED AGE AND SEX GRAPH SHOWING THE AGE STRUCTURE OF POPULATION IN CANADA 2000-2008.

Advantages of a Super imposed Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid) It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It summarises the population composition of two years more clearly. Less mathematical calculations are involved.
44

It can be super imposed to accommodate more data. Disadvantages of a Super imposed Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid). The method is only limited to population figures/data/information. If the data provided is ungrouped, it is tiresome to group it. A lot of time is needed for drawing. It only portrays data for a single variable i.e. population etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary. STATISTICAL RECTANGLES. These represent statistical data using a rectangle of which its horizontal area is equivalent to the sum total of the given raw variables. It is sub divided into several constituent parts. It mainly deals with the ground area used by the several activities e.g. forestry, fishing, wasteland, pastureland, farming etc. There are two types of divided rectangles namely:
(a) A SIMPLE DIVIDED RECTANGLE:

This only portrays information comprising of ground area of given territories or raw data or variables. Procedure of construction: Since the heights of the various parts is constant due to the constant horizontal scale. The vertical scale is irrelevant since nothing is to be plotted on that scale. Develop a horizontal scale. The length of the horizontal scale should be equivalent to the sum total of the raw figures given. Divide the rectangle into uniform strips with uniform heights. The different parts of the rectangle vary in length basing on the values.
45

There is adding on the horizontal axis while plotting the ground area and the activities carried out on it. Same shading is done for the similar economic activity of each ground area plotted. Example: The table below shows the land area under different agricultural uses in the selected regions in Kenya (000) hectares. REGION AREA(000 )

KERICHO ELDORET NAIROBI KISUMU NAKURU KAKAMEG KIRIMAN 461 340 331 45 37 30 25

Source: Agricultural report-Kenya. Use a simple divided rectangle to portray the above information

. A SIMPLE DIVIDED RECTANGLE SHOWING THE LAND AREA UNDER DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL USES IN THE SELECTED REGIONS IN KENYA (000) HECTARES.

KEY Kirimani Kakameg Nakuru Kisumu Nairobi

46

Eldoret Kericho Advantages of a simple divided rectangle. It is simple and easy to draw. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It portrays clearly ground area under agriculture by the specified regions. It involves less calculation compared to the more complex methods. Little time is taken since a few items are plotted. Disadvantages of a simple divided rectangle. It is limited to only specific data i.e. the ground area. It requires accuracy while plotting the ground area since addition are done on the horizontal axis. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary It can not accommodate additional information.

COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE RECTANGLE. This method portrays statistical data of both the ground area and the activities carried out on it. For the compound divided rectangle, divisions are done on both the vertical and horizontal axes. There is addition on both the horizontal axis (ground area) and on the vertical axis (activities) hence coming up with the sum total of the raw data or variables.

Procedure of construction: Develop the horizontal and the vertical scales.

47

The length of the horizontal scale should be equivalent to the sum total of the raw figures given. Divide the rectangle into uniform strips with uniform heights. The different parts of the rectangle vary in length basing on the values. There is adding on the horizontal and the vertical axes while plotting the ground area and the activities carried out on it respectively. Same shading is done for the similar economic activity of each ground area plotted.

Example: The table below shows the land use pattern in the selected African Countries in 1976. Percentage total land use area in 1976. Country Nigeria South Africa Algeria Kenya Zimbabwe Namibia Area(000)km2 Arable 470 340 330 50 52 34 38 25 68 20 28 30 Forestry 2 5 2 10 35 22 Pasture 5 20 10 52 25 41 Wasteland 55 50 30 28 12 7

Use a Compound divided rectangle to portray the above statistical information.

A COMPOUND DIVIDED RECTANGLE SHOWING THE LAND USE PATTERN IN THE SELECTED AFRICAN COUNTRIES IN 1976.

48

Advantages of the compound or divided or cumulative rectangle. It is simple and easy to draw. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It portrays a lot of information as compared to circles and bar graphs. It represents clearly the given activities of a particular region on the ground area. It can be superimposed to accommodate more data. It doesnt involve complicated calculations. Disadvantages of the compound or divided or cumulative rectangle. It is limited to only specific data e.g. activities and the ground area. It does not represent the raw figures since the divisions on either the vertical or horizontal axes are usually or always of a cumulative manner. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary It requires a lot of accuracy while drawing and developing the scales. It is tiresome since many variables are plotted. It is difficult to develop the vertical scale if the figures have a large ampulitude and decimal points.

49

STATISTICAL CIRCULAR OR CLOCK OR POLAR OR SPHERICAL GRAPHS. These represent statistical information using circles. They are also referred to as polar or clock graphs because their format of plotting or drawing originates from the northern campus direction. They represent statistical data mainly of temperature, rainfall, economic activities etc.

Procedure: Develop a scale to represent either temperature or rainfall or both on either the six Oclock 12 Oclock line. Draw a circle of any convenient size. Divide the circle into twelve segments each measuring up to 300 The twelve Oclock (northern direction line or the 00/3600 line represents the month of January and the other remaining segments are marked up to the month of December in a clockwise manner. In case the data given is for both rainfall and temperature, you can use the same twelve Oclock line to develop the vertical scale for the two variables OR you can develop the vertical scale for rainfall on the twelve Oclock line and for temperature you develop it on the six Oclock line. Rainfall is plotted using bars while temperature is plotted using a circular line. Where seasonal activities are given in the raw data or information, you draw two concentric circles i.e. the outer larger circle represents temperature and rainfall while the inner small or medium circle represents the seasonal activities. The seasonal activities are plotted by drawing circular cars shaded differently covering the area for the given specific month. The activities in the first month are plotted at almost next to the touchline of the inner circle. The next activities of the same month are plotted above the circular bar plotted of the same month. Therefore the plotting of the activities always draws towards the inner circle centre.

50

Avoid congesting the writings in the graph because it will confuse the reader in terms of understanding and interpretation. A circular graph showing only the climatic characteristics without activities done.

Example: A The table below shows the climatic characteristics for station Z Month Temperature oc Rainfall(mm) J 1 6 2 0 F 12 10 M A 7 3 0 7 25 M 12 54 J 13 31 J 18 79 A 16 48 S 11 36 O 7 21 N 3 20 D 12 15

A CIRCULAR GRAPH SHOWING THE CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR STATION Z.

O S A

J F M A

M J

A circular graph showing rainfall, temperature and the economic activities. Example B.
51

The table below shows the climatic characteristics for station Z Month Temperature oc Rainfall(mm) J 1 6 2 0 F 12 10 M A 7 3 0 7 25 M 12 54 J 13 31 J 18 79 A 16 48 S 11 36 O 7 21 N 3 20 D 12 15

Activities done: Bush clearing and burning are done during the dry season of December up to late January, ploughing is done in march and April, millet and sun flower are planted in may and June, hunting is done in July and august after all the work is done. Harvesting of millet and sunflower is done in September, maize and rice are planted in mid September and October, weeding of maize and rice is done for mid November up to mid December. Throughout the months of June, July and August, the farmer carries out spraying, pruning, addition of fertilizers. A CIRCULAR GRAPH SHOWING THE CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STATION Z AND THE FARMERS ACTIVITIES.

52

We can also use the graph to represent data of only the seasonal activities done in the year and the climatic characteristics. A circular graph showing only economic activities and the climatic characteristics. Example: C Activities done: Preparing of the farms and planting of crops is done in January, February and early March. Simple harvest is done in, April, May, June, farm modernization is done in July, August, September, major harvest is done in October, November and December. The dry season begins in ,January up to February and march, small season rains fall from, April, May, June, second dry season begins in July, August September , heavy rains fall from October, November up to December.

A CIRCULAR GRAPH SHOWING THE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS.

53

Advantages of circular graphs. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It portrays a lot of information as compared to circles and bar graphs. A lot of information can be represented e.g. rainfall, temperature and seasonal activities. Seasonal activities are clearly shown although the actual values relating to them are not used. It is good for comparison purposes. It involves less estimation while plotting.

Disadvantages of circular graphs. It is time consuming since a lot of information is plotted i.e. rainfall, temperature, seasonal activities. For the months far away from the scale, it is difficult to tell the exact figures. Numerous calculations are involved. It is congested with many variables i.e. rainfall, temperature, seasonal activities. It is only limited to climatic data and farmers activities. It is tiresome since one has to plot a lot of variables e.g. rainfall, temperature, seasonal activities. It requires a lot of accuracy while drawing and plotting. At times individual values are not easy to interpret because of congestion.

54

STATISTICAL CIRCLES. This method portrays statistical information using circles. The circles are grouped into three major categories namely: a) Divided circles or Pie Charts. b) Compound 0r Comparative or proportional circles. c) Proportional divided semi-circles.

DIVIDED CIRCLES OR PIE CHARTS. These represent data using a circle. Inside the circle, the degrees are plotted using different segments and shaded differently. Procedure: Draw a circle of any suitable and convenient size. Calculate the total of the variables given Convert the values for each sector into degrees using the formula
The formula is

Where x is the raw figure in the table. Draw a straight line in the anticlockwise direction beginning with the smallest and end with the biggest degree. In case the degrees calculated do not add up to 3600,the balance of the degrees is referred to as OTHERS and it is plotted last after all the worked out degrees have been plotted and its segment is not shaded because it represents no item. Indicate the degrees plotted for each segment inside the pie-chart.
55

Example: The table below shows the number of tourist received in the selected world countries in millions in 1997. Country USA Switzerland Japan Kenya Tanzania Uganda Total Source: Tourism Journal 2000. Calculations: No of Tourists. 33,400 40,100 27,500 1,060 651 474 103,185

56

A PIE-CHART SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TOURISTS RECEIVED BY THE SELECTED WORLD COUNTRIES IN MILLIONS IN 1997.

7 140 117 96

Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda Japan U.S.A Switzerland

Advantages of a pie-chart or Divided circle. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It can be used alongside a map in case the idea of location has to be shown. They occupy little space since the data is plotted in the circle space. Individual circles drawn can easily be interpreted. They represent a lot of data or information.

Disadvantages of a pie-chart or divided circle. Mathematical calculations are involved during the calculation of degrees A lot of time is needed during the calculation of degrees and plotting.
57

It is difficult to compare relative segments of circles that lack accurate measurements. It requires a lot of accuracy while drawing and plotting. Smaller degree figures i.e. of less than 100 are very hard and tiresome to plot. It becomes congested if many variables are plotted.

Proportional or Comparative or Compound Divided Circles. These circles portray information using circles whose size is calculated and determined by the calculated Radius (Radii). The raw values are converted into degrees using the formula: X Total Where x is the raw figure in the table. 3600

To calculate the radii of the circles, the formula is:

1) Total = r2 2) R=Total

Where is equal to 22 7 or 3.14

Example:

58

The table below shows the volume of Imports and Exports handled at the selected International ports in 1997 in metric tones.

Ports Rotterdam Prince Rupert Vancouver Amsterdam Total

Imports 1,111,110 132,120 713,001 135,549 2,091,780

Exports 5,001,111 15,046 1,065,531 57,833 7,139,521

Source: International trade journal 2000.

A: Calculations for the Degrees of Imports and Exports.

B: Calculations for the Radii of Imports and exports. Formulae: 1) Total = r2

2) R=Total 59

 Where is equal to 22 7 or 3.14

Imports:

Exports

PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED CIRCLES SHOWING THE VOLUME OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS HANDLED AT THE SELECTED INTERNATIONAL PORTS IN 1997 IN METRIC TONNES.

Imports: Radius 5.9cm

Exports: Radius 6.5cm

44.7

43.6 36.6 Prince Rupert Rotterdam Vancouver Amsterdam

Rotterdam Prince Rupert Vancouver Am sterdam

235.1

60

Note: Proportional divided circles can be used in conjunction with a map whose area is provided together with the raw data. Example: The table below shows the car types manufactured in the selected industrial regions of Japan in millions in 1980. Type Premio Ipsum Cruiser Corona Tokyo 6,013,142 2,910,082 7,802,290 4,780,000 Kyoto 6,000,000 3,311,907 6,158,805 6,000,200 Nagoya 6,394,141 1,412,312 7,137,381 6,490,000 Nagasaki 2,678,102 5,526,401 8,167,384 5,100,000 Total 21,085,385 13,160,702 21,098,476 22,370,200

Add up all the car type totals in order to get the sum total 77,714,763 Regional Totals: 21,505,514 21,470,912 21,433,834 21,471,887

A: Calculate the degrees for each car type in each region using the overall sum total i.e. 77,714,763 Tokyo Kyoto Nagoya Nagasaki

61

Calculate the Radii for each circle to be plotted in the selected regions. Formulae: 1) Total = r2 2) R=Total Where is equal to 22 7 or 3.14

Tokyo

Kyoto

Nagoya

Nagasaki

N.B. Use the Totals for each region to calculate the radii for each circle i.e. Tokyo 21,505,514, Kyoto 21,470,912, Nagoya 21,433,834, Nagasaki 21,471,887.

62

PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED CIRCLES SHOWING THE CAR TYPES MANUFACTURED IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIAL REGIONS OF JAPAN IN MILLIONS IN 1980.

PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED SEMI CIRCLES.

63

This method portrays information using divided semi-circles whose sizes are calculated and determine by the calculated radii. The raw values are converted into degrees using the formula.

x 180o Total

310 X 360 450

Where X is the raw value in the table . to calculate the radii of the semi circles , the formulate is;

(i)

Total = r2 where

= 22/7

(ii)

R=

Total

r2

where = 3.14.

A : Calculation for the degree of imports and exports degree imports

Degrees Imports

Degrees Exports.

Rotterdam

1111110 x 180o 2091780

Rotterdam

5001,111 x 180o 7139521

64

= 95.6

= 126o

Prince Rupert

132120 x 180o 2091780

prince Rupert 795,046 x 180o 7139521

= 11.3

= 20o

Vancouver

713001 x 180o 2091780

Vancouver

1065531 x 180o 7139521

= 61.3

= 26.8o

Amsterdam

135549 x 180o 2091780

Amsterdam

290000 x 180o 7139521

= 11.6 N.B We multiply by 180o because they are semi circle i.e 360 2 = 180o

= 7.3o

B. : Calculations for the radii of Import and Exports

Formulae :

1. Total =

r2
65

2.

Total

Imports

Exports.

2091780 = x 22/7 r2

7139521

= x 22/7 r2

2091780 = x 22/7 r2

7139521

= x 22/7 r2

2091780 = x

7 =

11r2

7139521

x 7 =11 r2

14642,460 11

= 11r2 11

49976647 = 11 r2 11 11
66

1,331,132.727 =r2

4543,331.545 = r2

1153.747255 = r

2131.509218 = r

33.96685523 = r

46.16827068 = r

5.8 cm = r

6.79 = r

= 6cm = r

= 7 cm = r

N.B We include in the formula because they are semicircle s i.e 1 2 = or 0.5.

ADVANTAGES OF PROPORTIONAL SEMI CIRCLES.

1. They use less space when drawn 2. They can be supper imposed 3. They represent a lot of data
67

4. They can be used for comparison purposes. 5. It provides a good visual impression if well drawn and shaded.

DISADVANTAGES . 1. Measurement of angles may be a bit difficult because of too much accuracy needed. 2. It is congested with a lot of variables which affects interpretation. 3. It involves a lot of mathematical calculations. 4. It requires a lot of time for drawing. 5. It is difficult to measure angles accurately.

NOTE: Proportional divided circles can be used in conjunction with a map whose area is provided together with the raw data.

Examples: The table below shows the car types manufactured in the selected industrial regions of Japan in millions in 1980.

Type Prado Ipsum Cruiser Corona

Tokyo 6,013,142 2,910,082 7,802,290 478,000 17,203,514

Kyota 600,000 3,311,907 6,158,805 6,000,200 2,147,092

Nagoya 6394,141 1,412,312 7,137,381 6,490,000 21,433,834

Nagasaki 2,678,102 5,526,401 8,167,384 5,700,000 21,471,887

Total. 5,517,486 13,160,702 2,073,670 707,377 21,459,195

Add up all the total to get the sum total.

68

A : Calculate the degrees for each car type in each region using the overall sum total e,g 21,459,195 Tokyo 1. Prado 6013142 x 360 21459195 100.8o Kyoto Prado 6000000 x 360 21459195 101o Nagoya Prado 6394141 x360 21459195 107o Nagasaki Prado 268102 x360 21459195 44.9o

2. Ipsum 2910,082 x 360 21459195 48.8o

Ipsum 3311907 x360 21459195 55.5o

Ipsum 1412312 x 360 21459195 23.6o

Ipsum 5526401 x360 21459195 44.9o

3. Cruiser 7802,290 X360 21459195 131o

Cruiser 6158805 x 360 21459195 103o

Cruiser 7137381 x360 21459195 120o

Cruiser 8167384 x 360 21459195 137o

4. Corona 4780000 x 360 21459195 80o

Corona 6000200 X 360 21459195 101o

Corona 6490000 x 360 21459195 108.8o

Corona 5100000x360 21459195 85.5o

69

Calculate the radii for each circle to be plotted in the selected regions.

Formulae

(i)

Total = r2

(ii)

R =

Total

where =

22

/7 or 3.14

Tokyo 17203514 x = 22/7 r2

Kyoto 21470912 x = 22/7 r2

Nagoya 21433834 x = 22/7 r2

Nagasaki 21471887 x = 22/7r2

17203514 x = 22/7 r2

21470912 x = 22/7 r2

21433834 x = 22/7 r2

21471887 x = 22/7r2

5473845.36

2339.6 = r

48 = r

6.9 = r

2.6 = r

70

N.B: Use the total for each region to calculate the radii for each circle.

Proportional divided circles showing the car types manufactured in the selected industrial region of Japan in millions in 1980.

PROPORTIONAL SQUARES.

This method portrays statistical information using squares whose sizes are equivalent to the given totals. The space or area to be occupied by each square is equivalent to the square root of the sum total of the variables given (raw data)

71

Procedure: 1. Calculate the totals 2. Calculate the squares roots of the totals for each year to be plotted. 3. Develop a suitable scale out the square roots derived to help you determine the length/ size of the square. 4. Draw the squares in a descending or ascending order if draw in individually. 5. If the squares are to be drawn in conjunction with a map, they should be drawn at the respective position on a map in relation to their values. 6. Shade the squares accordingly. 7. Develop a key.

Example. The table below the estimated total numbering of tourists received by Egypt 1970-2010 in millions.

Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Millions 164.2 500.8 1698.2 2750.4 6015.7

Calculation for the length of each square.

1970

Total = 164.2 L = 164.2

1980 Total = 500.8 L = 500.8

72

= 12.814 = 3.5796 = 1.892 = 1.9 cm

= 22.378 = 4.7305 = 2.174 = 2.2 cm

1990 Total = 1698.2

2000 Total = 2750.4 L = 2750.4 = 52.444 = 7.2418 = 2.691 = 2.7 cm

L = 1698.2 = 41.209 = 6.4194 = 2.533 = 2.5 cm 2010 Total = 6015.7

L = 6015.7 = 77.560 = 8.8068 = 2.9676 = 2.9 cm / 3.0 cm.

73

N.B; It is advisable to square root the total values to a level / figure that can give you a reasonable length of each square depending on the total of each year given. - At least square root the total value of each year three times. - Take the whole number and the first decimal figure /number. do not round off the first decimal number but you can round of the second decimal number.

SUPER IMPOSED PROPORTIONAL SQUARES.

Values of two different variables for a given year may be plotted co-currently or super imposed i.e the value of the first year ( base year) is plotted, i.e the outer square and the value of the final ( last) year are plotted inside the base year square.

Procedure: Calculate the square roots of the totals of each variable for each year.

Example: The table below shows Diamond and Gold minerals in South Africa 1950- 1990 in million tones.

Year 1950 1960 1970

Diamond 34440 41115 48340

Gold 10933 12845 13434

74

1980 1990

53880 59543

14500 14892

Calculation of the length of the two squares to be plotted fro each year while super imposed. 1950 Diamond L = 34440 = 185.58 = 13.622 = 3.69 = 3.7cm 1960 Diamond L = 41115 = 202.76 = 14.23 = 3.77 = 3.8 cm L 1950 Gold = 10933

= 104.56 = 10.225 = 3.19 = 3.2 cm 1960 Gold L = 12845 = 113.33 = 10.645 = 3.26 = 3.3 cm

1970

1970
75

L = 48340 = 219.86 = 14.827 = 3.85 =3.9cm

L = 13434 = 10.765 = 3.281 = 1.8 cm

1980 L = 53880 = 232.12 = 15.23 = 3.9 cm

1980 L= 14500 = 120.41 = 10.9 = 3.3 cm

1990 L = 595443 = 244.01 = 15.62 = 3.95 = 3.9 cm

1990 L = 14892 = 122.03 = 11.046 = 3.3 cm

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ADVANTAGES OF PROPORTIONAL SQUARES:

1. 2. 3. 4.

They can be used along side a map They call for a few mathematical calculation They can be used for comparison purposes They can be super-imposed.

DISADVANTAGES.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Assessment of relative values and areas of different sized proportional squares is difficult. Limited information is shown using proportional squares compared to other methods like proportional circles, divided circle etc. They involve a lot of mathematical calculation. They take a lot of time while deriving the radii of the squares.

WIND ROSE.

This method potrays information using wind frequencies recorded in a given month. There are two types of wind Roses namely:

77

(a) (b)

Simple wind Rose Compound wind Rose.

Procedure: (a) (b) (c) (d) Draw a circle of any convenient size to become the centre of the wind rose while plotting. Draw compass directions as given in the table. Develop a scale to help you in determining the length of each bar i.e for the simple wind rose. Write the value of the calm given in the table in the middle of the same or uniform width in correspondence to the scale developed to be used in each compass direction while plotting.

Example: The table below shows data of the frequency of wind and compass wind directions recorded in a month at station Z in New Dehli- India.

Compass Wind Direction Number of days

N 5

NE E 3 2

SE 2

S 3

SW 6

W 5

NW Calm 3 3

GRAPH.

78

COMPOUND WIND ROSE.

This method potrays statistical information using wind frequencies, wind speed and wind direction in a cumulative way in each wind / compass direction.

PROCEDURE:

(a) (b) (c)

Plot the winds with the least velocities near to the central circle point. Shade the bars differently in order to differentiate the wind velocities plotted of different speed. Calculate the totals of the wind speeds for each wind direction e.g East = South = North =

After plotting the first wind speed of a given wind direction, you add on the following wind speed value and then plot the total you have derived. Divide the values of the wind speed in each wind direction by two to determine the length of each wind direction The raw wins speed totals of each wind direction divided by two , the resultant figure will be equal to the length of each bar.

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After plotting the first bar then plot the second bar on top of the bar, but of a with a different size compared to the first bar up to the last bar. Develop a key for the graph using the wind speeds.

Example: The table below shows the mean annual percentage frequency of wind speed and direction of situation. Z in New Dehli- India.

WIND SPEED

WIND DIRECTION BY PERCENTAGE. N NE 3.1 3.8 4.0 2.8 E 2.5 3.0 3.2 2.3 SE 3.1 2.9 3.5 1.8 S 2.3 1.6 1.6 1.3 SW 4.2 4.3 3.4 3.8 W 2.2 3.2 1.4 0.8 NW 3.4 2.2 2.4 1.6

Less than 3 mph 3-11 mph 12-23 mph

1.2 2.3 1.4

More than 23 1.0 mph Totals 5.9

13.7

11

11.3

6.8

15.7

7.6

9.6

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Table of the divided wind speed by two of each wind direction. Wind speed Wind direction by percentage.

N Less than 3 mph 3-11 mph 12-23mph More than 23 mph 0.6 1.2 0.7 0.5

NE 1.6 1.9 2.0 1.4

E 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.2

SE 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.0

S 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0

SW 2.1 2.2 1.7 1.9

W 1.1 1.6 1.0 0.4

NW 1.7 1.1 1.2 1.0

Use the above derived new wind speed values to plot the compound wind rose.

Graph.

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ADVANTAGES OF WIND ROSES.

1. It can be used alongside a map when drawn on the respective position. 2. It best represents wind speed, and wind velocities. 3. It is easy to draw. 4. It is easy to interprete if well drawn and shaded. 5. It is good for comparison purposes. 6. It can be super imposed to accommodate more data.

DISADVANTAGES OF WIND ROSES.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It is only limited to real or specific data i.e wind speed and velocities. It involves a lot of mathematical calculation in relation to the compound approach. A lot of time is needed while drawing compound to the simple bar graphs. It needs a lot of accuracy while drawing. It requires a lot of space for drawing.

STATISTICAL MAPS.

Geographical statistical information can be portrayed using maps with scaled values showing the nature of the information or data given. There are different statistical maps used in Geography to portray statistical information and these include:

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Dot maps / Distribution maps Choropleth ( shading ) maps Flow maps Isoline maps.

DOT MAP / DISTRIBUTION MAPS.

This method portrays statistical data using dots of uniform size, placed on a dispersion map provided to you. PROCEDURE:

Determine the value of each dot. Develop a dot scale e.g. 1 dot represent 1,000,000 people. Divide the raw population value / figure of each area by the scale value/ figure in order to get the number of dots to be placed in the dispersion map provided.

DOT SCALE DEVELOPMENT GUIDE.

If the raw population value / figure given are in millions, then 1 dot will represent 100,000 people. If the raw population value / figure given are in one hundred thousands, then 1 dot will represent 10,000 people.
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If the raw population figures given are in ten thousands then 1 dot will represent 1000 people. If the raw population figures given are in one thousand then 1 dot will represent 100 people. If the raw population figures given are in one hundred then 1 dot will represent 10 people. If the raw population figures given are in tens , then 1 dot will represent 1 person.

NUMERICAL SUMMARY.

1,000,000 people 100,000 10,000 1000 100 10

100,000 = 100 dots

people 10,000 = 10 dots people 1000 = 10 dots people 100 people 10 people 1 = 10 dots = = 10 dots 10 dots

EVENLY DISTRIBUTE OR PLACE THE DOTS. In the area / place provided for a given region on a dispersion map. NYLON OR FIBRE OR UNO pens are highly recommended to be used while placing the dots on a dispersion map. So that the dots appear with a uniform size. N.B In case such pens are not available, one should be more careful while placing the dots to

ensure uniformity in size. Example: The table below showing the area population densities of Kenya. TOWNS LAND AREA IN POPULATION KM2 POPULATION DENSITY.

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Kisii Nairobi Kisumu Kericho Nakuru Nyeri Katiado Machakos Taita Kitui

14308.7 15222.2 9677.3 3347.8 3412.5 2848.5 3987.4 5931.8 725.6 4344.4

172,334 199,732 387,732 393,674 667,823 84,874 728,534 732,662 234,421 411,540

14 15 61 89 230 53 184 142 348 120

Table of derived dots.

Districts

Numbers of dots.

Kisii Nairobi Kisumu Kericho Nakuru Nyeri Katiado Machakos Taita Kitui

17 20 39 39 67 8 73 73 23 41
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Formula:

Since the raw population values are in one hundred thousands, therefore 1 dot represent

10,000 people. Dot calculations. Kisii 172,334 10,000 Nairobi 199732 = 19.9732 = 20 dots 10,000 Kisumu 387732 10,000 Kericho 393674 = 39.3674 = 39 dots 10,000 Nakuru 10,000 Nyeri 84874 10,000 Kajiado 728,534 = 10,000 Machakos 732662 10,000 Taita 234421 = 23.4421 = 23 dots
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= 17.2334

= 17 dots

= 38.7732 = 39 dots

667823

= 66.7823

= 67 dots

= 8.4874 = 8 dots

72.8534

= 73 dots

= 73.2662 = 73 dots

10,000 Kitui 411540 = 41.1540 = 41 dots 10,000 Where you get the number of dots having decimals, you round the first decimal place only because human beings are a whole sum figure.

ADVANTAGES OF DOT MAPS / DISTRIBUTION MAPS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. It involves a few and simple mathematical calculations. Placing the dots take little time. It is suitable for comparison purposes for different countries and their population sizes. It is easy to draw. It is easy to interprete if well drawn. It takes little time to derive the dots.

DISADVANTAGES OF DOT / DISTRIBUTION MAPS. 1. Placing of uniform sized dots is not sp easy. 2. It requires too much care and accuracy while placing the dots to avoid excesses or deficiencies 3. Congestion and overcrowding of dots in a given location may affect proper interpretation. 4. Distribution of dots is easy. 5. It takes a lot of time to distribute the dots.

CHOROPLETH

(SHADING) MAPS.

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This method portrays geographical statistical relationships between quantities and the area provided on a dispersion map. In other words, choropleth maps are quantities area maps showing differences in population densities of given areas. They show the mean or average numerical values in relation to the units of area provided on a dispersion map.

PROCEDURE:

Develop classes of average densities that are almost close. Group those classes into a range of boundaries Shade the map units basing on the boundaries determined by the class groups. The shading should show a progressive increase or decrease in population density. Darker or thicker shading tone should be used in units with high population density. The thickness of the shading keeps on reducing depending on the level of population density. The less the density, the less is the shading thickness or darkness. Use a simple mathematical progression to determine the range or class intervals or boundaries e.g. 1-50, 51-100 1-10, 11- 20 etc.

Develop a key basing on the class intervals developed or basing on the sghading brackets.

EXAMPLES ; Table showing the area population densities of Eastern Uganda

TOWNS

LAND AREA IN POPULATION KM2

POPULATION DENSITY.

Jinja Tororo

14308.7 15222.2

172,334 199,732

14 15
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Iganga Kamuli Kotido Moroto Soroti Kumi Kapchorwa Mbale

9677.3 3347.8 3412.5 2848.5 3987.4 5931.8 725.6 4344.4

387,732 393,674 667,823 84,874 728,534 732,662 234,421 411,540

61 89 230 53 184 142 348 120

Districts

Numbers of dots.

Jinja Tororo Iganga Kamuli Kotido Moroto Soroti Kumi Kapchorwa Mbale

17 20 39 39 67 8 73 73 23 41

Average range class boundaries developed from the population density figures.

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1-50 51-100 101- 150 151- 200 201-250

Jinja, Tororo Iganga ,Kamuli , Kotido Moroto , Soroti Kumi Kapichorwa

251 and above Mbale

KEY:

1-50

151-200

51-100

201-250

251 and above. 101-150

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ADVANTAGES OF CHOROPLETH / SHADING MAPS.

1. 2.

The distinctive forming of shading makes interpretation so easy. Drawing takes little time since the map is already provided and the only thing required is the shading.

DISADVANTAGES OF CHOROPLETH / SHADING MAPS.

1. 2. 3.

Development of class population boundaries is not so easy Population densities are not usually uniform which makes the shading and grouping to become hard or complicated. There is obtrusiveness of boundary lines.

FLOW MAP.

This statistical method portrays geography information or data using movements of either traffic or goods ( exports or imports) from one place to another originating from one central location or points or source up to the different identified destinations .

PROCEDURE:
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Develop a convenient or a suitable scale to help you in determining the width of each flow line. Draw lines with a varying width in relation to the quantity from the source region up to the identified destination. Flow lines should be drawn properly to give a clear impression of the flow routes to be followed . Circle should be drawn at a joint where many flow lines do collect to enables the flow lines to be independent instead of appearing too congested at the central point. Use different shading patterns or colours in case more than one item is to be portrayed fro easy differentiation e.g portraying Gold and Diamond or Import and Exports. You can write some import factual information within or on alongside the flow lines. The length of the flow lines only shows the direction of the flow of the items portrayed from the source region up to the identified destination. Develop a key and a scale for the diagram.

N. B The most important aspect of this method is the WIDTH of the flow lines, simply because it shows the size of the quantity moving to an identified location.

Examples: The table below shows the export trade of South Africa in 2000 to the selected world countries in $000.

Importing countries Britain U.S.A Canada

Exports value $000 33,613 19998 13,673

Flow line width calculated. 0.6 cm 0.3 cm 0.2 cm

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Germany Paraguary Australia

12,958 10,115 8,660

0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.1 cm

Development of the scale. Highest value Lowest value 33,613 8,660

We push the highest value to 50,000 in order to get a scale that we can divide throughout all the export value figures in order to get widths that are not too small or too exaggerated or big. There fore the scale will be 1: 50000$

Calculation of the widths Formula is Britain = 33613 50,000 = 0.6 item value scale factor.

USA

= 19998 50,000

=0.3

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Canada = 13673 = 0.2 50,000

Germany

= 12958 = 0.2 50,000

Paraguay = 10115 = 0.2 50,000

Australia = 8660 50,000

= 0.1

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N.B. If there are flow lines to be drawn to a given destinations in the same region, then you first draw the flow line with the bigger width and then after you tap from that very line. The flow lines to the neighboring destinations. This helps in reducing of too many line drawn on a map that may end up criss- crossing hence confusion.

After developing the flow line widths, then take measurements from the ruler using the compass or set divider. It is always preferably better if you draw the flow lines using a free hand style instead of using a ruler in order to bring out the flow line phenomenon.

ADVANTAGES OF A FLOW MAP.

1. The flow of goods or traffic from the source region to other destinations is clearly portrayed. 2. little time is taken while drawing

DISADVANTAGES OF FLOW MAP. 1. It is not easy to estimate the actual values represented by each flow line.

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SUPER IMPOSED FLOW MAP. This methods portrays traffic or goods that are of different types e.gs exports and imports of a given country in relation to other countries. Procedure: Two different flow lines of different width are drawn intertwined moving from the source region up to the identified destination but shaded differently.

Examples: The table below shows the trade volumes between South Africa and the selected world countries in $000 in 2000.

Trading countries Britain U.S.A Canada Germany Paraguary Australia

Exports $1000 33,613 19998 13,673 12,958 10,115 8,660

in Imports $000

Export line width

flow Import line width. 0.6 cm 0.3 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.1 cm

flow

25,058 12,000 10,750 10,840 10,000 9,750

0.6 cm 0.3 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.1 cm

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Calculations for the exports and imports flow line width.

Exports: Britain 33,613 = 0.6 50,000

Imports : Britain = 25058 = 0.5 cm 50,000

USA

= 19998 50,000

=0.3

USA = 12000 = 0.2 cm 50,000

Canada = 10750 = 0.2 cm Canada = 13673 = 0.2 50,000 Germany = 12958 = 0.2 50,000 Germany = 10840 = 0.2 cm 50,000 50,000

Paraguay = 10115 = 0.2 50,000 Paraguay = 10000 = 0.2 cm 50,000

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Australia = 8660 50,000

= 0.1

Australia = 9750 = 0.1 cm 50,000

ADVANTAGES OF SUPER IMPOSED FLOW MAP.

1. More than one item or traffic can be clearly shown on the super imposed or intertwined flow line. I.e exports and imports.

DISADVANTAGES OF SUPER IMPOSED FLOW MAP.

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ISOLINE MAP / ISOPLETHS / ISORITHMS ISOMETRIC LINE MAP.

The term Isoline was derived from two languages i.e Greek and English e.g. ISOS which means equal. Isolines are used to join places of the same temperature (Isobars), salinity (Isohalines) cloudiness (Isonephs), ocean depths (Isobaths), and rain fall (Isohytes)

Isolines are used to join places or points with equal values in terms of rain fall, cloudiness, ocean depths salinity, atmospheric pressure and temperature, Under this method, a base map is provided with statistics of a given variable at given points and values marked.

Procedure:

Join the points with the same or equal using a smooth flowing line, Avoid isolines crossing each other. Shade or colour different the area or space between the isolines can be numbered . If there is no shading or colouring of the area or space between the isolines drawn. Develop value intervals basing on the regular increases e.g 20,40, 60 80 100 etc. or basing on the geometrical progression e.g 2,4,6,8,10 etc. develop value with equal values in the
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same range, can be joined and hence come up with a uniform shading patch or pattern e.g 100-149 , 150-199, 200-249 there fore value interval is 49.

Example: the base map below shows the rain fall totals of calabor region in Nigeria in 2008.

ADVANTAGES OF ISOLINE MAPS.

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1. 2. 3. 4.

It indicates the small differences within a statistical unit. It avoids obtrusiveness of boundary lines. It is can be super imposed on other types of maps without obscuring too many details. It is possible to determine a wide range of correlations since there is the use of an overlay of a tracing paper.

DISADVANTAGES OF ISOLINE MAPS.

1. 2. 3. 4.

It is more liable to give the incorrect impression that decrease or increase between a single isoline. It needs a high level of Accuracy in joining points in the same value intervals It is not so easy to develop the value intervals. When the values are too congested while joining the points with the same values.

Disadvantages of a grouped or comparative line graph.

It may cause confusion since more than one line is drawn on the same graph. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary. It needs more time while drawing compared to the simple line graphs.

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COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE LINE GRAPHS. Under this method, data or information is portrayed in accumulative way. The lines plotted are not supposed to criss cross. In case this happens, the whole graph becomes wrong. There is vertical addition of the values for each item to be plotted so that the cumulative way comes out i.e. the line segments separate the component parts of the sum total of the values plotted for each variable or item. Example: The table below shows the % H.E.P energy consumption in the selected industries in Japan between 1940-2000. YEAR INDUSTRY MINING TEXTILES FOODS DRINKS 1940 1960 33 24 32 39 16 21 19 16
102

&

1980 2000

11 08

42 42

23 24

24 26

Procedure: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed. Develop a cumulative table to portray the progressive totals of the variables given. Draw lines portraying a variation in the variables given. Shade the space between the lines drawn for distinction purposes to show what area has been covered by a given variable. You can add some simple writings on the lines to indicate what each line represents. With the compound or divided or cumulative line graph, you can plot the values beginning from the least values ending with the highest values or you can begin with the highest values and end with the least values. While plotting, use the values developed in the cumulative table but not the original values. Therefore the cumulative table is very important as you begin your work.

Cumulative table: Sector Industry Mining Textiles Foods & Drinks. 1940 33 65 81 100 1960 32 63 84 100 1980 11 53 76 100 2000 08 50 74 100

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A COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE LINE GRAPH SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE H.E.P ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIES IN JAPAN BETWEEN 1940-2000.

Advantages of a compound or divided or cumulative line graph. It portrays a wide range of items or information. A compound line graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. The totals are clearly shown on the graph.

Disadvantages of a compound or divided or cumulative line graph. A wide range of calculations are involved in the initial stages of the graph development e.g. the calculations for the cumulative table. A lot of time is required while drawing.
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It requires a lot of accuracy while calculating and drawing. Single values are hard to read from the graph because of the cumulative figures.

DIVERGENCE LINE GRAPH This method portrays variations in form of fluctuations of a given product below or above average for a given period of time e.g. such fluctuations can be envisaged in population growth, mineral, crop production, imports and exports, profits and losses. Procedure: Add all the figures provided and get their total. Calculate their average. Calculate the divergences of each year by subtracting the average from each value of a given specific year.
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The graph must be divided into two sections i.e. the positive (upper) and the negative (lower) separated by a thick zero marked line. Develop a vertical scale using the values of the divergences extracted and that scale should be used on both the positives (Excess) and the negatives (shortfall). Values that are positive are plotted on the upper positive side of the graph while the negative values are plotted on the lower side of the graph. The graph possesses only one vertical and horizontal scale. Join the dots of the values plotted with a straight line using a ruler.

Example: The table below shows immigrants from LDCS to USA from 1970 - 1977 in millions. 1970 645 1971 464 1972 700 1973 515 1974 560 1975 643 1976 548 1977 660

Source: world population journal 1980.

Calculations: (v) Total =645+464+700+515+560+643+548+660 Total =4735 Number of values Average (vi) 8 591.8(mean)

Calculations for the divergences. 645-591.8= +53.2 464-591.8= -127.8 700-591.8= +108.2
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515-591.8= -76.8 560-591.8= -31.8 643-591.8= +51.2 548-591.8= -43.8 660-591.8=+68.2 Plot the divergences following the order of their appearance in the table from the first up to the last figure.

A DIVERGENCE LINE GRAPH SHOWING IMMIGRANTS FROM LDCS TO USA FROM 1970-1977 IN MILLIONS.

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Advantages of a divergence line graph. It portrays a variation in the variables i.e. where there was an excess or a short fall. Little time is taken while drawing the graph. It is easy to draw after deriving the divergences. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods.

Disadvantages of a divergence line graph. It involves mathematical calculations while deriving the divergences. Since it portrays divergences rather than the original values, confusion may arise during interpretation. It only portrays data for a single variable e.g. production of a given mineral, crop, exports and imports, population growth etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.

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BAR GRAPHS These are used to portray statistical data or information using bars. They include: e) A Simple bar graph. f) A Grouped or comparative bar graph. g) A Compound or divided or cumulative bar graph. h) An Age and sex bar graph (population pyramid).

A SIMPLE BAR GRAPH This method portrays data using bars in a simple form. In Type A, bars are plotted lying in a vertical form. Under this format, the data provided in the table indicates the aspect of time e.g. months, years etc. Procedure: The dependent variables e.g. production, population, rainfall, temperature etc. and these variables are plotted on the vertical Axis. The independent variables e.g. hours, weeks, months, years are plotted on the horizontal axis. Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed on each graph. Both the vertical and horizontal axes should begin from zero. Bars can be drawn occupying fully the available space on the horizontal axis.
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Bars should be shaded uniformly since data of a single variable is plotted. Note: Bars can be drawn while spaced. This is mainly recommended when you are plotting data concerning production of crops, minerals, timber, population etc. But while plotting climatic data, it is highly recommended to draw the bars without spaces although either way, the presentation is accepted. What matters most while plotting is the length but not the width of the bars. The bars should of the same size in order to avoid misinterpretation. Information can be easily added on the graph if the bars are drawn horizontally. Example: The table below shows the mean monthly rainfall of Natal-South Africa 2006 Month Rainfall (mm) Source: National meteological Centre-Natal South Africa A SIMPLE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL OF NATALSOUTH AFRICA 2006. 1(bars drawn vertically without spaces) J 130 F 120 M 170 A 180 M 240 J 270 J 300 A 290 S 270 O 240 N 200 D 170

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2 (bars drawn vertically with spaces in between)

In Type B, bars are plotted lying in a horizontal form. Using this second style, bars are drawn lying horizontally especially if the data given in the table does not indicate the aspect of time. Therefore the horizontal scale is developed using the variables given. Example: The table below shows the imports of Rwanda in (000) Dollars. Oil 300,000 Clothings 489,874 Electronics 320,625 Machinery 187,478 Drugs 296,111 Food 95,421

Source: African journal

A SIMPLE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE IMPORTS OF RWANDA IN (000) DOLLARS.

1(bars drawn horizontally without spaces)

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2 (bars drawn horizontally with spa

Advantages of a simple bar graph. A simple bar graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods.

Disadvantages of a simple bar graph. It represents very little (simple) information. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.

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GROUPED OR COMPARATIVE BAR GRAPH This method represents data in a grouped form for each year but each variable is shaded differently for easy interpretation. Procedure: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed. For the vertical scale, observe the highest and the lowest values. Develop a vertical scale where the highest and the least values can be plotted e.g. 1cm reps 1000 crop tones. Horizontal scale will be 4cm reps 1 year in order to avoid congestion of the lines There should be uniform space left between each group of bars drawn. It is advisable to plot the data in a descending order i.e. starting from the highest figure ending with the least figure from left to right. Bars should be shaded differently and the same shading pattern used in the first set of bars should be maintained across all the other sets of bars drawn for the following years. There is no addition on the vertical axis under the group or comparative bar graph. The values are plotted in their raw form. Each year should get the values for each item.
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Example:
The table below shows the principal crops of Canada by area 1970-1973.

WHEAT 1970 1971 1972 1973 4760 5462 6500 5950

BARLEY 1300 1215 915 1111

HAY 2300 2580 2430 2412

OATS 780 753 670 500

Source: Agricultural statistics in the prairies of Canada.

A GROUPED OR COMPARATIVE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL CROPS OF CANADA BY AREA 1970-1973.

114

Advantages of a grouped or comparative bar graph. It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It portrays a wide range of items or information. It involves a few calculations compared to the more complex methods.

Disadvantages of a grouped or comparative bar graph. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary. It needs more accuracy while drawing compared to the simple bar graphs.

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COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE BAR GRAPH. This method portrays data in a cumulative way. Bars accumulate on top of one another whereby each bar represents the sum total of each variable. Example: The table below shows the % H.E.P energy consumption in the selected industries in Japan between 1940-2000. YEAR INDUSTRY MINING TEXTILES FOODS DRINKS 1940 1960 1980 2000 33 24 11 08 32 39 42 42 16 21 23 24 19 16 24 26 &

Source: world energy journal report 2006. Use a compound bar graph to portray the above statistical information. Procedure of construction: Both the vertical and horizontal scales should be developed.
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Develop a cumulative table to portray the progressive totals of the variables given. Draw bars portraying a variation in the variables given. Shade the bars drawn differently for distinction purposes to show what area has been covered by a given variable. With the compound or divided or cumulative bar graph, you plot the values beginning from the highest values ending with the least values. The order of plotting and shading followed in the first set of bars should be maintained throughout the other bars be drawn after. There is vertical addition of the values for each item to be plotted so that the cumulative way comes out i.e. the line segments separate the component parts of the sum total of the values plotted for each variable or item.

While plotting, use the values developed in the cumulative table but not the original values. Therefore the cumulative table is very important as you begin your work. Equal space should be left between the bars drawn portraying data for each year.

Cumulative table: Sector Industry Mining Textiles Foods & Drinks. 1940 33 55 71 100 1960 24 63 84 100 1980 11 53 76 100 2000 08 50 74 100

A COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE BAR GRAPH SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIES IN JAPAN BETWEEN 1940-2000.
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Advantages of a compound or divided or cumulative bar graph. It portrays a wide range of items or information. A compound bar graph is easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. The totals are clearly shown on the graph.

Disadvantages of a compound or divided or cumulative bar graph. A wide range of calculations are involved in the initial stages of the graph development e.g. the calculations for the cumulative table. A lot of time is required while drawing. It requires a lot of accuracy while calculating and drawing. Single values are hard to read from the graph because of the cumulative figures.
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DIVERGENCE BAR GRAPH This method portrays variations in form of fluctuations of a given product below or above average for a given period of time e.g. such fluctuations can be envisaged in population growth, mineral, crop production, imports and exports, profits and losses. Procedure: Add all the figures provided and get their total. Calculate their average. Calculate the divergences of each year by subtracting the average from each value of a given specific year. The graph must be divided into two sections i.e. the positive (upper) and the negative (lower) separated by a thick zero marked line. Develop a vertical scale using the values of the divergences extracted and that scale should be used on both the positives (Excess) and the negatives (shortfall). Values that are positive are plotted on the upper positive side of the graph while the negative values are plotted on the lower side of the graph.
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The graph possesses only one vertical and horizontal scale. Draw bars of a uniform size. Equal space should be left between the vertical axis and the adjacent bar. The same space should be left between the other bars during construction.

Example: The table below shows immigrants from LDCS to USA from 1970 - 1977 in millions. 1970 645 1971 464 1972 700 1973 515 1974 560 1975 643 1976 548 1977 660

Source: world population journal 1980. Use a divergence bar graph to portray the above statistical information.

Calculations: (vii) Total =645+464+700+515+560+643+548+660 Total =4735 Number of values Average 8 591.8(mean)

(viii)

Calculations for the divergences. 645-591.8= +53.2 464-591.8= -127.8 700-591.8= +108.2
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515-591.8= -76.8 560-591.8= -31.8 643-591.8= +51.2 548-591.8= -43.8 660-591.8=+68.2 Plot the divergences following the order of their appearance in the table from the first up to the last figure. A DIVERGENCE BAR GRAPH SHOWING IMMIGRANTS FROM LDCS TO USA FROM 1970-1977 IN MILLIONS.

Advantages of a divergence bar graph. It portrays a variation in the variables i.e. where there was an excess or a short fall. Little time is taken while drawing the graph. It is easy to draw after deriving the divergences. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods.

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Disadvantages of a divergence bar graph. It involves mathematical calculations while deriving the divergences. Since it portrays divergences rather than the original values, confusion may arise during interpretation. It only portrays data for a single variable e.g. production of a given mineral, crop, exports and imports, population growth etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.

AGE AND SEX GRAPHS (POPULATION PYRAMIDS)

This method involves bars drawn to portray population (demographic) characteristics given for either a region or a country. The final appearance of the bars after drawing is in a pyramidal shape.
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Procedure of construction: The bars are drawn horizontally not vertically using the horizontal axes and scales. Two bar graphs are drawn side by side representing different sexes. The size of the age groups is represented on the horizontal scale while the age groups are represented on the vertical scale. The females and males are represented on different sides i.e. side by side. Usually the age group interval ranges between a five year period e.g. 0-4. 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, etc. but any other age group interval can be used basing on the data or information given. It is advisable to plot the females on the right hand side and the males on the left hand side of the graph. A uniform horizontal scale is written on both the female and the male side. For comparison purposes, the two horizontal scales must be drawn in the same order. Always choose a convenient scale to help you draw a graph to look normal. Avoid developing an exaggerated horizontal or vertical scale in order for your graph not to look so wide or elongated nor too narrow.

Example: The table below shows the age structure of population in USA (1990 Population Census). AGE GROUP MALE % FEMALE %
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0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80+

9.5 8.0 7.5 7.4 8.8 9.4 8.6 7.8 7.6 6.8 4.7 4.0 3.7 3.4 2.4 1.0 0.8

8.5 7.0 6.9 6.9 8.6 8.9 8.4 7.9 7.3 7.0 5.8 4.6 4.2 3.6 2.6 1.6 1.4

SOURCE: World Population journal 1995 Use an Age and sex graph to portray the above statistical information. AGE AND SEX GRAPH SHOWING THE AGE STRUCTURE OF POPULATION IN USA (1990 POPULATION CENSUS).

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Advantages of Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid) It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It summarises the population composition clearly. Less mathematical calculations are involved. Disadvantages of Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid). The method is only limited to population figures/data/information. If the data provided is ungrouped, it is tiresome to group it.
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A lot of time is needed for drawing. It only portrays data for a single variable i.e. population etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary

SUPER IMPOSED AGE AND SEX GRAPH (POPULATION PYRAMID) This graph is used to portray demographic or population characteristics of both the females and the males of different years e. 2000 and 2002. A special and different procedure of constructing a super imposed age and sex graph is used. Procedure of construction: The bars are drawn horizontally not vertically using the horizontal axes and scales. Two bar graphs are drawn side by side representing different sexes. The size of the age groups is represented on the horizontal scale while the age groups are represented on the vertical scale. The females and males are represented on different sides i.e. side by sied. Usually the age group interval ranges between a five year period e.g 0-4.5-9,10-14,15-19, etc. but any other age group interval can be used basing on the data or information given. It is advisable to plot the females on the right hand side and the males on the left hand side of the graph. A uniform horizontal scale is written on both the female and the male side. For comparison purposes, the two horizontal scales must be drawn in the same order. Always choose a convenient scale to help you draw a graph to look normal. Avoid developing an exaggerated horizontal or vertical scale in order for your graph not to look so wide or elongated nor too narrow.

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Plot the values or population characteristics of the same sex for the two years intertwined in one bar i.e. the males of 2000 and 2008. Always begin with the plotting of the population characteristics of the first year (base year) e.g. 2000 and then plot the population characteristics for the last year 2008 (final year) inside the bar of the first (base) year 2000. Maintain a uniform size of the bars. Shade the bars for both the females and the males. The same shading should be maintained all through. Example: The tables below shows the age structure of population in Canada 2000-2008 2000 AGE GROUP 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80+ % MALES 25 20 19 15 10 7.4 5 2.0 1.5 % FEMALES 23 21 17 15 10 8.4 6 3.0 1.7

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2008 AGE GROUP % MALES % FEMALES 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80+ 15.4 18 15.8 12.6 12 12.2 11 6.5 1.6 14.0 16 14 12.0 11.5 13 12 9 3.5

Source: Population journal 2009. Use a super imposed population pyramid to portray the above information in the table.

A SUPER IMPOSED AGE AND SEX GRAPH SHOWING THE AGE STRUCTURE OF POPULATION IN CANADA 2000-2008.

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Advantages of a Super imposed Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid) It is simple and easy to draw. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret compared to the more complex methods. It summarises the population composition of two years more clearly. Less mathematical calculations are involved. Disadvantages of a Super imposed Age and Sex graph (Population Pyramid). The method is only limited to population figures/data/information. If the data provided is ungrouped, it is tiresome to group it. A lot of time is needed for drawing. It only portrays data for a single variable i.e. population etc. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary.

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STATISTICAL RECTANGLES. These represent statistical data using a rectangle of which its horizontal area is equivalent to the sum total of the given raw variables. It is sub divided into several constituent parts. It mainly deals with the ground area used by the several activities e.g. forestry, fishing, wasteland, pastureland, farming etc. There are two types of divided rectangles namely:
(b) A SIMPLE DIVIDED RECTANGLE:

This only portrays information comprising of ground area of given territories or raw data or variables. Procedure of construction: Since the heights of the various parts is constant due to the constant horizontal scale. The vertical scale is irrelevant since nothing is to be plotted on that scale. Develop a horizontal scale. The length of the horizontal scale should be equivalent to the sum total of the raw figures given. Divide the rectangle into uniform strips with uniform heights. The different parts of the rectangle vary in length basing on the values. There is adding on the horizontal axis while plotting the ground area and the activities carried out on it. Same shading is done for the similar economic activity of each ground area plotted.

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Example: The table below shows the land area under different agricultural uses in the selected regions in Kenya (000) hectares. REGION AREA(000 ) Source: Agricultural report-Kenya. Use a simple divided rectangle to portray the above information.

KERICHO ELDORET NAIROBI KISUMU NAKURU KAKAMEG KIRIMAN 461 340 331 45 37 30 25

A SIMPLE DIVIDED RECTANGLE SHOWING THE LAND AREA UNDER DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL USES IN THE SELECTED REGIONS IN KENYA (000) HECTARES.

Advantages of a simple divided rectangle.

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It is simple and easy to draw. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It portrays clearly ground area under agriculture by the specified regions. It involves less calculation compared to the more complex methods. Disadvantages of a simple divided rectangle. It is limited to only specific data i.e. the ground area. It requires accuracy while plotting the ground area since addition are done on the horizontal axis. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary

COMPOUND OR DIVIDED OR CUMULATIVE RECTANGLE. This method portrays statistical data of both the ground area and the activities carried out on it. For the compound divided rectangle, divisions are done on both the vertical and horizontal axes. There is addition on both the horizontal axis (ground area) and on the vertical axis (activities) hence coming up with the sum total of the raw data or variables.

Procedure of construction: Develop the horizontal and the vertical scales. The length of the horizontal scale should be equivalent to the sum total of the raw figures given. Divide the rectangle into uniform strips with uniform heights. The different parts of the rectangle vary in length basing on the values.

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There is adding on the horizontal and the vertical axes while plotting the ground area and the activities carried out on it respectively. Same shading is done for the similar economic activity of each ground area plotted.

Example: The table below shows the land use pattern in the selected African Countries in 1976. Percentage Country Nigeria South Africa Algeria Kenya Zimbabwe Namibia Area(000)km2 Arable 470 340 330 50 52 34 38 25 68 20 28 30 Total land Forestry 2 5 2 10 35 22 Use area Pasture 5 20 10 52 25 41 1976 Wasteland 55 50 30 28 12 7

Use a Compound divided rectangle to portray the above statistical information.

A COMPOUND DIVIDED RECTANGLE SHOWING THE LAND USE PATTERN IN THE SELECTED AFRICAN COUNTRIES IN 1976.

133

Advantages of the compound or divided or cumulative rectangle. It is simple and easy to draw. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It portrays a lot of information as compared to circles and bar graphs. It represents clearly the given activities of a particular region on the ground area. Disadvantages of the compound or divided or cumulative rectangle. It is limited to only specific data e.g. activities and the ground area. It does not represent the raw figures since the divisions on either the vertical or horizontal axes are usually or always of a cumulative manner. It is hard to use along side a map where an aspect of location is necessary It requires a lot of accuracy while drawing and developing the scales.

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STATISTICAL CIRCULAR OR CLOCK OR POLAR OR SPHERICAL GRAPHS.

These represent statistical information using circles. They are also referred to as polar or clock graphs because their format of plotting or drawing originates from the northern campus direction. They represent statistical data mainly of temperature, rainfall, economic activities etc. Procedure: Develop a scale to represent either temperature or rainfall or both on either the six Oclock 12 Oclock line. Draw a circle of any convenient size. Divide the circle into twelve segments each measuring up to 300 The twelve Oclock (northern direction line or the 00/3600 line represents the month of January and the other remaining segments are marked up to the month of December in a clockwise manner.
135

In case the data given is for both rainfall and temperature, you can use the same twelve Oclock line to develop the vertical scale for the two variables OR you can develop the vertical scale for rainfall on the twelve Oclock line and for temperature you develop it on the six Oclock line. Rainfall is plotted using bars while temperature is plotted using a circular line. Where seasonal activities are given in the raw data or information, you draw two concentric circles i.e. the outer larger circle represents temperature and rainfall while the inner small or medium circle represents the seasonal activities. The seasonal activities are plotted by drawing circular cars shaded differently covering the area for the given specific month. The activities in the first month are plotted at almost next to the touchline of the inner circle. The next activities of the same month are plotted above the circular bar plotted of the same month. Therefore the plotting of the activities always draws towards the inner circle centre. Avoid congesting the writings in the graph because it will confuse the reader in terms of understanding and interpretation. A circular graph showing only the climatic characteristics without activities done.

Example: A The table below shows the climatic characteristics for station Z Month Temperature oc J 1 6 Rainfall(mm) 2 0 10 3 0 25 54 31 79 48 36 21 20 15 F 12 M 7 A 7 M 12 J 13 J 18 A 16 S 11 O 7 N 3 D 12

136

A CIRCULAR GRAPH SHOWING THE CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR STATION Z.

A circular graph showing rainfall, temperature and the economic activities. Example B. The table below shows the climatic characteristics for station Z Month Temperature oc J 1 6 Rainfall(mm) 2 0 10 3 0 25 54 31 79 48 36 21 20 15 F 12 M 7 A 7 M 12 J 13 J 18 A 16 S 11 O 7 N 3 D 12

Activities done:

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Bush clearing and burning are done during the dry season of December up to late January, ploughing is done in march and April, millet and sun flower are planted in may and June, hunting is done in July and august after all the work is done. Harvesting of millet and sunflower is done in September, maize and rice are planted in mid September and October, weeding of maize and rice is done for mid November up to mid December. Throughout the months of June, July and August, the farmer carries out spraying, pruning, addition of fertilizers. A CIRCULAR GRAPH SHOWING THE CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STATION Z AND THE FARMERS ACTIVITIES.

We can also use the graph to represent data of only the seasonal activities done in the year and the climatic characteristics. A circular graph showing only economic activities and the climatic characteristics. Example: C Activities done:
138

Preparing of the farms and planting of crops is done in January, February and early March. Simple harvest is done in mid March, April and late May, farm modernization is done in late May, June, July and mid August, hunting is done in early August, September and mid October, major harvest is done in late October, November and December. The dry season begins in mid December, January up to February, small season rains fall from March, April, May up to mid June, second dry season begins in mid June, July up to mid August, heavy rains fall from mid August, September, October, November up to mid December.

A CIRCULAR GRAPH SHOWING THE FARM ACTIVITIES.

Advantages of circular graphs. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It portrays a lot of information as compared to circles and bar graphs. A lot of information can be represented e.g. rainfall, temperature and seasonal activities.
139

Seasonal activities are clearly shown although the actual values relating to them are not used. It is good for comparison purposes. It involves less estimation while plotting.

Disadvantages of circular graphs. It is time consuming since a lot of information is plotted i.e. rainfall, temperature, seasonal activities. For the months far away from the scale, it is difficult to tell the exact figures. Numerous calculations are involved. It is congested with many variables i.e. rainfall, temperature, seasonal activities. It is only limited to climatic data and farmers activities. It is tiresome since one has to plot a lot of variables e.g. rainfall, temperature, seasonal activities. It requires a lot of accuracy while drawing and plotting. At times individual values are not easy to interpret because of congestion.

STATISTICAL CIRCLES. This method portrays statistical information using circles. The circles are grouped into three major categories namely: a) Divided circles or Pie Charts. b) Compound 0r Comparative or proportional circles. c) Proportional divided semi-circles.
140

DIVIDED CIRCLES OR PIE CHARTS. These represent data using a circle. Inside the circle, the degrees are plotted using different segments and shaded differently. Procedure: Draw a circle of any suitable and convenient size. Calculate the total of the variables given Convert the values for each sector into degrees using the formula X Total Where x is the raw figure in the table. Draw a straight line in the anticlockwise direction beginning with the smallest and end with the biggest degree. In case the degrees calculated do not add up to 3600,the balance of the degrees is referred to as OTHERS and it is plotted last after all the worked out degrees have been plotted and its segment is not shaded because it represents no item. Indicate the degrees plotted for each segment inside the pie-chart. 3600

Example: The table below shows the number of tourist received in the selected world countries in millions in 1997. Country USA No of Tourists. 33,400
141

Switzerland Japan Kenya Tanzania Uganda Total Source: Tourism Journal 2000. Calculations:

40,100 27,500 1,060 651 474 103,185

A PIE-CHART SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TOURISTS RECEIVED BY THE SELECTED WORLD COUNTRIES IN MILLIONS IN 1997.

142

Advantages of a pie-chart or Divided circle. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It gives a good visual impression if it is properly drawn and shaded. It is easy to interpret if it is well drawn and shaded. It can be used alongside a map in case the idea of location has to be shown. They occupy little space since the data is plotted in the circle space. Individual circles drawn can easily be interpreted. They represent a lot of data. Disadvantages of a pie-chart or divided circle. Mathematical calculations are involved during the calculation of degrees A lot of time is needed during the calculation of degrees and plotting. It is difficult to compare relative segments of circles that lack accurate measurements. It requires a lot of accuracy while drawing and plotting.
143

Smaller degree figures i.e. of less than 100 are very hard and tiresome to plot.

Proportional or Comparative or Compound Divided Circles. These circles portray information using circles whose size is calculated and determined by the calculated Radius (Radii). The raw values are converted into degrees using the formula: X Total Where x is the raw figure in the table. 3600

To calculate the radii of the circles, the formula is:

3) Total = r2 4) R=Total

Where is equal to 22 7 or 3.14

Example:
144

The table below shows the volume of Imports and Exports handled at the selected International ports in 1997 in metric tones.

Ports Rotterdam Prince Rupert Vancouver Amsterdam Total

Imports 1,111,110 132,120 713,001 135,549 2,091,780

Exports 5,001,111 15,046 1,065,531 57,833 7,139,521

Source: International trade journal 2000.

A: Calculations for the Degrees of Imports and Exports.

145

B: Calculations for the Radii of Imports and exports. Formulae: 1) Total = r2

3) R=Total

Where is equal to 22 7 or 3.14

Imports:

Exports

PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED CIRCLES SHOWING THE VOLUME OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS HANDLED AT THE SELECTED INTERNATIONAL PORTS IN 1997 IN METRIC TONNES.

Imports:

Exports:

146

Note: Proportional divided circles can be used in conjunction with a map whose area is provided together with the raw data. Example: The table below shows the car types manufactured in the selected industrial regions of Japan in millions in 1980. Type Premio Ipsum Cruiser Corona Tokyo 6,013,142 2,910,082 7,802,290 4,780,000 Kyoto 6,000,000 3,311,907 6,158,805 6,000,200 Nagoya 6,394,141 1,412,312 7,137,381 6,490,000 Nagasaki 2,678,102 5,526,401 8,167,384 5,100,000 Total 21,085,385 13,160,702 21,098,476 22,370,200

Add up all the car type totals in order to get the sum total 77,714,763 Regional Totals: 21,505,514 21,470,912 21,433,834 21,471,887

A: Calculate the degrees for each car type in each region using the overall sum total i.e. 77,714,763 Tokyo Kyoto Nagoya Nagasaki

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Calculate the Radii for each circle to be plotted in the selected regions. Formulae: 1) Total = r2 2) R=Total Where is equal to 22 7 or 3.14

Tokyo

Kyoto

Nagoya

Nagasaki

N.B. Use the Totals for each region to calculate the radii for each circle i.e. Tokyo 21,505,514, Kyoto 21,470,912, Nagoya 21,433,834, Nagasaki 21,471,887.

148

PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED CIRCLES SHOWING THE CAR TYPES MANUFACTURED IN THE SELECTED INDUSTRIAL REGIONS OF JAPAN IN MILLIONS IN 1980.

149

PROPORTIONAL DIVIDED SEMI CIRCLES.

This method portrays information using divided semi-circles whose sizes are calculated and determine by the calculated radii. The raw values are converted into degrees using the formula.

X Total

x 180o

Where X is the raw value in the table . to calculate the radii of the semi circles , the formulate is;

(i)

Total = r2 where

= 22/7

(ii)

R=

Total

r2

where = 3.14.

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A : Calculation for the degree of imports and exports degree imports

Degrees Imports

Degrees Exports.

Rotterdam

1111110 x 180o 2091780

Rotterdam

5001,111 x 180o 7139521

= 95.6

= 126o

Prince Rupert

132120 x 180o 2091780

prince Rupert 795,046 x 180o 7139521

= 11.3

= 20o

Vancouver

713001 x 180o 2091780

Vancouver

1065531 x 180o 7139521

= 61.3

= 26.8o

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Amsterdam

135549 x 180o 2091780

Amsterdam

290000 x 180o 7139521

= 11.6 N.B We multiply by 180o because they are semi circle i.e 360 2 = 180o

= 7.3o

B. : Calculations for the radii of Import and Exports

Formulae :

1. Total =

r2

2.

Total

Imports

Exports.

2091780 = x 22/7 r2

7139521

= x 22/7 r2

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2091780 = x 22/7 r2

7139521

= x 22/7 r2

2091780 = x

7 =

11r2

7139521

x 7 =11 r2

14642,460 11

= 11r2 11

49976647 = 11 r2 11 11

1,331,132.727 =r2

4543,331.545 = r2

1153.747255 = r

2131.509218 = r

33.96685523 = r

46.16827068 = r

5.8 cm = r

6.79 = r
153

= 6cm = r

= 7 cm = r

N.B We include in the formula because they are semicircle s i.e 1 2 = or 0.5.

ADVANTAGES OF PROPORTIONAL SEMI CIRCLES.

6. They use less space when drawn 7. They can be supper imposed 8. They represent a lot of data 9. They can be used for comparison purposes.

DISADVANTAGES

6. Measurement of angles may be a bit difficult because of too much accuracy needed. 7. It is congested with a lot of variables which affects interpretation. 8. It involves a lot of mathematical calculations.

NOTE: Proportional divided circles can be used in conjunction with a map whose area
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is provided together with the raw data.

Examples: The table below shows the car types manufactured in the selected industrial regions of Japan in millions in 1980.

Type Prado Ipsum Cruiser Corona

Tokyo 6,013,142 2,910,082 7,802,290 478,000 17,203,514

Kyota 600,000 3,311,907 6,158,805 6,000,200 2,147,092

Nagoya 6394,141 1,412,312 7,137,381 6,490,000 21,433,834

Nagasaki 2,678,102 5,526,401 8,167,384 5,700,000 21,471,887

Total. 5,517,486 13,160,702 2,073,670 707,377 21,459,195

Add up all the total to get the sum total.

A : Calculate the degrees for each car type in each region using the overall sum total e,g 21,459,195 Tokyo 5. Prado 6013142 x 360 21459195 100.8o Kyoto Prado 6000000 x 360 21459195 101o Nagoya Prado 6394141 x360 21459195 107o Nagasaki Prado 268102 x360 21459195 44.9o

6. Ipsum

Ipsum

Ipsum

Ipsum
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2910,082 x 360 21459195 48.8o

3311907 x360 21459195 55.5o

1412312 x 360 21459195 23.6o

5526401 x360 21459195 44.9o

7. Cruiser 7802,290 X360 21459195 131o

Cruiser 6158805 x 360 21459195 103o

Cruiser 7137381 x360 21459195 120o

Cruiser 8167384 x 360 21459195 137o

8. Corona 4780000 x 360 21459195 80o

Corona 6000200 X 360 21459195 101o

Corona 6490000 x 360 21459195 108.8o

Corona 5100000x360 21459195 85.5o

Calculate the radii for each circle to be plotted in the selected regions.

Formulae

(i)

Total = r2

(ii)

R =

Total

where =

22

/7 or 3.14

Tokyo

Kyoto

Nagoya

Nagasaki
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17203514 x = 22/7 r2

21470912 x = 22/7 r2

21433834 x = 22/7 r2

21471887 x = 22/7r2

17203514 x = 22/7 r2

21470912 x = 22/7 r2

21433834 x = 22/7 r2

21471887 x = 22/7r2

120424598

2339.6 = r

48 = r

6.9 = r

2.7 = r

N.B: Use the total for each region to calculate the radii for each circle.

157

Diagram. Proportional divided circle showing the car types manufactured in the selected industrial region of Japan in millions in 1980.

158

PROPORTIONAL SQUARES.

This method potrays statistical information using squares whose sizes are equivalent to the given totals. The space or area to be occupied by each square is equivalent to the square root of the sum total of the variables given ( raw data)

159

Procedure: 8. Calculate the totals 9. Calculate the squares roots of the totals for each year to be plotted. 10. Develop a suitable scale out the square roots derived to help you determine the length/ size of the square. 11. Draw the squares in a descending or ascending order if draw in individually. 12. If the squares are to be drawn in conjunction with a map, they should be drawn at the respective position on a map in relation to their values. 13. Shade the squares accordingly. 14. Develop a key.

Example. The table below the estimated total numbering of tourists received by Egypt 1970-2010 in millions.

Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Millions 164.2 500.8 1698.2 2750.4 6015.7

Calculation of the length of each square.

1970

Total = 164.2 L = 164.2 = 12.814 = 3.5796

1980 Total = 500.8 L = 500.8 = 22.378 = 4.7305

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= 1.892 = 1.8 cm

= 2.174 = 2.1 cm

1990 Total = 1698.2

2000 Total = 2750.4 L = 2750.4 = 52.444 = 7.2418 = 2.691 = 2.7 cm

L = 1698.2 = 41.209 = 6.4194 = 2.533 = 2.5 cm 2010 Total = 6015.7

L = 6015.7 = 77.560 = 8.8068 = 2.9676 = 2.9 cm / 3.0 cm.

N.B; It is advisable to square root the total values to a level / figure that can give you a reasonable length of each square depending on the total of each year given.

N.B;
161

- At least square root the total value of each year three times. - Take the whole number and the first decimal figure /number. do not round off the first decimal number but you can round of the second decimal number.

SUPER IMPOSED PROPORTIONAL SQUARES.

Values of two different variables for a given year may be plotted co-currently or super imposed i.e the value of the first year ( base year) is plotted, i.e the outer square and the value of the final ( last) year are plotted inside the base year square.

Procedure: Calculate the square roots of the totals of each variable for each year.

Example: the table below shows Diamond and Gold minerals in South Africa 1950- 1990 in million tones.

Year 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Diamond 34440 41115 48340 53880 59543

Gold 10933 12845 13434 14500 14892

Calculation of the length of the two squares to be plotted fro each year while super imposed.
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1950 Diamond L = 34440 = 185.58 = 13.622 = 3.69 = 3.7cm 1960 Diamond L = 41115 = 202.76 = 14.23 = 3.77 = 3.8 cm L

1950 Gold = 10933 = 104.56 = 10.225 = 3.19 = 3.2 cm 1960 Gold L = 12845 = 113.33 = 10.645 = 3.26 = 3.3 cm

1970 L = 48340 = 219.86 = 14.827 = 3.85

1970 L = 13434 = 10.765 = 3.281 = 1.8 cm

163

=3.9cm

1980 L = 53880 = 232.12 = 15.23 = 3.9 cm

1980 L= 14500 = 120.41 = 10.9 = 3.3 cm

1990 L = 595443 = 244.01 = 15.62 = 3.95 = 3.9 cm

1990 L = 14892 = 122.03 = 11.046 = 3.3 cm

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ADVANTAGES OF PROPORTIONAL SQUARES:

5. 6. 7. 8.

They can be used along side a map They call for a few mathematical calculation They can be used for comparison purposes They can be super-imposed.

DISADVANTAGES.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Assessment of relative values and areas of different sized proportional squares is difficult. Limited information is shown using proportional squares compared to other methods like proportional circles, divided circle etc. They involve a lot of mathematical calculation. They take a lot of time while deriving the radii of the squares.

WIND ROSE.

This method potrays information using wind frequencies recorded in a given month. There are two types of wind Roses namely: (c) (d) Simple wind Rose Compound wind Rose.

Procedure:

165

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Draw a circle of any convenient size to become the centre of the wind rose while plotting. Draw compass directions as given in the table. Develop a scale to help you in determining the length of each bar i.e for the simple wind rose. Write the value of the calm given in the table in the middle of the same or uniform width in correspondence to the scale developed to be used in each compass direction while plotting.

Example: The table below shows data of the frequency of wind and compass wind directions recorded in a month at station Z in New Dehli- India.

Compass Wind Direction Number of days

N 5

NE E 3 2

SE 2

S 3

SW 6

W 5

NW Calm 3 3

GRAPH.

COMPOUND WIND ROSE.

166

This method potrays statistical information using wind frequencies, wind speed and wind direction in a cumulative way in each wind / compass direction.

PROCEDURE:

(a) (b) (c)

Plot the winds with the least velocities near to the central circle point. Shade the bars differently in order to differentiate the wind velocities plotted of different speed. Calculate the totals of the wind speeds for each wind direction e.g East = South = North =

After plotting the first wind speed of a given wind direction, you add on the following wind speed value and then plot the total you have derived. Divide the values of the wind speed in each wind direction by two to determine the length of each wind direction The raw wins speed totals of each wind direction divided by two , the resultant figure will be equal to the length of each bar. After plotting the first bar then plot the second bar on top of the bar, but of a with a different size compared to the first bar up to the last bar. Develop a key for the graph using the wind speeds.

Example: The table below shows the mean annual percentage frequency of wind speed and direction of situation. Z in New Dehli- India.
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WIND SPEED

WIND DIRECTION BY PERCENTAGE. N NE 3.1 3.8 4.0 2.8 E 2.5 3.0 3.2 2.3 SE 3.1 2.9 3.5 1.8 S 2.3 1.6 1.6 1.3 SW 4.2 4.3 3.4 3.8 W 2.2 3.2 1.4 0.8 NW 3.4 2.2 2.4 1.6

Less than 3 mph 3-11 mph 12-23 mph

1.2 2.3 1.4

More than 23 1.0 mph Totals 5.9

13.7

11

11.3

6.8

15.7

7.6

9.6

Table of the divided wind speed by two of each wind direction. Wind speed Wind direction by percentage.
168

N Less than 3 mph 3-11 mph 12-23mph More than 23 mph 0.6 1.2 0.7 0.5

NE 1.6 1.9 2.0 1.4

E 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.2

SE 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.0

S 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0

SW 2.1 2.2 1.7 1.9

W 1.1 1.6 1.0 0.4

NW 1.7 1.1 1.2 1.0

Use the above derived new wind speed values to plot the compound wind rose.

Graph.

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ADVANTAGES OF WIND ROSES.

1. It can be used alongside a map when drawn on the respective position. 2. It best represents wind speed, and wind velocities.

DISADVANTAGES OF WIND ROSES.

6. 7. 8.

It is only limited to real or specific data i.e wind speed and velocities. It involves a lot of mathematical calculation in relation to the compound approach. A lot of time is needed while drawing compound to the simple bar graphs.

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STATISTICAL MAPS.

Geographical statistical information can be portrayed using maps with scaled values showing the nature of the information or data given. There are different statistical maps used in Geography to portray statistical information and these include:

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Dot maps / Distribution maps Choropleth ( shading ) maps Flow maps Isoline maps.

DOT MAP / DISTRIBUTION MAPS.

This method portrays statistical data using dots of uniform size, placed on a dispersion map provided to you.

PROCEDURE:

Determine the value of each dot. Develop a dot scale e.g. 1 dot represent 1,000,000 people. Divide the raw population value / figure of each area by the scale value/ figure in order to get the number of dots to be placed in the dispersion map provided.

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DOT SCALE DEVELOPMENT GUIDE.

If the raw population value / figure given are in millions, then 1 dot will represent 100,000 people. If the raw population value / figure given are in one hundred thousands, then 1 dot will represent 10,000 people. If the raw population figures given are in ten thousands then 1 dot will represent 1000 people. If the raw population figures given are in one thousand then 1 dot will represent 100 people. If the raw population figures given are in one hundred then 1 dot will represent 10 people. If the raw population figures given are in tens , then 1 dot will represent 1 person.

NUMERICAL SUMMARY.

1,000,000 people 100,000 10,000 1000 100 10

100,000

= 100 dots

people 10,000 people people people people 1000 100 10 1

= 10 dots = 10 dots = 10 dots = = 10 dots 10 dots

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EVENLY DISTRIBUTE OR PLACE THE DOTS. In the area / place provided for a given region on a dispersion map.

NYLON OR FIBRE OR UNO pens are highly recommended to be used while placing the dots on a dispersion map. So that the dots appear with a uniform size.

N.B

In case such pens are not available, one should be more careful while placing the dots to

ensure uniformity in size.

Example: The table below showing the area population densities of Kenya.

TOWNS

LAND AREA IN POPULATION KM2

POPULATION DENSITY.

Kisii Nairobi Kisumu Kericho Nakuru Nyeri

14308.7 15222.2 9677.3 3347.8 3412.5 2848.5

172,334 199,732 387,732 393,674 667,823 84,874

14 15 61 89 230 53
173

Katiado Machakos Taita Kitui

3987.4 5931.8 725.6 4344.4

728,534 732,662 234,421 411,540

184 142 348 120

Table of derived dots.

Districts

Numbers of dots.

Kisii Nairobi Kisumu Kericho Nakuru Nyeri Katiado Machakos Taita Kitui

17 20 39 39 67 8 73 73 23 41

Formula:

Since the raw population values are in one hundred thousands, therefore 1 dot represent

10,000 people.

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Dot calculations.

Kisii

172,334 10,000

= 17.2334

= 17 dots

Nairobi

199732 = 19.9732 = 20 dots 10,000

Kisumu

387732 10,000

= 38.7732 = 39 dots

Kericho

393674 = 39.3674 = 39 dots 10,000

Nakuru 10,000

667823

= 66.7823

= 67 dots

Nyeri

84874 10,000

= 8.4874 = 8 dots

Kajiado

728,534 =

72.8534

= 73 dots
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10,000

Machakos

732662 10,000

= 73.2662 = 73 dots

Taita

234421 = 23.4421 = 23 dots 10,000

Kitui

411540 = 41.1540 = 41 dots 10,000

Where you get the number of dots having decimals, you round the first decimal place only because human beings are a whole sum figure.

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ADVANTAGES OF DOT MAPS / DISTRIBUTION MAPS.

7. 8. 9.

It involves a few and simple mathematical calculations. Placing the dots take little time It is suitable for comparison purposes for different countries and their population sizes.

DISADVANTAGES OF DOT / DISTRIBUTION MAPS.

6. Placing of uniform sized dots is not sp easy. 7. It requires too much care and accuracy while placing the dots to avoid excesses or deficiencies
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8. Congestion and overcrowding of dots in a given location may affect proper interpretation.

CHOROPLETH

(SHADING) MAPS.

This method portrays geographical statistical relationships between quantities and the area provided on a dispersion map. In other words, choropleth maps are quantities area maps showing differences in population densities of given areas. They show the mean or average numerical values in relation to the units of area provided on a dispersion map.

PROCEDURE:

Develop classes of average densities that are almost close. Group those classes into a range of boundaries Shade the map units basing on the boundaries determined by the class groups. The shading should show a progressive increase or decrease in population density. Darker or thicker shading tone should be used in units with high population density. The thickness of the shading keeps on reducing depending on the level of population density. The less the density, the less is the shading thickness or darkness. Use a simple mathematical progression to determine the range or class intervals or boundaries e.g. 1-50, 51-100 1-10, 11- 20 etc.
178

Develop a key basing on the class intervals developed or basing on the sghading brackets.

EXAMPLES ; Table showing the area population densities of Eastern Uganda

TOWNS

LAND AREA IN POPULATION KM2

POPULATION DENSITY.

Jinja Tororo Iganga Kamuli Kotido Moroto Soroti Kumi Kapchorwa Mbale

14308.7 15222.2 9677.3 3347.8 3412.5 2848.5 3987.4 5931.8 725.6 4344.4

172,334 199,732 387,732 393,674 667,823 84,874 728,534 732,662 234,421 411,540

14 15 61 89 230 53 184 142 348 120

Districts

Numbers of dots.

Jinja Tororo

17 20
179

Iganga Kamuli Kotido Moroto Soroti Kumi Kapchorwa Mbale

39 39 67 8 73 73 23 41

Average range class boundaries developed from the population density figures.

1-50 51-100 101- 150 151- 200 201-250

Jinja, Tororo Iganga ,Kamuli , Kotido Moroto , Soroti Kumi Kapichorwa

251 and above Mbale

KEY:
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1-50

151-200

51-100

201-250

251 and above. 101-150

ADVANTAGES OF CHOROPLETH / SHADING MAPS.

3. 4.

The distinctive forming of shading makes interpretation so easy. Drawing takes little time since the map is already provided and the only thing required is the shading.

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DISADVANTAGES OF CHOROPLETH / SHADING MAPS.

4. 5. 6.

Development of class population boundaries is not so easy Population densities are not usually uniform which makes the shading and grouping to become hard or complicated. There is obtrusiveness of boundary lines.

FLOW MAP.

This statistical method portrays geography information or data using movements of either traffic or goods ( exports or imports) from one place to another originating from one central location or points or source up to the different identified destinations .

PROCEDURE:

Develop a convenient or a suitable scale to help you in determining the width of each flow line. Draw lines with a varying width in relation to the quantity from the source region up to the identified destination. Flow lines should be drawn properly to give a clear impression of the flow routes to be followed . Circle should be drawn at a joint where many flow lines do collect to enables the flow lines to be independent instead of appearing too congested at the central point. Use different shading patterns or colours in case more than one item is to be portrayed fro easy differentiation e.g portraying Gold and Diamond or Import and Exports. You can write some import factual information within or on alongside the flow lines.
182

The length of the flow lines only shows the direction of the flow of the items portrayed from the source region up to the identified destination. Develop a key and a scale for the diagram.

N. B The most important aspect of this method is the WIDTH of the flow lines, simply because it shows the size of the quantity moving to an identified location.

Examples: The table below shows the export trade of South Africa in 2000 to the selected world countries in $000.

Importing countries Britain U.S.A Canada Germany Paraguary Australia

Exports value $000 33,613 19998 13,673 12,958 10,115 8,660

Flow line width calculated. 0.6 cm 0.3 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.1 cm

Development of the scale. Highest value Lowest value 33,613 8,660

183

We push the highest value to 50,000 in order to get a scale that we can divide throughout all the export value figures in order to get widths that are not too small or too exaggerated or big. There fore the scale will be 1: 50000$

Calculation of the widths Formula is Britain = 33613 50,000 = 0.6 item value scale factor.

USA

= 19998 50,000

=0.3

Canada = 13673 = 0.2 50,000

Germany

= 12958 = 0.2 50,000

184

Paraguay = 10115 = 0.2 50,000

Australia = 8660 50,000

= 0.1

N.B. If there are flow lines to be drawn to a given destinations in the same region, then you first draw the flow line with the bigger width and then after you tap from that very line. The flow lines to the neighboring destinations. This helps in reducing of too many line drawn on a map that may end up criss- crossing hence confusion.

After developing the flow line widths, then take measurements from the ruler using the compass or set divider. It is always preferably better if you draw the flow lines using a free hand style instead of using a ruler in order to bring out the flow line phenomenon.

185

ADVANTAGES OF A FLOW MAP.

3. The flow of goods or traffic from the source region to other destinations is clearly portrayed. 4. little time is taken while drawing

DISADVANTAGES OF FLOW MAP. 2. It is not easy to estimate the actual values represented by each flow line.

SUPER IMPOSED FLOW MAP. This methods portrays traffic or goods that are of different types e.g. exports and imports of a given country in relation to other countries. Procedure: 186

Two different flow lines of different width are drawn intertwined moving from the source region up to the identified destination but shaded differently.

Examples: The table below shows the trade volumes between South Africa and the selected world countries in $000 in 2000.

Trading countries Britain U.S.A Canada Germany Paraguary Australia

Exports $1000 33,613 19998 13,673 12,958 10,115 8,660

in Imports $000

Export line width

flow Import line width. 0.6 cm 0.3 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.1 cm

flow

25,058 12,000 10,750 10,840 10,000 9,750

0.6 cm 0.3 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.2 cm 0.1 cm

Calculations for the exports and imports flow line width.

Exports: Britain 33,613 = 0.6 50,000

Imports : Britain = 25058 = 0.5 cm 50,000

USA

= 19998 50,000

=0.3

USA = 12000 = 0.2 cm 50,000

187

Canada = 10750 = 0.2 cm Canada = 13673 = 0.2 50,000 Germany = 12958 = 0.2 50,000 Germany = 10840 = 0.2 cm 50,000 50,000

Paraguay = 10115 = 0.2 50,000 Paraguay = 10000 = 0.2 cm 50,000

Australia = 8660 50,000

= 0.1

Australia = 9750 = 0.1 cm 50,000

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ADVANTAGES OF SUPER IMPOSED FLOW MAP.

2. More than one item or traffic can be clearly shown on the super imposed or intertwined flow line. I.e exports and imports.

DISADVANTAGES OF SUPER IMPOSED FLOW MAP.

ISOLINE MAP / ISOPLETHS / ISORITHMS ISOMETRIC LINE MAP.

189

The term Isoline was derived from two languages i.e Greek and English e.g. ISOS which means equal. Isolines are used to join places of the same temperature (Isobars), salinity (Isohalines) cloudiness (Isonephs), ocean depths (Isobaths), and rain fall (Isohytes)

Isolines are used to join places or points with equal values in terms of rain fall, cloudiness, ocean depths salinity, atmospheric pressure and temperature, Under this method, a base map is provided with statistics of a given variable at given points and values marked.

Procedure:

Join the points with the same or equal using a smooth flowing line, Avoid isolines crossing each other. Shade or colour different the area or space between the isolines can be numbered . If there is no shading or colouring of the area or space between the isolines drawn. Develop value intervals basing on the regular increases e.g 20,40, 60 80 100 etc. or basing on the geometrical progression e.g 2,4,6,8,10 etc. develop value with equal values in the same range, can be joined and hence come up with a uniform shading patch or pattern e.g 100-149 , 150-199, 200-249 there fore value interval is 49.

Example: the base map below shows the rain fall totals of calabor region in Nigeria in 2008.

190

ADVANTAGES OF ISOLINE MAPS.

5. 6. 7. 8.

It indicates the small differences within a statistical unit. It avoids obtrusiveness of boundary lines. It is can be super imposed on other types of maps without obscuring too many details. It is possible to determine a wide range of correlations since there is the use of an overlay of a tracing paper.

DISADVANTAGES OF ISOLINE MAPS.

191

5. 6. 7. 8.

It is more liable to give the incorrect impression that decrease or increase between a single isoline. It needs a high level of Accuracy in joining points in the same value intervals It is not so easy to develop the value intervals. When the values are too congested while joining the points with the same values.

192