CHAPTER 2: FORCE & MOTION Understanding Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency Physics form Work 1.

Work is defined as the product of the applied force and the displacement of an object in the direction of the applied force. 2. W = F x S 3. W= work done, F = force applied, S = displacement in the direction of force. 4. SI unit for work = Joule (J), other unit = Nm 5. Work is not done when: a. The object is stationary aka not moving b. No force is applied on the object in the direction of displacement. c. The direction of motion of the object is perpendicular to that of the applied force. 6. When work is done to an object, energy is transferred to the object. Energy (Energy is the capacity to do work) 1. Energy exists in different forms: kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy, sound energy, heat energy, light energy, electrical energy and chemical energy. 2. The unit for energy is Joule (J) same as work 3. The work done is equal to the amount of energy transferred. 4. Kinetic energy is the energy of an object due to its motion. 5. Kinetic energy or work done is given by:

a. Mv2 kgm2s-2

b. M = mass, v = velocity c. Unit: Joule /

6. Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its higher position in the gravitational field. a. E = mgh b. M = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, h = height in metre Conservation of energy 1. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change from one form to another form of energy. 2. Total amount of energy remains the same. 3. When water falls from a dam, its potential energy changes to kinetic energy. 4. When a swing moves from one position to another position, its potential energy changes to kinetic energy alternately. Power 1. Power is defined as the rate of doing work. a. Power = (Work / Time) b. P = power, W = work, T = time

2. SI unit for work is = watt (W). Efficiency 1. Efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is transformed into useful energy. 2. Efficiency = (useful Energy output / Energy input ) X 100% a. Efficiency = (Useful power output / Power input) X 100% b. Unit is given in percentage.

POWER ENERGY & EFFICIENCY POWER 1. The power,P, is the rate at which work is done or the rate of change of energy. Power, P = Work done ,W / Time taken , T Or Power, P = Change of energy / Time taken , T 2. The SI unit of power is watt (w). 3. 1 watt is defined as the power required to perform 1 joule of work in 1 second. 4. Power depends on the time taken and the work done . 5. People or engine with high power rating can get the work done in short time. 6. For a force F which produces a constant velocity, V,or a stationary object , the power generated is: P= Fv Proof: Power= Work / Time = (Force x Displacement) / Time =Force x ( Displacement/ Time) = Force x velocity P= Fv POTENTIAL ENERGY

1. Potential energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its position or state. 2. Potential energy can be classified into gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on: a) its mass b) its height c) the gravitational field RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY The work done against the force of gravity is known as the gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy= mgh Where, m= mass g= Acceleration due to gravity h= Change in the height of the object ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY 1.Energy is needed to compress and extend an elastic material such as a spring and rubber. 2.The spring obtains its energy when work is done on it by compressing or stretching it. 3. The energy which an object possesses when it is compressed or stretched is known as the elastic potential energy .

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY Work done = mean force x displacement W= 1/2 fx The extension of spring will increase if the force applied increases. Therefore, the elastic potential energy stored in the spring. =Work done = 1 / 2 Fx

KINETIC ENERGY

1. Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion. 2. The kinetic energy of a moving object depends on its mass and speed. Kinetic Energy= 1/2 mv^2 = (one over two multiply mass multiply velocity squared) Where m is the mass of an object, v is speed of the object. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY 1. Newtons first Law of motion states that an object that moves with constant velocity will continue to move at this velocity if no external force acts on the object. 2. That mean an object which moves with constant velocity will conserve its kinetic energy. 3. Work is done when the kinetic energy increases or decreases. The change in kinetic energy of an object is equal to the work done on that object. 4. W= change in kinetic energy = 1/2 (mv^2- mu^2)

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be destroyed nor created but it can change from one form to another. The changes of kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy also proves the equation of kinetic energy, v = u -2gh

EFFICIENCY The efficiency of a device is defined as the percentage of the energy input that is transformed into useful energy. Efficiency =( Useful energy output / energy input) x100 % EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES 1.Machines are devices that make our work easier. 2.Machines require energy to work. This energy is called the input. 3.Machines transforms this input into other forms of energy to perform useful works. 4.However, the useful work obtained is not equal to the input as there is energy loss In this process. This loss is mainly due to work done against frictional forces and takes the forms of heat.

5.So, a machines is not perfect because the work done by the effort or input energy is not wholly used to overcome the load. ust know the importance of maximising the efficiency of device.

WORK AND ENERGY

Work
1. Everyday we move or certain object to do work. 2. work is done when a force is exerted to move an object through a distance in the direction of the force. 3. Work W is defined as product of the force and the displacement of an object in the direction of the force. Work=Fs Where, F= the force acting S= the displacement (or distance traveled in the direction of the force) 4 .Work is a scalar quantity and its unit is joule (J) or N m. 1 joule =1nm Example: A block which is at rest is acted on by force of magnitude 3 N in different direction. Determine the wok done by the block in each case. a) The force act from the left, the object move to the right for 2 m. b) The force act from the right, the object to the left for 2 m.

Solution a) F=3 N b) F= -3 N moving to the right for 2 m moving to the left for2 m (negative Work done,W= Fs sign indicates object move to the left) =3 N x (-2 m) Work done W = Fs =6 Nm = -3 N x (-2m) =6 Nm

5 .1 joule is the work done when a force of 1newton moves of an object for 1 m in the direction of the force . 6 .Work is not done when a force is exerted on an object but the object does not move. 7 .In short, work is not done :

a) The direction of motion is perpendicular to the direction of the force exerted b) Force is exerted on the object but the object does not move.

Energy
1. We need energy to do work. 2. Energy is defined as the Potential or the ability to do work. 3. Energy is scalar quantity and its unit is the joule (J) or N m. 4. Energy can exist in various form. Examples potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, electrical energy and sound energy. 5. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. The work done related to the change of the form of the energy. Example A student of mass 50 kg walks up a flight of stairs 1.5 m high. What is a) the work done by the student? Work = Fx s =mg x s =(50 x 10) N x 1.5 m =750 J b) energy needed = work done =750 J Q: for the proof section ( power ), isn't it force must be divided by time as well? A: yes..need to divide by time as well but since Power = work divide by time = W / T and Work = Force x displacement so Power = (force and displacement) divide by time = (F x D) / T mathematically: u only have to divide one of them...so we choose displacement / time , which is velocity,v which brings us to Power = Force x Velocity

ELASTICITY

Understanding Elasticity Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size when the external force acting on it is removed. It is due to the strong intermolecular forces between the molecules of the solid. (you have to be able to explain elasticity in terms of intermolecular forces) Hookes Law States that the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded. Elastic limit of a spring is the maximum force that can be applied to a spring such that the spring will be able to be restored to its original length when the force is removed. If the elastic limit is exceeded, the length of the spring is longer than the original length even though the force no longer acts on it. It is said to have permanent extension. Hooke's law Graph Force Vs Extension

k = force constant of the spring (equal of the gradient of the graph) x = extension Force constant is the force that is required to produce one unit of extension of the spring.It is the measure of the stiffness of the spring.

The curve at the end occurs represents the moment before the material breaks. Factors influencing the elasticity of a spring: a. Type of spring material b. diameter of the coil of spring c. diameter of the wire of spring d. arrangement of the spring.

Point 1 is the Limit of Proportionality. Point 2 is the Elastic Limit. Point 3 is the Yield Point. Before the limit of proportionality, the material obeys Hookes Law. After it, Force is no longer proportional to extension, and the graph begins to curve. The Elastic Limit is the point when a material stops behaving elastically, and starts behaving plastically. The area before this point is called the elastic region; after it, the plastic region. The Yield Point is the point where the material starts to stretch without applying any additional force. Elastic Potential Energy, U Elastic potential energy is the energy transferred to the spring when work is done on the spring.

k = force constant x = spring extension ANALYSING FORCE IN EQUILIBRIUM Vector Addition of Forces 1. A resultant force is a single force that represents the combined effect of two or more forces in magnitude and direction. The direction of the forces have to be taken into consideration when forces are added. 2. If the forces act in the same straight line, the resultant is found by simple addition or subtraction as shown in figure 2.1

Resultant force, F = F1 F2 Figure 2.1 3. The resultant of forces that do not act in the same straight line can be determined by using the parallelogram law. 4. The parallelogram law states that if two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is

represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point.

Forces in Equilibrium 1. An object is said to be in equilibrium if the object is at rest or is moving with a constant velocity in a straight line. 2. The resultant force that acts on an object is zero if it is in equilibrium. In other words, the forces that act on the object are balanced in all directions. 3. If object is in equilibrium, the resultant force that acts is zero.

4. For two forces acting in the same direction or opposite direction, if the force is not zero, then the object is not in equilibrium.

IMPULSE & IMPULSIVE FORCE 1. Impulse is defined as the change momentum 2. From F=ma Ft=mv-mu (change of momentum) 3. Impulse is the product of the force F acting on a body and the time t for which the force acts. Hence, impulse = Ft = mv mu 4. The SI unit of impulse is kg m s1 or N s. 5. Impulsive force is the rate of change of momentum. Impulsive force = Impulse / time 6. The SI unit of impulse is kg m s or N. The Effect of Time on an impulsive Force 1. From the formula for impulsive force, we get Ft = mv mu F = (mv - mu) / t This shows that the time of action is very important factor in the calculation of the impulsive force. 2.When the time of action is prolonged, the impulsive force will decrease. 3. On the other hand, if the time of action is shortened, the impulsive force will increase. Ways to Reduce Impulsive Forces The Design of a car 1. A car is mainly designed for the safety of the driver. 2. The front and the rear parts of the car are made of soft metal so that the car is easily crumpled during an accident. a) During collision, the time taken for the change in speed (from a high speed to zero) is prolonged. Since the impulsive force = Distance / Time , the force will decrease when the time increase. b) This will decrease the impulsive force on the passengers and the driver. 3. The seats of the passengers are strengthened to protect the passengers. 4. Safety belts: a) Passengers have to fasten the safety belts. When the car stops suddenly, the inertia of the passengers will result in the passengers being flung to the front and hitting the windscreen of the car. b) Hence, safety belts will slow down the motion of the passengers. 5. Airbags are built in some cars. When an accident happens, the airbags will be filled with air. This will prolong the time of action and reduce the impulsive force on the passenger. Ways to utilize impulsive force

Material arts player break a few pieces of bricks - A martial arts player ia able to break a pile of bricks with ease. - This is because the hand of the player moves very fast and stops when it hits the top brick. - Hence, the time of contact of the hand with the brick is short and this will increase the impulsive force on the bricks. - The bricks are easily broken because of the big impulsive force. The pestle and mortar - The pestle and mortar are made of hard materials. - During pounding or grinding, the pestle moves very fast. The mortar stops the motion of the pestle in a short time. - A strong impulsive force is produced and the food can be broken into pieces easily. The pile and the pile driver - A pile driver is made of hard steel alloy. - The pile driver is released very fast hit the hard pile. - The time taken to hit the pile is short because both surfaces are hard. - Hence, a big impulsive force is produced on the pile and it will be driven into the ground to support the foundation of the structure of a tall building.

ANALYSING MOMENTUM
The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and its velocity. p=mXv The principles of conservation of liner momentum states that the total linear momentum of a closed system is constant. The linear momentum before and after a collision is conserved if there is no external force acting on it. Elastic collision: linear momentum, kinetic energy and total energy are conserved. Inelastic collision: only linear momentum and total energy are conserved and there is a loss in kinetic energy. In an EXPLOSION, where two objects move in opposite directions, the total linear momentum before and after the explosion is zero.

The acceleration of a rocket leaving the earth increases because: a) its mass is decreasing. b) air resistance is decreasing. c) gravitational pull is decreasing.

ANALYSING MOMENTUM II Conservation of Momentum 1. The term conservation is derived from the root word conserve which means constant. 2. The principle of conservation of momentum states that in the absence of an external force, the total momentum of a system remains unchanged. 3. An example of external force is friction and this can be contact friction or air friction. 4. An isolated or closed system the sum of external forces is zero, thus, the principle of conservation of momentum is true for a closed system. Collisions 1. There are two types of collision: (a) Elastic collision (b) Inelastic collisions 2. In Elastic collision: Two objects collide and move apart again after a collision. Momentum is conserved. Total energy is conserved. Kinetic energy is conserved. Formula: m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2

Elastic Collision

3. In Inelastic collision: Two objects combine and stop or move together with a same velocity after a collision. Momentum is conserved. Total energy is conserved. Kinetic energy is not conserved (the total kinetic energy after the collision is less than the total kinetic energy before collision, excess energy is released as heat, sound energy etc). Formula: m1u1+m2u2 = (m1+m2)v

Inelastic Collision

UNDERSTANDING INERTIA
SITUATION 1 Have you ever stood in a bus which starts suddenly from rest? You are likely to fall backwards. If the moving bus stops suddenly, you are likely to fall forward. SITUATION 2 Have you noticed that a bigger vehicle (Truck) is more difficult to stop than a light vehicle (Motorcycle)? What Causes This to Happen? Explanation: When the bus moves suddenly from rest, our feet are carried forward but the inertia of our body tends to keep us at rest. This causes our body to fall backwards. When the bus stops suddenly, our feet are brought to rest, but the inertia of our body tends to continue its forward motion. This causes our body to fall forward. The two situations above show that our body has an inbuilt resistance to any change in its state of rest or motion. This reluctance is called inertia. The inertia of an object is the tendency of the object to remain at rest or, if moving, to continue its uniform motion in a straight line. The concept of inertia was explained by Sir Isaac Newton in the first law of motion. MASS AND INERTIA It is to be put in mind that inertia is dependent upon the mass of the object. The larger the mass, the larger its inertia. Hence, we can see that its harder to push a heavy box than to push a lighter box. EFFECTS OF INERTIA Many phenomena in our daily lives involve inertia. We make use of the positive effects of inertia to solve some of our daily problems. On the other hand, there are many negative effects of inertia that can endanger our lives and wee need to find ways to reduce them. Examples are: Its more effective to fit the head of a hammer (with a higher mass) tightly onto

the wooden handle by hitting the bottom of the handle against a hard surface. The head which has a larger mass remain in its state of motion and thus presses itself more tightly around the handle. Inertia also can be observed in ice skaters where inertia enables ice skaters to keep gliding over the surface of ice at an almost constant speed in a straight line effortlessly. Ways to reduce inertia in vehicle: 1. Seat belts help to tighten the passenger during collision. This is to prevent the passenger from being thrown forward due to inertia. 2. Air bag is fitted inside the steering wheel. It provides a cushion to prevent the driver from hitting the steering wheel. NEWTONS THREE LAWS OF MOTION Newton's First Law An object at rest continues its states of rest and a moving object will continue to move with a constant velocity unless acted upon by a resultant force. Newton's Second Law The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and is in the direction of the force. Newton's Third Law Every action has an equal and opposite direction. This is the simplified version of Newton's Three Laws of Motion Explanation. It may give you mark but no full marks.

DISTANCE,DISPLACEMENT,VELOCITY,SPEED & ACCELERATION Distance and Displacement Distance is the total path length traveled from one location to another. It is a scalar quantity. Displacement is the distance between two locations measured along the shortest path connecting

them, in specified location. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of distance and displacement is metre (m). Speed and Velocity Speed is the distance traveled per unit time or the rate of change of distance. Speed = total distance traveled / time taken Velocity is the speed in a given direction or the rate of change of displacement. Average velocity = displacement/ time taken Acceleration and Deceleration Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration = change of velocity / time taken Change of velocity = final velocity (v) initial velocity (u) Acceleration = (final velocity initial velocity) / time taken = (v u) / t Things to remember: 1. Constant velocity means the object is not accelerating. Acceleration is zero. 2. Constant acceleration means the object is increasing its velocity. ANALYSING LINEAR MOTION Distance: length between two points in a straight line or length moved through a definite path. Displacement: Distance moved in a definite direction (vector quantity). Speed: distance moved per unit time. Velocity: rate of change in displacement. Average speed: (total distance/total time) Average velocity (total displacement/ total time) Constant velocity: rate of change in displacement is constant (zero acceleration). Positive acceleration means that the velocity is increasing. Negative velocity means that the acceleration is negative and the velocity decreases.

Period, T, is the time taken for a complete oscillation. Unit: s-1 Frequency,f, is the number of oscillations made in one second. Unit: Hz A ticker timer is used to measure a short period of time in linear motion. One dot is the period of time taken between two consecutive dots on a ticker tape. If the frequency used is 50 Hz, the period for one dot is then 0.02 s. A stroboscope is used to 'freeze' the motion of an oscillation to determine its frequency, where frequency of the oscillation equals frequency of stroboscope. Frequency of stroboscope = number of slits X frequency of rotation.